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-‐ Posizione oculare ed equilibrio
Questa funzione include riflessi che originano da entrambi i canali semicircolari durante le accelerazioni
angolari e dagli organi otoli<ci durante le accelerazioni lineari, anche se i movimen< degli occhi e il VOR
sono principalmente guida< dai canali semicircolari.
-‐ Mantenimento del tono muscolare
Anche a questa a>vità riflessa collaborano sia i canali semicircolari che gli organi otoli<ci ; eseguendo
infa> una labirintectomia monolaterale si aumenta il tono estensorio ipsilateralmente alla lesione e si
è dimostrato che la rigidità del decerebrato è legata ad input incontrolla< di origine ves<bolare: infa>
sezionando i nervi ves<bolari si rimuove tale rigidità.
•
ll
riflesso
cervico-‐collico
(CCR)
è
concepito
come
un
riflesso
da
s8ramento
del
collo
guidato
da
input
proprioceGvi
a
partenza
dal
collo
e
si
integra
col
VCR
nella
stabilizzazione
della
testa
durante
il
movimento
testa-‐tronco.
•
Il
riflesso
cervico-‐oculare
(COR)
genera
scivolamen8
compensatori
dello
sguardo
in
opposizione
a
quelli
prodoG
dalla
rotazione
della
testa
interagendo
con
il
VOR
e
con
il
sistema
oculomotore
di
pursuit
per
mantenere
dis8nta
la
visione
di
un
oggeIo
in
movimento
o
durante
il
movimento
della
testa.
Al
basso
guadagno
del
COR
si
contrappone
un
alto
guadagno
del
CCR
e
del
VCR.
•
Ques8
riflessi
ammor8zzano
le
oscillazioni
della
testa
durante
la
marcia
e
aumentano
la
loro
aGvità
durante
lesioni
ves8bolari,
compensando
così
parzialmente
il
deficit
del
VOR.
Aumentando
la
stabilizzazione
della
testa
contribuiscono
così
alla
stabilizzazione
dello
sguardo
deficitaria.
The
VCR
func8ons
to
help
stabilize
the
head
rela8ve
to
iner8al
space
by
genera8ng
a
command
to
move
the
head
in
the
direc8on
opposite
to
that
of
the
current
head-‐in-‐
space
mo8on.
When
a
single
semicircular
canal
(SCC)
is
s8mulated,
for
example
by
rota8on
of
the
head
in
the
plane
of
that
canal,
muscles
are
ac8vated
that
would
produce
a
compensatory
rota8on
of
the
head
in
the
same
plane.
Ac8va8on
of
the
right
horizontal
ampullary
nerve
(RLC)
occurs
during
head
rotates
to
the
right.
The
evoked
movements
are
compensatory:
they
are
in
the
same
plane,
but
opposite
in
direc8on
to
the
head
movements
that
would
ac8vate
the
canals.
As
such,
the
reflexes
contribute
to
stabiliza8on
of
the
head
in
space.
The
efficacy
of
the
VCR
appears
to
vary
substan8ally
across
species.
For
example,
while
it
is
robust
in
animals
that
make
minimal
eye
movements
such
as
pigeons
(Gioanni
1988)
or
owls
(Money
and
Correia
1972),
its
contribu8on
to
head
stabiliza8on
has
been
described
as
less
significant
in
macaque
monkeys
and
humans—species
that
have
large
(*50)
oculomotor
ranges
(GuiIon
et
al.
1986;
Sadeghi
et
al.
in
press).
The
VCR
is
more
ac8ve
in
the
range
of
1÷3
Hz
(Peng
et
al.
1996,
1999;
Keshner
and
Peterson
1995;
Keshner
et
al.
1995),
where
it
would
be
most
effec8ve
in
counterac8ng
the
underdamped
mechanics
of
the
head.
◊
Presumably
reflec8ng
the
need
for
speed
and
security
in
the
VOR,
there
are
well-‐
developed
three-‐neuron
pathways
interconnec8ng
ves8bular
afferents,
secondary
ves8bular
neurons
and
ocular
motoneurons
(Lorente
de
No´
1933;
Szentagothai
1950;
Highstein
et
al.
1971;
Ito
et
al.
1976a,
b).
Similarly,
the
most
direct
pathway
media8ng
the
VCR
is
comprised
of
three-‐neuron
(Wilson
and
Yoshida
1969;
Wilson
and
Maeda
1974;
Shinoda
et
al.
1992,
2006).
Most
contralateral
pathways
pass
through
the
medial
ves8bulospinal
tract
(MVST)
in
the
medial
longitudinal
fasciculus
(MLF),
as
do
ipsilateral
inhibitory
pathways
(Fig.
3a,
b).
Ipsilateral
excitatory
pathways
can
run
in
the
lateral
ves8bulospinal
tract
(LVST).
The
VOR
involves
three,
reciprocally
related
extraocular
muscle
pairs
ac8ng
around
a
single
rota8on
axis
(Robinson
1982;
Sparks
2002).
In
contrast,
the
VCR
controls
a
complex
musculature.
The
neck
has
over
30
muscles
controlling
pitch,
roll
and
yaw
rota8ons
(Peterson
et
al.
2001).
Only
some
of
this
complexity
can
be
explained
by
the
mul8ple
rota8on
axes
involved
in
pitch
(C1-‐skull
and
C6-‐7-‐T1)
and
roll
head
movements
(C2–C7),
as
well
as
a
single
axis
(C1–C2)
that
dominates
horizontal
rota8ons
(Graf
et
al.
1995a,
b).
From
a
mathema8c
perspec8ve,
the
system
is
underdetermined
with
more
muscles
than
rota8on
axes.
One
consequence
of
this
property
is
that
the
same
head
mo8on
can
be
produced
by
the
ac8va8on
of
several
different
muscle
paIerns.
While
electromyographic
(EMG)
studies
have
shown
that
this
is
the
case
for
voluntary
head
movements,
it
is
not
the
case
for
the
VCR
where
a
par8cular
head
movement
is
associated
with
a
stereotyped
muscle
ac8va8on
paIern
(Peterson
et
al.
2001).
◊
Goldberg
JM,
2011
Goldberg
JM,
2011
The
VCR
involves
complex
circuitry
Three-‐neuron
arcs
have
the
correct
connec8vity
to
mediate
the
VCR.
Yet,
there
is
compelling
evidence
that
more
complicated
circuitry
makes
a
dominant
contribu8on
to
the
reflex,
at
least
in
decerebrate
cats
(Ezure
and
Sasaki
1978;
Ezure
et
al.
1978).
The
phase
lags,
which
are
most
pronounced
near
0.1
Hz
and
disappears
at
higher
frequencies,
imply
that
central
pathways
perform
a
par8al
mathema8cally
equivalent
integra8on
of
the
ves8bular
signal.
Integra8on
is
required
to
convert
the
angular
head
velocity
signals
carried
by
ves8bular
neurons
to
the
head
posi8on
signals
needed
for
proper
opera8on
of
the
VCR.
◊
Evidence
that
the
ves8bular
system
is
involved
in
head
control
comes
from
canal
plugging
experiments
in
which
the
ducts
of
SCCs
are
occluded,
greatly
reducing
the
SCC
response
to
head
rota8ons.
The
res8ng
ac8vity
of
the
afferents
is
maintained.
A
feature
of
canal
plugging
is
the
appearance
of
oscilla8ons
evoked
by
voluntary
head
movements
or
by
postural
adjustments
of
the
trunk.
Oscilla8ons
have
been
reported
in
humans
‘‘with
chronic
unilateral
labyrinthine
loss,
[where]
sudden
perturba8ons
of
the
trunk…cause
greater
head
oscilla8ons
and
diminished
head
stability
in
space
when
they
are
rotated
toward
the
lesioned
side’’
(Peng
et
al.
2004
quoted
in
Leigh
and
Zee
2006).
◊
Were
the
VCR
ac8ve
during
voluntary
head
movements,
it
could
increase
damping
and
reduce
oscilla8ons.
But
because
the
VCR
opposes
voluntary
movements,
its
presence
necessitates
an
increase
in
the
voluntary
command
(referred
to
in
the
model
as
VOL).
This
has
led
to
the
no8on
that
the
VCR
is
turned
off
during
voluntary
head
movements
(Ezure
and
Sasaki
1978;
Cullen
2004;
Peterson
and
Boyle
2004).
A
possible
mechanism
comes
from
recordings
of
secondary
ves8bular-‐only
(VO)
neurons
in
the
ves8bular
nuclei,
so-‐called
because
they
do
not
exhibit
eye
movement-‐
related
signals.
VO
neurons,
including
some
that
project
into
ves8bulospinal
pathways,
respond
appropriately
to
passive
head
movements,
but
their
response
to
ac8ve
head
movements
is
markedly
aIenuated,
on
average
by
70%
(Boyle
et
al.
1996;
McCrea
et
al.
1999;
Roy
and
Cullen
2001,
2004).
There
is
evidence
that
the
cancella8on
signal
delivered
to
VO
neurons
is
based
on
a
comparison
of
the
expected
afferent
signal,
constructed
by
the
brain
based
on
the
intended
movement,
with
the
actual
neck-‐afferent
signal
(Roy
and
Cullen
2004).
◊
The
possible
cancela8on
of
the
VCR
during
voluntary
movements
can
be
related
to
a
proposal
by
von
Holst
and
MiIelstaedt
(1950)
(Fig.
11a),
where
a
copy
of
the
expected
sensory
consequences
of
a
motor
command
(efference
copy)
is
subtracted
from
the
actual
sensory
signal
(reafference)
to
create
a
sensa8on
of
external
perturba8ons
(exafference).
In
this
way,
the
nervous
system
can
dis8nguish
sensory
inputs
arising
from
external
sources
and
those
resul8ng
from
self-‐generated
movements.
◊
Connessione
Polisinaptica
con i motoneuroni
degli arti
Oh
S-‐Y,
2015
Oh
S-‐Y,
2015
Fig.
1
Schema8c
illustra8on
of
the
anatomic
pathways
involved
in
the
genera8on
of
ocular
and
cervical
ves8bular-‐evoked
myogenic
poten8als
(VEMPs).
Cervical
VEMPs
are
the
result
of
inhibitory
postsynap8c
poten8als
on
the
ipsilateral
SCM
motoneurons
and
are
mediated
by
the
descending
medial
ves8bulospinal
tract
(VST)
within
the
medial
longitudinal
fasciculus
(MLF).
And,
the
MLF
from
the
upper
medulla
to
the
midbrain
is
the
main
pathway
of
the
crossed
otolith-‐ocular
reflex
responsible
for
ocular
VEMPs.
The
utricular
projec8ons
for
the
ves8buloocular
func8on
are
directed
more
to
the
superior
and
medial
nuclei
while
the
saccular
projec8ons
for
the
ves8bulospinal
func8on
are
more
to
the
spinal
and
the
lateral
ves8bular
nuclei.
The
mossy
fiber
arising
from
the
superior
and
medial
ves8bular
nuclei
mediates
projec8ons
from
the
utricle
and
saccule
to
the
ipsilateral
uvula
and
nodulus.
Regarding
cVEMPs,
saccular
s8mula8on
induces
inhibitory
poten8als
in
the
ipsilateral
SCM
while
utricular
s8mula8on
CN
III
oculomotor
nucleus,
CN
XI
accessory
nerve,
F
evokes
ipsilateral
inhibitory
and
contralateral
excitatory
flocculus,
MLF
medial
longitudinal
fasciculus,
MVST
poten8als.
However,
the
utricular
contribu8on
to
the
ipsilateral
medial
VST,
Inf.
VIII
inferior
division
of
the
ves8bular
cVEMP
responses
has
been
assumed
to
be
negligible
(thin
line).
nerve,
Sup.
VIII
superior
division
of
the
ves8bular
For
oVEMPs,
s8mula8on
of
the
utricular
nerve
gives
rise
to
strong
nerve,
VN
ves8bular
nuclei,
S
saccular
macula,
SCM
ac8va8on
of
the
ipsilateral
superior
oblique
and
contralateral
sternocleidomastoids,
U
utricular
macula
or
uvular
in
inferior
oblique
muscles
.
Saccular
nerve
s8mula8on,
in
contrast,
cerebellum,
V
vermis.
produces
no
ac8va8on
in
the
majority
of
extraocular
motor
(Blue
line
excitatory,
red
line
inhibitory).
neurons.
◊
Oh
S-‐Y,
2015
Colebatch
JG,
2016
ProprierGes
of
the
cVEMP
Current
interest
in
the
ves8bular-‐evoked
myogenic
poten8al
(VEMP)
as
a
clinical
inves8ga8on
was
prompted
by
the
report
of
Colebatch
et
al.
(1994),
who
moved
the
recording
site
from
the
inion
to
the
sternocleidomastoid
(SCM).
The
SCM
provided
two
advantages
over
the
inion:
the
reflex
could
be
unambiguously
aIributed
to
a
single
muscle
and
the
laterality
could
be
easily
determined.
The
authors
demonstrated
that
the
response
to
loud
clicks
consisted
of
two
separable
parts:
an
early
posi8ve–nega8ve
response
(p13-‐n23)
which
occurred
ipsilaterally
to
the
ear
s8mulated
and
a
later,
bilateral
response.
The
high
sound
threshold
and
dependence
upon
tonic
muscle
ac8vity,
previously
reported
for
the
inion
response,
were
confirmed.
SCM
ac8vity
was
measured
using
full-‐wave
rec8fied
EMG
ac8vity
and
the
change
in
amplitude
of
the
p13-‐n23
response
with
the
level
of
rec8fied
EMG
was
remarkably
linear.
The
authors
proposed
a
saccular
origin
for
the
click-‐evoked
cervical
VEMPs
(cVEMPs).
◊
hIps://www.memorangapp.com/flashcards/104881/4-‐18%2C+Overview+of+Ves8bular+System+%28Oas%29/
Eugenio Mira – Pavia
hIps://musculoskeletalkey.com/dizziness-‐visual-‐and-‐sensorimotor-‐control-‐disturbances-‐following-‐whiplash-‐injury/
hIps://medicine.umich.edu/dept/khri/faculty-‐labs/labs/king-‐lab/research-‐projects/guinea-‐pig-‐ves8bular-‐studies
hIp://www.tanzariello.it/index.php/orecchio/patologia-‐orecchio/38-‐studio-‐prof-‐a-‐tanzariello/orecchio/esami/sezione-‐di-‐ves8bologia-‐con-‐sistema-‐integrato-‐per-‐indagini-‐ves8bolari-‐obieGve-‐
computerizzate/530-‐potenziali-‐evoca8-‐ves8bolari-‐miogeni-‐vemps
VEMPs : il riflesso vestibolo-collico
2° neurone (nucleo vestibolare)
Cervical cord
VEMPs : il riflesso vestibolo-collico
3° neurone (motoneurone cervicale)
SCM
N. accessorio
spinale (XI)
Attuale modello anatomo-fisiologico del network dei cVEMPs
- +
Attuale modello anatomo-fisiologico del network dei cVEMPs
Inibizione ipsilaterale