1.

Provide a synonym – not an explanation/definition – for each of the following phenomena and specify the
language contact outcome where it is more likely to occur:

a. ancestral language L1/mother tongue – SLA/SLL/language shift

b. donor language source language – borrowing
c. embedded language lexifier language – BMLs/creoles/code switching
d. high language dominant language – diglossia
e. language league Sprachbund / language association / language area / diffusion area / convergence area –
structural convergence/diffusion
f. lexifier language embedded language – BMLs/creoles/code switching
g. low language subordinate (less prestigious) language – diglossia (code-switching)
h. native language first language/L1/mother tongue – SLA/SLL/language shift
i. receiving language borrowing/recipient/target/receptor language – borrowing
j. recipient language borrowing/receiving language – borrowing
k. source language donor language – borrowing
l. substratum influence L1 influence – SLA/SLL/language shift
m. superstratum influence L2/TL (target language) influence (of the colonizers) – SLA/SLL/language shift/creoles
n. TL influence superstratum/L2 influence – SLA/SLL/language shift/creoles

2. List three internal and/or external factors which are shared by pidgins and creoles.

- both imply a certain degree of simplification of the superstratum language

- their formation involves the interaction of (at least two) languages
- both can take place in colonial contexts
- extended or elaborated pidgins share the same features of radical creoles
- both are instances of language creation
- there is overlap between elaborated or extended pidgins and radical creoles

2. List three internal and/or external factors which are shared by borrowing and code-mixing.

- both imply the insertion of a foreign lexical item (foreign features) into another language
- both can take place in bilingual contexts
- interlingual identification/L1/substratum influence/morphophonemic integration can be noticed in both
- the hierarchy of borrowability applies to both (borrowings and single-word switches)
- Morphophonemic integration applies to both borrowings and single-word switches

2. List three internal and/or external factors which are shared by diglossia and code-switching.

- two languages involved

- bilingualism is a prerequisite
- alternation of codes
- retentions apply to both

2. List three internal and/or external factors which are shared by fossilized mixed codes and BMLs.

- two languages involved

- ethnic needs/social motivations
- markers of group identity
- no simplification
- bilingualism is a prerequisite

2. List three internal and/or external factors which differentiate BMLs and creoles.

- (only) two languages involved / in contact vs at least three (more than two) languages involved
- ethnic (identity) needs/social motivations vs communicative needs
- no colonial context vs colonial context and plantation economy
- no simplification (virtual absence of simplification) vs certain degree of simplification (simplified to a certain
extent)
- clear distinction between lexifier and matrix vs less clear distinction between lexifier and matrix
- bilingualism is a prerequisite vs bilingualism is not a prerequisite

List three differences between code-switching and borrowing

- bilingualism is a prerequisite / it does not require bilingualism

- single-word switches occur occasionally

- code-switching is a spoken, ephemeral phenomenon / borrowings have become part of the lexicon of the RL
(inclusion in the vocabulary)

3. Specify whether each of the following language contact outcomes is a variety of English, an English-based
language creation or none of the above:

Less substratum influence >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> more substratum influence + L1 retentions / more simplification

Native-like > somewhat indigenized var. > highly indigenized var. > intermediate creoles > radical creoles

1. AAVE = African-American Vernacular E. = Ebonics (somewhat indigenized variety of English with little or no
substratum influence on TL)
2. American English (?)
3. Anglo-Romani (BML)
4. Bajan (Intermediate Creole)
5. Barbadian English (Variety of English)
6. Bislama = Beach-la-Mar (elaborated = extended Pidgin) in Vanuatu
7. British English
8. Chicano English (variety)
9. Delaware… (prototypical??? Pidgin)
10.Ebonics = AAVE = African-American Vernacular E. (somewhat indigenized variety of English with little or no
substratum influence on TL)
11.Eskimo (prototypical??? Pidgin)
12.Gaelic > none (Celtic language)
13.Gullah (Creole spoken in the Bahamas…)
14.Hawai’i Pidgin English (Pidgin)
15.Hiberno-English = Irish English (somewhat indigenized variety of English with moderate to heavy substratum
influence on TL)
16.Indian Butler English (prototypical Pidgin)
17.Irish English = Hiberno-English (somewhat indigenized variety of English with moderate to heavy substratum
influence on TL)
18.Irish Gaelic > none (Celtic language)
19.Jamaican English (variety)
20.Krio (intermediate??? Creole spoken in Sierra Leone)
21.Media Lengua > none (BML not based on English: Spanish + Quechua)
22.Patwa (Creole)
23.Romani > none
24.Singapore English = Singlish (highly indigenized variety of E. with moderate to heavy substratum influence on TL)
25.Spanglish = Tex-Mex > none (fossilized mixed code)
26.Sranan Tongo = Taki Taki (radical Creole) in Suriname (inglese + olandese + portoghese + lingue africane)
27.Taki Taki = Sranan Tongo (radical Creole) in Suriname (inglese + olandese + portoghese + lingue africane)
28.Tex-Mex = Spanglish > none (fossilized mixed code)
29.Tok Pisin (elaborated = extended Pidgin) in Papua New Guinea
30.Welsh English (variety of English with moderate to heavy substratum influence on TL)

Collocate the following examples of language contact outcomes along a continuum ranging from the outcome
characterized by less substratum influence and/or simplification to the one characterized by more substratum
influence and/or simplification; rewrite each outcome, one below or next to the other, in the correct order in the
answer box:

a. American English 1
b. Hiberno-English 2 Irish English (variety of English with moderate to heavy substratum influence on TL)
c. Krio 3 o Bajan?????
a. Sranan Tongo 4 (Radical Creole)
d. Bislama = Beach-la-Mar 5 (elaborated = extended pidgin)
e. Hawai’i Pidgin English 6

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b. AAVE 1 African-American Vernacular English (Variety of English with little or no substratum influence on TL)
c. Singapore English 2 (variety of English with moderate to heavy substratum influence on TL)
d. Patwa 3 (Creole)
e. Sranan 4 (Radical Creole)
f. Tok Pisin 5 (Elaborated or extended pidgin)
g. Indian Butler English 6 (Prototypical Pidgin)

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h. American English 1
i. AAVE 2 African-American Vernacular English (Variety of English with little or no substratum influence on TL)
j. Bajan 3 (Intermediate Creole)
k. Sranan Tongo 4 (Radical Creole)
l. Bislama = Beach-la-Mar 5 (Elaborated or extended pidgin)
m. Indian Butler English 6 (Prototypical Pidgin)

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f. British English 1
g. Jamaican English 2
h. Patwa 3
i. Sranan Tongo 4
j. Bislama = Beach-la-Mar 5 (Elaborated or extended pidgin)
k. Indian Butler English 6 (Prototypical Pidgin)

3. List the different types of language shift and provide one example for each type which involves English; write
each type, one below the other, in the answer box and add the example next to it.

- little/no substratum influence on TL – e.g. AAVE

- moderate substratum influence on TL – e.g. Norman French in Middle English
- heavy substratum influence on TL – e.g. Singapore English

4. Indicate to which language contact phenomenon or outcome each of the following statements applies:

a. enduring erroneous display of linguistic features in both the oral and written practice of individuals while learning
or acquiring a foreign or second language (fossilization)
b. a version of a language generally produced by foreign learners and characterized by features not found in either
the mother tongue or the target language (interlanguage)
c. the process whereby, typically in post-colonial contexts, a language undergoes internal changes of various types
by being adopted as the mother tongue of ensuing generations (nativization)
d. the process through which, in the virtual absence of native speakers, a superstratum language undergoes various
structural changes so that it becomes closer and closer to the simultaneously spoken substratum language
(nativization)
e. incorrect linguistic manifestations which have become permanent in both the oral and written performance of an
individual in the process of learning/acquiring a second language (fossilization)
f. the process by which, during a conversation, a speaker adjusts his/her use of language by conforming to the
linguistic choices previously made by the hearer in order for the hearer himself/herself to understand and
consequently take active part in the interaction (accommodation)
g. a posited process of language change whereby, over time and within the same geographical area, a creole
reconverges with the simultaneously spoken lexifier from which it originally derived (decreolization)
h. a diachronic process of linguistic variation by means of which a creole remerges with the cohabiting lexifier from
which it initially developed (decreolization)
i. linguistic compromises facilitating communication between groups speaking different languages in restricted
contexts (pidgins)
j. formal and/or functional similarity leading learners/acquirers of a second language to establish equivalence of
morphological or phonological categories between L1 and L2 (interlingual identification)
k. a phenomenon that manifests itself when a learner of a second or foreign language produces a sound, utters a
word, inserts a morpheme or applies a syntactic order to constituents in the said second language by adopting a
familiar native-language category perceived as similar to the one present in the second language (interlingual
identification)
l. micro-contexts of interaction favoring the implementation of code-switching practices (conversational loci)
m. a theoretical model which sheds light on the grammatical constraints existing in intra-clausal and intra-sentential
code-switching (MLF/matrix language frame)
n. a scale establishing which parts of speech are more or less likely to be lent to a recipient language by a source
language (hierarchy of borrowability)
o. communicative contexts, usually definable by location, participants and topic, which influence how both
individual speakers and entire speech communities interact (sociolinguistic domains)
p. two languages or language varieties employed in complementary distribution across different situations (diglossia
> code-switching)
q. a theoretical framework, concerning both intragroup and intergroup relationships, aimed at explaining and
predicting the reasons, the contexts and the modalities according to which speakers adjust their behavior during
spoken interaction (CAT = communication accommodation theory)
r. Language spoken by the descendants of slaves in colonies where groups were transplanted during the 15th and
19th centuries. CREOLES
s. Transient languages emerging among bilinguals with the function of distinguishing their identity within society.
FOSSILIZED MIXED CODES
t. The actual performance of bilinguals exploiting the resources of the languages they command for social and/or
stylistic purposes. CODE-SWITCHING
u. Linguistic compromises facilitating communication between groups speaking different languages in restricted
contexts. PIDGIN

Name/Specify the language contact outcome to which each of the following phenomena most typically relates /
where each of the following phenomena/concepts/frameworks is more likely to occur:

a. Accommodation: code-switching
b. Acrolect: Creoles
c. CAT (Communication Accomodation Theory): Code-switching
d. Conversational loci: code-switching
e. Covert retentions: SLA/SLL
f. Decreolization: Creoles
g. Elaborative simplification: SLA / SLL
h. hierarchy of borrowability: borrowing
i. Interlanguage: SLA/SLL / language shift
j. Interlingual identification: Borrowing/creole/ SLA/SLL / language shift
k. Matrix: code-switching, BMLs
l. Mesolect: Creoles
m. MLF (matrix language frame): code-switching, BMLs
n. Pidginization: pidgins
o. Retentions: SLA/SLL/language shift
p. Sociolinguistic domains: diglossia
q. Transfer: SLA/SLL / language shift

List 3 characteristics which differentiate Second Language Acquisition (SLA) from Second Language Learning (SLL):

- Natural setting vs artificial setting (the classroom)

- Need vs Personal interest (of learners)
- Communication is the aim vs near native / full proficiency is the aim
- No/without benefit of instruction vs (with) benefit of instruction (grammars, dictionaries, lessons, books)
- Lower language awareness / higher language awareness

Identify one of the language contact outcomes typical of each of the following five speech communities:

a. Cubans in Miami: code-switching / borrowing????

b. African slaves in the Caribbean: creole
c. US military in Vietnam: pidgin / BML???
d. Student of Italian in American Universities: SLL (Second Language Learning)
e. Norwegian immigrants in Minnesota: SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

Indicate whether each of the features listed below describes a property typical of fossilized mixed codes, creoles,
bilingual mixed languages, or pidgins; note that each features listed may apply to more than one outcome;
therefore, all pertinent outcome must be indicated

- Highly specialized in scope > pidgins

- Bilingualism is a prerequisite > BMLs, fossilized mixed codes (code-switching ??)
- Lexical inventory made of a few hundred words > pidgins
- Usually more than two languages involved in their creation > creoles (FMC?)
- Somewhat or highly simplified > pidgins and creoles
- One negative marker > pidgins
- Only two languages involved in their creation: BML / FMC pidgin ?
- Fixed word order: Creole (pidgin)
- No status of autonomous language: FMC fossilized mixed codes
- Mostly spoken as a sign of ethnicity identity: FMC /Creoles/ BML
- Almost total absence of simplification > BLM

State what each of the following acronyms stands for and specifly the language contact outcome where each of
them is more likely to occur:

- AL = Ancestral Language > language shift (language attrition?)

- CAT = Communication accommodation Theory > code switching
- EL = embedded language > code-switching, BMLs
- EWL = English as a World Language – language Shift
- HL = high language > diglossia (code-switching) / host language > BMLs
- IL = Interlanguage > SLA/SLL / language shift
- LL = Lexifier language > BMLs / low language > diglossia (code-switching)
- ML = Matrix Language > code-switching / BML
- MLF = matrix language frame > code-switching, BMLs
- RL = recipient/receiving/receptor language – Borrowing / Structural diffusion
- SL = source language > borrowing / second language > language shift, SLL, SLA / Subordinate Language - BMLs
- TL = Target Language > borrowing / Language shift-> SLA
- TMA = tense-mode-aspect system > creole / code-switching?

Which type of Anglicisms?

- Bistecca = morphologically, graphically adapted Anglicism

- Brunch = non-adapted Anglicism / direct / proper
- Business is business = phraseological non-adapted Anglicism
- Carter = false Anglicism (eponym)
- Clownesco = morphologically adapted Anglicism / indirect / integrated
- Clownterapia = hybrid (Anglicism)
- Educazione (istruzione) = semantic calque/loan
- Fuorilegge = perfect calque
- Long drink = non-adapted Anglicism (a cocktail is a creole)
- Management = non-adapted Anglicism / direct / proper
- Pullman = false Anglicism (eponym)
- Toast = false Anglicism (toasted/hot sandwich)
- Water = false Anglicism (compound ellipsis)

Mention the types and subtypes of ‘retentions’ which can be found in language shift.

- overt (direct) = involving use of L1 Sounds, words and/or morphemes in the TL (phonetic, morphology)
- covert (indirect) = involving more abstract L1 categories (e.g. tense) or syntactic patterns in the IL (e.g. lexis word
order)

List both structural and sociolinguistic features of ‘bilingual mixed languages’.

- Composites of material drawn from just two languages.

- The grammar is derived primarily from one of the languages, while the lexicon primarily from the other (e.g.
Anglo-Romani \ Media Lengua).
- Not alway is found the neat separation of grammar and vocabulary by respective source language.
- The result is a new creation, distinct from either of its source languages.

Mention the three types into which the ‘creole continuum’ is classified.

- acrolectal creoles —> closer to the superstratum (dominant language DL)

- mesolectal creoles —> intermediate
- basilectal creoles —> closer to the substratum (subordinate language) – e.g. Jamaican creole

List the four patterns of ‘code switching’.

- conversational code-switching = it is discourse-related.

- preference-related code-switching
- unmarked-choice code-switching
- intra-sential code-switching =it is the insertion of single items.