Non- Mendelian Inheritance

Many other patterns of inheritance not based on Mendel's laws alone were
discovered in plant and animals. Gene interactions are of two types intragenic
and intergenic.

4 Intragenic interactions, also known as inter-allelic interactions occur

between the two alleles of the same gene. Examples are incomplete dominance
and co-dominance. Intergenic interactions, also known as non-allelic
interactions occur between alleles of different genes located on the same or
different chromosomes.examples are complementary genes, supplementary
genes, epistasis, pleiotropy and lethal genes.

5 Incomplete Dominance interaction where both the alleles of a given trait is

expressed as a blend (mixture) as against to a normal Mendelian pattern.an
intermediate character is expressed. (This situation occurs due to the fact that
the dominant gene can not completely suppress the expression of recessive
gene. )With the result, the heterozygous offspring will be phenotypically and
genotypically different from either of the homozygous parent

6 fig. 1. Flower Colour in Four O Clock Plant This example very

clearly indicates the phenomenon of incomplete dominance That the genes
responsible for red and white flowers do not actually mix, since both the pure
characters reappear in the F2 generation That there is no specific gene
responsible for producing pink flowers

7 Multiple Allelesa condition where more than two genes occupy the same
locus, on the same pair of homologous chromosomes, in different organisms.
Each of these genes expresses a totally different character. The inheritance of A
B O blood groups in man is an example of multiple alleles.The fruit-fly, Drosphila
melanogaster has 15 alleles for eye colour. In rabbits, there are 4 alleles for
colour. In all these cases, at any given time, only two of the alleles can occupy
the same locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

8 Polygenic traits (Polygenes)

They are the result of the interaction of several genes.For instance, phenotypes
like high blood pressure (hypertension) are not the result of a single "blood
pressure" gene with many alleles (a 120/80allele, a 100/70 allele, a 170/95 allele,
etc.)The phenotype is an interaction between a person's weight (one or more
obesity genes),cholesterol level (one or more genes controlling metabolism),
kidney function (salt transporter genes), smoking (a tendency to addiction), and
probably lots of factors too.Each of the contributing genes can also have
multiple alleles.
9 CodominanceCo-dominance represents a situation where two allelic genes
when present together in an individual, express their traits independently
instead of showing a typical dominant recessive relationship.A classical
example of codominance is the expression of blood group AB. The genotype for
this blood group is IA Ib. Each of the two genes produces the respective antigen
and neither of them checks the expression of the other.

10 Heterodominance (inbreeding, outbreeding and hybrid vigour)

When the heterozygotes have a more extreme phenotype than either of the
corresponding homozygotes (homozygous parents), then it is usually referred to
as overdominance, superdominance or heterodominance (Serra, 1959).For
example, there is heterodominance, when the heterozygote Aa between a pair of
factors which control size is bigger than the homozygotes AA or aa. This type of
allelic relation which implies interaction between the alleles, or of these with
other factors of the genotype, may be found in qualitative characters and
especially those such as size, production, vigour, etc., which are of importance
in the breeding of animals and plants

11 Epistasis (Epi = above/over gene, static = standing)

It is a pattern of inheritance where a pair of genes situated at one locus, prevent
the expression of a pair of genes situated at another locus.Such genes are called
inhibiting genes or epistatic genes (Epi = above/over gene, static =
standing).Epistasis reduces the number of phenotypes in the F2 generation of a
dihybrid cross. A classical example of epistasis is seen in the white
fowls.WHITE FOWL: COLOURED FOWL 13 : 3 gene C produces colour in the
feathers. But the inhibiting gene I prevents the appearance of colour. As a result
the leg horn fowl is white CCII. The plymouth rock fowl is white since it has
recessive genes ccii

12 PleiotropyIt is a phenomenon where a given gene has multiple phenotypic

effects. As a result, the gene not only influences the trait which it expresses, but
also influences many other traits.Pleiotropic genes generally do not have the
same influence on all the traits that they control. A pleiotropic gene may cause
an evident expression of its specific trait, representing a major effect or a less
evident expression of its other traits, representing a secondary effect.in the
sweet pea plant, the genes that control the colour of the flower also control the
colour of the seed coat and appearance of red spots in the axils of the leaves. In
Drosophila, the gene that controls wing size also affects the nature of balancers,
eye colour, fertility and life span of the insect.

13 Lethality and Lethal Alleles

The term Iethal is applied to those changes in the genome of an organism which
produce effects severe enough to cause death.Lethality is a condition in which
death of a certain genotype occurs prematurely. The fully dominant lethal allele
kills the carrier individual both in its homozygous and heterozygous
conditions.The recessive lethal allele kills the carrier individual only in
homozygous condition. They maybe of two kinds (i) one which has no obvious
phenotypic effect in heterozygotes and (ii) one which exhibits a distinctive
phenotype when in heterozygous condition.

14 Heritability:Heritability has two definitions. The first is a statistical

definition, and it defines heritability as the proportion of phenotypic variance
attributable to genetic variance.The second definition is more common
"sensical". It defines heritability as the extent to which genetic individual
differences contribute to individual differences in observed behavior (or
phenotypic individual differences)A heritable trait is most simply an offspring's
trait that resembles the parents' corresponding trait.

15 Penetranceis a term used in genetics describing the proportion of

individuals carrying a particular variation of a gene (an allele or genotype) that
also express an associated trait (the phenotype).In medical genetics, the
penetrance of a disease causing mutation is the proportion of individuals with
the mutation who exhibit clinical symptoms.For example, if a mutation in the
gene responsible for a particular autosomal dominant disorder has 95%
penetrance, then 95% of those with the mutation develop the disease, while 5%
do not.

16 Examples of Incomplete Penetrance

I. Polydactyly in man is thought to be produced by a dominant gene P. The
normal condition with five digits on each limb is produced by the recessive
genotype (pp). Some heterozygous individuals (Pp) are not polydactylus and
therefore has a penetrance of less than 70%.2. In man, the tendency to develop
diabetes mellitus (a condition in which there is an excess of sugar in the blood)
is controlled by certain genes.However, not everyone carrying the gents for
diabetes actually develops the condition, for the genes have incomplete
penetrance.

17 Effects of environment on penetrance- The environmental factors and

genetical background have some definite effect on the degree of penetrance of a
gene. Accordingly, the percentage of penetrance of a given gene may be altered
by changing the conditions of temperature, moisture, nutrition and so forth,
under which the organism develops.For example, when various twins which
carry genes for diabetes mellitus are studied, it is found that the disease
appears only in those cases with one eating more carbohydrate foods (starch
and sugars).

18 Variable expressivity
Although some genetic disorders exhibit little variation, most have signs and
symptoms that differ among affected individuals.Variable expressivity refers to
the range of signs and symptoms that can occur in different people with the
same genetic condition.For example, the features of Marfan syndrome vary
widely— some people have only mild symptoms (such as being tall and thin with
long, slender fingers), while others also experience life-threatening
complications involving the heart and blood vessels.As with reduced penetrance,
variable expressivity is probably caused by a combination of genetic,
environmental, and lifestyle factors, most of which have not been identified. If a
genetic condition has highly variable signs and symptoms, it may be challenging
to diagnose.

19 LATE ONSETSome autosomal dominant diseases do not express themselves

until later in life, well beyond the reproductive years. The individuals who will
develop the disease have passed the mutant allele along to their offspring before
they themselves know they are affected.In some cases even grandchildren are
born before the affected grandparent shows the first signs of the
disease.Huntington disease, sometimes called Huntington's Chorea because of
the choreic movements expressed as the disease progresses, is a good example
of a late onset disease. Age of onset varies from the teens to the late sixties,
with a mean age of onset between ages 35 and 45. Nearly 100% of the
individuals born with the defective allele will develop the disease by the time
they are 70. The disease is progressive with death usually occurring between
four and twenty-five years after the first symptoms develop. Emotional changes
often are the first symptoms.

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