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METODI STRUMENTALI IN

CHIMICA ANALITICA

Elettroanalitica Avanzata: Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica


(EIS), e cenni di bioelettrochimica
Prof. Ilaria Palchetti,
moodle ID: metodi2021 !1
- Elettroanalitica Avanzata

5) Spettroscopia di impedenza
elettrochimica
(EIS)

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica

La spettroscopia di impedenza permette di studiare le proprietà elettriche dei materiali


e i processi di interfaccia elettrodo-soluzione.

Questa tecnica viene utilizzata nello studio di: batterie, fuel cells, semiconduttori, materiali
ceramici, biosensori e sensori analitici, processi di corrosione e di inibizione della
corrosione, cristallizzazione, test audiometrici, test di massa muscolare, test di tossicità
cellulare, etc.

Spettroscopia: intensità di una grandezza fisica in funzione della loro energia, lunghezza
d'onda, frequenza o massa.
Impedenza: quanto facilmente un mezzo conduce una corrente alternata

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica

Spesso risulta utile ed


istruttivo rappresentare la
cella elettrochimica sotto
forma di un circuito elettrico
che risponde all’eccitazione
nello stesso modo della cella.

I sistemi elettrochimici reali


hanno un comportamento
complesso in quanto non
sono riconducibili ad un mero
comportamento resistivo.
Fenomeni capacitivi ed
induttivi sono funzione della
frequenza. L’impedenza Z è il
corrispettivo della resistenza
in un circuito in corrente
alternata e tiene conto dei
fenomeni capacitivi ed
induttivi.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica

Funzioni di trasferimento
La Spettroscopia di impedenza si basa sul metodo classico delle
funzioni di trasferimento (TF)

La spettroscopia di impedenza Il sistema viene perturbato con un segnale di input ondulatorio


permette di misurare l’impedenza, sinusoidale e si registra il segnale di output prodotto dal sistema
attraverso l’applicazione di una Se il sistema è lineare anche la sua risposta lo è ed è caratterizzata da
piccola perturbazione sinusoidale al uguale frequenza, ma differente intensità ed angolo di fase.
sistema elettrochimico in condizioni
di equilibrio (al contrario dei metodi
voltammetrici in cui il sistema è
perturbato lontano dall’equilibrio).
La risposta alla perturbazione Dr. Christian Durante email : christian.durante@unipd.it
Web: http://www.chimica.unipd.it/electrochem/ Tel. +390498275112
14/12/2015
11
applicata è generalmente
da C. Durante dispense

sinusoidale, e può differire in fase ed


in ampiezza dal segnale applicato.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
I = I sen (ωt + φ ) , (1
Spettroscopia di impedenza
0
elettrochimica
come si può osservare dalla Figura 1.6.
In EIS si sollecita il sistema con un
piccolo segnale, per favorire una
risposta lineare:

potenziale
( )
E = E0 sen ωt tempo

dove E è il potenziale applicato al tempo t,


E0 è l’ampiezza del segnale, ω (rad s-1) è
la frequenza angolare, espressa come ω =
2πf, con f (Hz=s-1) che indica la frequenza.

corrente
tempo
In un sistema lineare, per il quale è valido il
principio di sovrapposizione dei segnali, la
risposta della corrente I a un potenziale scostamento
sinusoidale è anch’essa di tipo sinusoidaleFigura 1.6 Risposta della corrente ad un potenziale applicato di tipo sinusoidale,
con la stessa frequenza, ma spostata diper un sistema lineare.
Risposta della corrente ad un potenziale
fase con uno scostamento φ e con una
applicato di tipo sinusoidale, per un
diversa ampiezza I0:
Analogamente alla legge di Ohm, si può definire l’impedenza come:
sistema lineare.
(
I = I 0 sen ωt + ϕ ) Z=
E
=
E0sen (ωt )
= Z0
sen (ωt )
, (1
I I 0sen (ωt + φ ) sen (ωt + φ )
E
Z= =
E0 sen ωt ( )
= Z0
sen ωt ( )
I I 0 sen ωt + ϕ
( )
sen inωttermini (
+ ϕ di ampiezza ) Z 0 e sfasamento φ .
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
mediante un vettore puntato nell’origine degli assi, con lunghezza |Z| e formante un

Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica


angolo con l’asse delle ascisse pari all’angolo di fase φ = arg Z , come si può vedere in
Figura 1.7 a sinistra.

Dobbiamo comprendere natura e


struttura matematica della grandezza
Z (impedenza). Z è da considerarsi
come un operatore che trasforma 
una sinusoide in un’altra.

E(t) = Z⋅I(t)

(a) (b)
Z : I(t) → E(t)
Figura 1.7 Diagramma di Nyquist (a) e diagramma di Bode (b).

Rappresentando i due contributi sugli assi ortogonali di un


Il coefficiente di trasferimento grafico, in particolare la parte reale sull’asse delle ascisse e
complesso che definisce l’impedenza la parte immaginaria sull’asse delle ordinate, si ottiene il
(Z) può essere espresso come un diagramma di Nyquist (Nyquist plot) (a), che riporta i valori
numero complesso.
dell’impedenza ad una determinata frequenza. Questo
La parte reale di Z rappresenta il grafico, che per convenzione ha l’asse delle ordinate
negativo, presenta valori a basse frequenze sulla zona a
contributo resistivo all’impedenza
destra e ad alte frequenze su quella a sinistra. Il diagramma
mentre la parte immaginaria quello
di Bode (Bode plot), che riporta la frequenza, in scala
della reattanza (presenza di induttori/ logaritmica, sull’asse delle ascisse e il valore assoluto
condensatori). dell’impedenza, sempre in scala logaritmica, oppure lo
sfasamento sull’asse delle ordinate (b). A differenza del
Nyquist plot, il Bode plot fornisce informazioni sulla
frequenza del sistema.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia
Funzioni di di impedenza
trasferimento nel elettrochimica
caso di
sistemi elettrochimici
Ciò che effettivamente si fa in un esperimento elettrochimico è
La misura disovrapporre
impedenza viene ripetuta variando
alla sovratensione la frequenza
applicata dellatensione
una piccola tensione alternata
alternata di frequenza (normalmente entro i 10 mV, perché
aumentare il modulo aumenta la sensibilità, ma si rischia di non
rispettare più la condizione di linearità)

da C. Durante dispense

la misura di impedenza viene ripetuta variando la frequenza della


tensione alternata
Ciò che effettivamente si fa in un esperimento elettrochimico è sovrapporre alla
Dr. Christian Durante email : christian.durante@unipd.it
sovratensioneWeb:applicata
14/12/2015
una piccola tensione alternata di frequenza
http://www.chimica.unipd.it/electrochem/ Tel. +390498275112 23 ω
(normalmente entro i 10 mV, perché aumentare il modulo aumenta la sensibilità,
ma si rischia di non rispettare più la condizione di linearità)

Il tempo necessario ad effettuare la misura dell’impedenza aumenta al


diminuire della frequenza di misura.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Fitting e relativi modelli circuitali

Elementi circuitali

In EIS l’analisi quantitativa normalmente richiede


l’impiego di un circuito equivalente, ossia circuiti
elettrici modello che mimano il comportamento
della reazione all’elettrodo. I dati sono ricavati dal
fitting della misura della risposta elettrica della
reazione all’elettrodo con i circuiti equivalenti.

Un circuito equivalente modello è una


combinazione di resistenze, capacitanze e/o
induttanze che mimano la stessa risposta dei
sistemi elettrochimici

ogni elemento deve rappresentare un processo


fisico della cella elettrochimica che contribuisce
all’impedenza totale

In realtà alcuni fenomeni come la diffusione o il


comportamentoi non ideale degli elettrodi
non sono esplicabili attraverso semplici elementi
circuitali, in questi casi si introducono elementi
appositi come l’elemento di diffusione di
Warburg e gli Elementi a Fase Costante
(Constant Phase Element-CPE)
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Fitting e relativi modelli circuitali

Elementi circuitali
La forma del modello di impedenza è dettata da quali e come gli elementi
elettrici vengono interconnessi tra loro (combinazione di elementi messi in
serie o parallelo). La grandezza di ciascuna forma dello spettro di
impedenza è dovuta dai parametri degli elementi del circuito
Il circuito equivalente deve essere il più semplice possibile e allo stesso
tempo dare la migliore aderenza possibile ai dati sperimentali.
Combinazioni differenti di elementi circuitali possono dare modelli che
soddisfano parimenti i dati sperimentali

Fitting dei dati per controllare


l’ambiguità nell’interpretazione

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Strumentazione

Spettroscopia di impedenza - strumentazione

➡ Il potenziostato fa variare nel tempo in maniera lineare o mantiene fisso il


potenziale dell’elettrodo di lavoro come nelle classiche misure voltammetriche

➡ Il FRA di impedenza eroga un impulso di potenziale periodico di piccola ampiezza


variandone la frequenza un amplificatore operazionale somma il potenziale dc
proveniente dal potenziostato al potenziale ac proveniente dall’analizzatore di
frequenza. Il sistema legge la I(t) o V(t) in uscita ed estrapola i valori di impedenza per
ogni frequenza indagata.

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


- Elettroanalitica Avanzata

6) Cenni di Bioelettrochimica
Lo studio della cellula attraverso l’elettrochimica:

Membrane electrochemistry,

Electroporation,

Lipid bilayer on electrodes

in vivo and in vitro cell analysis: microelectrodes and nano electrodes

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

La bioelettrochimica può essere considerata come la disciplina dedicata


allo studio dei principi elettrochimici in biologia e agli aspetti biologici
dell'elettrochimica e può comprendere:

potenziali di membrana cellulare, bioenergetica (lo studio del flusso di


energia negli organismi viventi), bioelettrocatalisi, bioelettroanalisi,
applicazioni elettrochimiche in medicina e biotecnologia, bioenergia (celle
a biocarburanti, batterie biodegradabili).

La bioelettrochimica è un campo scientifico che unisce molteplici


discipline come l'elettrochimica, la biochimica, la chimica medica e la
chimica analitica.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica
Elettrochimica e membrane cellulari

Le membrane biologiche fungono da


barriere, e sono una matrice importante per
vari processi cellulari.

La membrana cellulare, o membrana


plasmatica, definisce il confine esterno di
ogni cellula separando il citoplasma
dall'ambiente circostante e regolando
l'ingresso e l'uscita di materiale e di
informazioni.
A schematic diagram of a eukaryotic cell,
Le cellule eucariotiche contengono inoltre emphasizing the rich diversity of shapes and
numerose membrane subcellulari che structures present in the cell.
dividono il citoplasma in più compartimenti
(organelli), consentendo così lo svolgersi di
diverse funzioni in modo efficiente e
Thomas Günther Pomorski, Tommy
simultaneo in diverse parti della cellula. Nylander, Marité Cárdenas, Model cell
membranes: Discerning lipid and protein
contributions in shaping the cell,
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science,
205,2014,207-220,

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

Le membrane cellulari sono formate


dall'autoassemblaggio diretto di una
complessa miscela di lipidi e proteine.

La membrana cellulare fornisce una barriera


tra cellule e organelli che serve a mantenere Thomas Günther Pomorski, Tommy
Nylander, Marité Cárdenas, Model cell

le differenze nei potenziali chimici ed elettrici membranes: Discerning lipid and protein
contributions in shaping the cell,

separando le molecole e gli ioni.


Advances in Colloid and Interface Science,
205,2014,207-220,

I fenomeni elettrici derivano da cambiamenti


transitori nei potenziali elettrochimici di
membrana.

Pertanto, la cellula forma una cella


A schematic diagram of a eukaryotic cell, emphasizing the rich diversity
elettrochimica naturale. of shapes and structures present in the cell. Each cellular membrane
contains unique sets of proteins and has a complex lipid composition,
I fl u i d i c e l l u l a r i c o n t e n g o n o u n a often including an asymmetric distribution of phospholipids between the
concentrazione sufficiente di ioni sodio, opposing leaflets of the bilayer. In addition, cellular membranes display a
lateral heterogeneous organization by the clustering of specific lipids into
potassio e cloruro per essere un buon
highly condensed domains. Various domains of different composition
elettrolita e le potenziali differenze hanno may occur within a monolayer and domains in both monolayers may
origine nelle superfici della membrana intra colocalize (gray bilayer). A variety of membrane proteins can partition into
ed extracellulare. l i p i d d o m a i n s ( g r a y b i l a y e r, M 2 i n c o n t r a s t t o M 1 ) . P C ,
phosphatidylcholine; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine; PS,
phosphatidylserine; SM, sphingomyelin, Chol, cholesterol; GL, glycolipid.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

Come qualsiasi cella elettrochimica, la


cella eucariotica può essere rappresentata
i n t e r m i n i d i u n c i rc u i t o e l e t t r i c o
equivalente che comprende una
combinazione di resistenza e capacità.

L'elettrofisiologia considera la membrana


come un condensatore e le proteine del
canale ionico sono considerate resistenze
elettriche (conduttori).

La membrana cellulare è un condensatore


perché è costituita principalmente da un
doppio strato lipidico in cui sono
incorporate le proteine. È opinione diffusa
(ma erroneamente) che il doppio strato
lipidico stesso sia impermeabile all'acqua,
agli ioni e alle molecole.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Bioelettrochimica
(b)
Intracellular
phase

All'interno della membrana cellulare c'è un


ambiente ben definito, in cui avvengono molti Membrane

processi biochimici complessi. L'interno della cella


differisce rispetto al suo esterno. Ad esempio, i Electrolyte
contenuti di ioni sodio e potassio positivi e di ioni
cloruro carichi negativamente sono molto diversi.

-•H2O

Membrane
La ionizzazione dei gruppi amminici e dei gruppi (c)

carbossilici delle proteine, o altri gruppi come i


tioli, sulla superficie della membrana, orientati proteins = asymmetric distribution of
Fig. 17.1. Models of biomembranes: (a) Bilayer lipid membrane (BLM);
(b) Lipid-proteic bilayer membrane; (c) Two opposed cell membrane surfaces.
secondo una distribuzione asimmetrica, introduce charges= electrical double layer
the cell membrane. There is a very large number of them, corresponding
cariche. L'interazione di gruppi carichi sulla La variazione
to different del potenziale
genetically determined amino acidsuperficiale è data
sequences. Proteins often da:

have a very specific biological function. Table 17.1 lists some proteins and
superficie con i controioni in soluzione forma doppi their electrochemically active groups that have been studied with the
strati elettrici.
Es electrode.
mercury = ED + EThe DL
active groups are thiol, bisulphite, prosthetic
groups (acceptors of Fe , Cu2+, FAD, etc.) and aromatic groups,
3+

in cui ED è la differenza di potenziale dovuta ai


Si crea una differenza di potenziale elettrico tra gli dipoli

strati intra ed inter-extracellulari della membrana, e

chiamata potenziale superficiale, Es. EDL è la differenza di potenziale dovuta al doppio


strato, derivata dall'equazione di Poisson-
Boltzmann di uno strato diffuso.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


{ DL O DL Diff

Bioelettrochimica
in which £i,DL a n d £ O ,DL
are the internal and external surface potentia
respectively, and E Diff expresses the diffusion of ionic species through
symmetric membrane (Em = EDm when Ei = Eo). When there is
Sperimentalmente si osserva la differenza di potenziale transmembrana, Em

Interior Membrane Exterior

Se 𝜙i è il potenziale all'interno della cellula e


𝜙o il potenziale esterno, allora l'Em è dato,
nel caso di una membrana simmetrica dove
ED per i due lati si annulla, da

Em = 𝜙i - 𝜙o = EI, DL - EO, DL + EDiff

Considerando una densità di carica


sufficientemente grande sulle superfici della
membrana, l'Em è determinato unicamente
dalla differenza dei potenziali superficiali, Fig. 17.2 Schematic representation of transmembrane potential profile.
essendo EDiff trascurabile.
Schematic
transmembrane potentialrepresentation of transmembrane
difference; EO>DL, exterior diffuse double layer poten
potential
difference; profile.
£i,DL, interior diffuseEmdouble
, transmembrane potential
layer potential difference; Eu poten
difference;
difference EO,DL,molecular
due to membrane exterior diffuse
dipoles; EDi = double layer membr
EUo, symmetric
EDiff esprime la diffusione di specie ioniche potentialpotential;
difference; £Diff diffusion potential difference.
EI,DL, interior diffuse double
attraverso la membrana simmetrica (Em = layer potential difference; ED potential difference
EDiff quando Ei = Eo)
due to membrane molecular dipoles; EDi = EDo,
symmetric membrane potential; EDiff diffusion
potential difference.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

Supponendo che l'elettrolita intra ed


RT co
extracellulare sia lo stesso, l'unica Em = ln
differenza è la sua concentrazione, F ci
allora per uno ione univalente:
which has the same form as the
Nernst equation.

co= univalent ion concentration outside


ci= univalent ion concentration inside

All'equilibrio, Em è chiamato potenziale di riposo ed è influenzato dal trasporto di tutti


gli ioni che possono passare attraverso la membrana, che è permeabile a quasi tutti
gli ioni. Infatti, gli ioni importanti sono normalmente limitati a Na+ e K+ e i potenziali di
riposo variano in valore da decine a centinaia di millivolt.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

Il potenziale di membrana controlla il movimento di ioni e molecole attraverso la membrana.

Le membrane naturali hanno due


interfacce con le soluzioni acquose e
le proprietà interfacciali, come il
p o t e n z i a l e s u p e r fi c i a l e , l a
concentrazione e la capacità,
dovrebbero influenzare i processi di
trasferimento ionico. L'interazione di Electroporation is a very efficient way of manipulating
gruppi carichi sulla superficie con biological cells and cell tissues, through transient
controioni in soluzione forma doppi permeabilization of membranes by electrical
pulses.
strati elettrici.

Another consequence of electroporation is that


electroplated membranes are more likely to undergo
Il rilascio e l'assorbimento del fusion if two cells are brought into contact (cell
materiale transmembrana artificiale electrofusion) as well as to undergo insertion of foreign
g l y c o p ro t e i n s a n d D N A ( e l e c t ro i n s e r t i o n o r
possono essere ottenuti mediante
electrotransfection).
elettroporazione.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

The direct electropositive transfer of genes, i.e.DNA


(electrotransfection), to transform cells is of great interest
for molecular biology, genetic engineering, therapy and Examples of electroporation systems:
biotechnology. Other nucleic acids and proteins can also (A) two parallel plate-type electrodes integrated in
efficiently transferred to recipient cells, microorganisms the cuvette system and (B) a single wire-type
and tide. electrode used in the capillary system; (C) the
The main advantage of electropositive gene transfer is position of the anode and cathode in the capillary
that intact, chemically untreated cell material can be electroporation system; (D) schematic of the
transferred with high efficiency. In particular, the stable overall capillary electroporation system, which
electrotransformation of intact bacteria, yeast and plan consisted of a high voltage pulse generator and a
pipette station. Biosens Bioelectron 23(9):
cells is important biological and biotechnological
1353-1360. (2008)
challenge.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

Model LBL to study drugs, proteins and other molecules interaction with cell
membranes
The study of charge transfer pathways at membrane proteins or permeation processes in biological
membranes can be done in simplified model systems

Non-faradic processes are measured

Bilayer membranes can be assembled on gold electrodes for electrochemical measurements. In this process
lipid vesicles with target molecules (e.g. redox-active reporters, indicated by the red ellipses within the figure)
assemble spontaneously on hydrophobic monolayers providing a fluid layer comparable to biological
membranes. This approach simplifies the analysis of electron transfer processes of redox-active molecules and
their target biomolecules. It also allows the construction of new biohybrid functionalities which imitate natural
membrane redox processes. The formation of lipid bilayers on electrodes is also essential for the study of
membrane proteins since they provide an environment comparable to the natural situation. It is a powerful tool
to study the interaction of molecules (drugs, pollutants, chemicals…) with cell membrane.
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

L'elettrochimica può essere utilizzata per


analizzare le dinamiche di una varietà di
p ro c e s s i c e l l u l a r i e m o n i t o r a re i
cambiamenti nella composizione chimica
del fluido intra ed extracellulare delle
singole cellule e negli organismi viventi,
Microelectrodes and nano
monitorando i composti elettroattivi.
electrodes are powerful tools to
analyze electro active molecules in
the close proximity of and in single
cells

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica In the
In thecase
caseof of SECM,
SECM, the probe
the probe is an
ultramicroelectrode
ultramicroelectrode UME, whichwh
UME, is a
electrode of nanometer to micromete
electrode of nanometer to micr
in vitro and in vivo cell analysis
dimension (Figure 2).
dimension (Figure 2).
La maggior parte delle misurazioni
elettroanalitiche vengono effettuate con elettrodi
Fig. 2. (A) Schem
di dimensioni millimetriche. La risposta di tali
a tip ultramicroel
elettrodi alle pertubazioni di tensione e corrente Fig. 2.met
The exposed (A
contiene informazioni sulla concentrazione a tip
active ultr
part of
dell'analita, sulla cinetica degli elettrodi, sui electrode. (B) O
The expo
meccanismi e sulle proprietà di trasporto di Schematics of a microE (ME). The exposedmicrographactivof a
platinum wire (or
massa.
metal is the active part of the electrode.
sealed electro
inside a
microgra
sheath.
Tuttavia per l'analisi cellulare devono essere platinum
utilizzati microelettrodi, cioè quelli con almeno sealed
una dimensione nell'intervallo dei micrometri.

UME and substrate are both imme


Il termine "ultramicroelettrodo" è spesso oxidizable (or reducible) chemical spe
utilizzato anche in letteratura, ma, per mantenere Optical
the micrograph ofisME.
tip-current, The platinum When th
generated.
la terminologia coerente, è preferibile attenersi al wire(orange)
current is sealed and
changes inside information
a glass abou
termine più logico, "microelettrodo" UME
sheath
and substrate are both
scanning the ultramicroelectrode late
oxidizable (or reducible) chemi
topography and/or its surface reactivit
!25
the tip-current, is generated. W
Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

ME are advantageous for several reasons

1.Very small currents (rates of reaction) as low as 10-12 A can be measured


with relative ease.

2. iR losses in solution are reduced at small electrodes. This error to the


applied potential at the electrode-solution interface prevents
electrochemical experiments from being performed with large electrodes
in all but ionically conducting solutions.

3. Capacitative charging currents, the limiting factor in all transient


electrochemical techniques, are reduced to insignificant proportions at
electrodes of sufficiently small area.

4. The rate of mass transport to and from the electrodes increases as the
electrode size decreases; moreover steady state of mass transfer are
rapidly established.

As a consequence of reduced capacitative charging currents and increased mass


transport rates, microelectrodes exhibit excellent signal-to-noise (S/N) characteristics.

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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

Gli esperimenti UME sono quasi


Planar diffusion field at short times
condotti in una soluzione ferma dove (diffusione lineare semi-infinita)
la diffusione è l'unica forma di
trasporto di massa.

Hemispherical diffusion field in the steady-state


(diffusione quasi sferica)

!27

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

In short timescale experiments where diffusion layer thickness remains


thin compared to the dimensions of the microdisc, linear diffusion to a
plane electrode is the mode of transport. Hence, the response of a
microdisc electrode, with radius a, to a potential step from a value
where j=0 to one where the electrode reaction is diffusion controlled is
given by:

nFD1/2C 4nFDC
j = 1/2 1/2 +
π t πa

The first term is identical to that for a potential step under conditions of
linear diffusion to a plane electrode and will dominate at short times. The
second results from the hemispherical diffusion field and will dominate at
long times and will certainly be the only term necessary in the description
of the steady state.

J is the current density (current/surface area of electrode).


!28

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

Thus, at the steady state, transfer of electrons to the micro electrode (ME) is
recorded as a current and this current is expressed for a disk shape ME in
bulk solution as:

4nFDC
jL =
πa

iL = 4nFDCa
Where n is the number of electrons that one specie can transfer to the electrode, F
is the Faraday constant (96485.4 C/mol). The diffusion coefficient of species, D
(cm2/s), is a measure of how fast species can move through the solution, C is the
initial concentration of species in solution (mol/cm3), a is the radius of the
encapsulated metal wire (cm) and iL is the current measured at the ME (A=C/s), JL is
the current density (i/surface area of the microdisc).
!29

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

Electrochemical measurement of vesicular


exocytosis can be carried out either on the
cell apex by positioning a micro
electrode gently against the cell
s u r f a c e . To p e r f o r m t r a d i t i o n a l
amperometric test, a constant potential is
applied to the microelectrode and the
resulting current is monitored with time
lapse. Vesicle secretion is recorded as
current spike.

!30

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


N ¼ Q/nF, mitter oxidation, here we only focus on the innovatio

Bioelettrochimica
“n” is the number of electrons removed from each analyte
reported in recent years.
Cans' group deposited gold nanoparticles onto the sur
molecule and F ¼ 96,485 C mol"1. Therefore, the area under the 30-mm CFE disk electrodes, which was subsequently functi
transient current corresponds to the quantity of neurotransmitter by acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase. The final b
released while the shape of the signal reflects the release dy- design enabled the rapid detection to temporally resolv
in vitro and in vivo cell analysis
namics. In amperometric measurements, exocytosis of an indi- vesicle acetylcholine release from an artificial cell [20]. W
vidual cell is normally recorded as a series of oxidation spikes, his colleagues achieved high sensitivity and selectivity on a
revealing the cell secretion frequency, the number of molecules secretion detection by electrochemically pretreating CFE s
emitted per secretory vesicle and the kinetics of individual weakly basic solution (pH ¼ 9.5) [21]. Recently, Barlow
exocytotic event. In some cases, a main current spike is observed modified the traditional 5-mm tip CFE with an electrodepos
with a foot preceding the spike itself. It is generally considered to gold layer to catalyze the oxidation of dopamine at more
be related to the late phases of fusion pore opening. The corre- potentials and to improve electron-transfer kinetics (
sponding pre-spike parameters (tfoot , ifoot and Qfoot ) thus become Higher sensitivity was obtained with this decoration [22].
important factors to investigate the dynamics of the fusion pore. Ewing's group did great contribution to the applic
Note that current spikes resulting from vesicular exocytosis do not various CFEs for exocytosis investigation, especially at singl
always possess an amperometric foot and this is commonly level [9,23e25]. They established vesicle electrochemica
considered to be caused by their too fast time course beyond the etry, a novel method which enables monitoring exocytot
temporal resolution of amperometry. tion at single vesicle level. To be specific, individual ves

Carbon Fiber (CF) microelectrodes,


positioned at the cell apex, are
commonly employed for analysis of the
exocytotic events.
Single-cell amperometric detection of
vesicular exocytosis by a modified 5-mm
Carbon Fiber Electrode (CFE); amplified
CFE tip with gold decoration;
amperometric trace of the exocytotic
events from a single PC12 cell and an
individual event was magnified.

!31
Fig. 2. (a) Single-cell amperometric detection of vesicular exocytosis by a modified 5-mm CFE; amplified CFE tip with gold decoration; amperometric trace of the exocyt
from a single PC12 cell and an individual event was magnified. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22], Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (b) A conical C

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


placed in the cytoplasm of a single cell; global view of the nanotip; amperometric traces for a PC12 cell, inside (lower image) and outside (upper image) the cytoplas
A nanotip of CFE inserted inside an individual synapse; amplified picture of its tip; high Kþ-induced amperometric spike and two complex events were amplified [32]. F
Bioelettrochimica

in vitro and in vivo cell analysis

Another possibility is to use microeletrode Living cell


array by seeding cells on conductive
microelectrode substrate.

The planar microelectrode is used both as Nucleus


substrate for cell adhesion and to detect
Ch
oxidation signals. Amperometric
measurement is generally performed and Microarray
vesicle secretion is recorded as current
spike.

!32

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Microelectrodes and SECM

Scanning electrochemical microscopy

The invention of the scanning tunneling


microscope in early 1980s by Binnig and
Rohrer almost coincided with the introduction
of ultramicroelectrodes.

Since that time, the idea of scanning


electrochemical microscopy was in the air.

Several groups employed small and mobile


electrochemical probes to make
measurements of concentration of chemical
species in localized spaces, examine and
modify electrode surfaces.

The SECM technique, as we know it, only


became possible after the introduction of the
feedback concept by the group of A. J. Bard
at the University of Texas at Austin (1989).

!33

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Microelectrodes and SECM

Scanning electrochemical
microscopy is briefly called
SECM. With SECM,
amperometric or
p o t e n t i o m e t r i c
ultramicroelectrodes are
employed as
electrochemically active
scanning probes (SECM
tips). SECM is used to
characterize interfacial
reactivity or to perform
surface modifications at
the micrometer scale using
an ultra-
microelectrode  (UME) as a
local probe.

!34

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Microelectrodes and SECM
Suppose we immerse a substrate into a solution containing a redox active species in its reduce
An ultramicroelectrode is also immersed into the solution
Feedback modes consist of using a redox mediator in and is electrically biased to a potential such that "R" is oxidized into "O" at its tip
solution and polarizing the microelectrode to a potential to When the tip is brought to within a few tip radii of a conductive
observe the steady-state current (corresponding to the substrate surface (Figure 3B), the "O" species formed at the tip diffuses
diffusion  limited  current). When the probe is approached to the substrate, where it can be instantly reduced back to "R". This
cycling increases the flux of "R" to the tip and hence creates a "positive
from a substrate at a distance less than the size of the feedback", that is, the tip-current increases. The closer the tip is to the
UME diffusion layer (i.e. a few times its radius), it is then substrate, the larger the tip-current.
If the
possible to characterize the interactions between While the thetip is electr
species produced at the UME and the substrate. far from the
If substrate
the (for ex
substrate is an insulator, the diffusion layer at the(Figure
UME3A) is the the tip
specie
disturbed by blocking the arrival of redox species from the
faradaic current
react
at the tip
bulk solution, and the current decreases as the probe-to-generated by In thi
substrate distance decreases: this is called the negative
this reaction is regen
substr
feedback mode Conversely, if the substrateconstant is a and diffus
limited by the
conductor, the species consumed at the probe speed can atbe which this ti
regenerated back on the substrate and react again at "R" the
diffuses The ti
decre
probe (Figure 1) causing a higher current than in the the toward
appro
electrode.
presence of an insulating substrate for the same distance: substr
this is called the positive feedback mode.
feedb
3C).
This mode makes it possible to characterize the
microelectrode used as a local probe, to precisely position
the probe in the vicinity of the interface to be
characterized and to obtain the topography of the
interface by scanning the probe above the material
surface (electrochemical imaging).

Another type of operation is the generator/collector mode,


which consists in generating a species at one of the two
electrodes (for example on the substrate) and performing
detection on the other (for example on the probe).
!35

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


Biosensors and Bioelectronics 22 (2006) 461–472

464 A.J. Bard et al. / Biosensors and Bioelectronics 22Review


(2006) 461–472

SECM has also been used in studies of biological interest, two-electron reduction at about −0.1 V versus NHE. The steady-
Chemically imaging living cells by scanning electrochemical microscopy
e.g. in studies of enzymes and membranes, and to examine bio- state current of menadione is significantly larger than that of the
logical systems under physiological conditions with !m spatial thiodione ∗because of its greater diffusion coefficient in aqueous
resolution (Horrocks and Wittstock, 2000; Shiku et al., 2001).Allen In J. BardAlthough
solution. , Xiao the Li,reduction
Wei Zhan potential E1/2 of thiodione is
the SECM measurements, the tip is scanned Departmentover the surface and
of Chemistry of aBiochemistry,150 mVThe more negative
University of Texasthanatthat Austin,of Austin,
menadione, TX 78712, thisUniteddifference
States is
cell to obtain topographic images and maps of Received chemical24reactiv- January 2006;not enough
received to distinguish
in revised form 29 March between these two
2006; accepted 27 April compounds
2006 using
ity across the cell surface. In this way, it has been used to image onlyAvailable
their cyclic online 23voltammograms
June 2006 (CV). However, thiodione

The cytotoxic effect of menadione on hepatocytes was


fluxes of oxygen at living cells and to obtain topographic images shows an irreversible oxidation wave, ca. 0.74 V, where nei-
of various biological substrates (Lee et al., 1990; Tsionsky et ther menadione nor glutathione exhibits electrochemical activity
al., 1997; Yasukawa et al., 1998, 1999). The photosynthetic and
Abstract (Mauzeroll and Bard, 2004). Thus, both menadione and thio-

itoring the oxygen concentration


investigated using the substrate generation/tip
respiratory activities of single cells have been evaluated by mon-
Scanning electrochemical
profile around microscopy
cells. The(SECM) SECM is useful
dione can be analyzed simultaneously using electrochemical
methods.in probing and characterizing interfaces at high resolution. In this paper, the general

collection mode of SECM. Menadione has long been used


principles of this technique are described and several applications of SECM to biological systems, particularly to living cells, is discussed,
based respiration activity measurements have been employed to The efflux of thiodione after the addition of menadione was
along with several example systems. Thiodione was detected and monitored electrochemically during the treatment of hepatocytes with cytotoxic
build an anticancer drug sensitivity assay (Torisawa et al., 2004). studied with highly confluent liver cells adhering to the bot-
menadione. The antimicrobial effects of silver(I) was followed by SECM through bacterial respiration. Living HeLa cells were shown to accumulate

to study oxidative stress in cells as it readily generates


SECM has also been used for imaging(FcMeOH)
ferrocencemethanol new emerging micron positive
and generated size feedback tom of aforPetri FcMeOH dish oxidation
(Mauzeroll thatetcan al.,
be2004).
further used A PttoUME monitor with theacell viability. Finally,
topography and real-time
individual detection of neurotransmitter
giant liposomes, as cell models, secre- with encapsulated radius of redox 10 !m was used
compounds were to successfully
detect the thiodione probed byconcentrationSECM. In general SECM has the
tion from living PC12, dopamine releasing
spatial immortal rat cells
versatility,inespecially
solution for by holding the tip of at the potential for thiodione oxida-
reactive oxidative species (ROS) that are harmful to
advantage of very high resolution and the detection electroactive substances.
(Liebetrau et al., ©2003; Hengstenberg
2006 Elsevier B.V. Alletrights al., 2001).
reserved.Potentio- tion. The electrode was, ca. 100 !m away from a patch of cells.
metric measurements employing scanning ion-selective micro- The concentration of thiodione can be easily calculated from the

biological systems.
Keywords:
electrodes have been Chemicallyin
demonstrated imaging; Living cells;
the detection of Scanning
calciumelectrochemical increasing microscopy
anodic oxidation tip current by using the steady-state
release at osteoclast cells that are responsible for the resorption current equation for a CV at an UME. Shown in Fig. 3 is the
of bone (Berger et al., 1999). Studies have also been undertaken dependence of thiodione concentration (black dots) in solution

Once inside the cell, menadione is rapidly conjugated to


to study the kinetics of transmembrane charge transfer in mam-
Contents with time after the addition of 80 !M menadione. Generally,
malian cells and in bacteria (Liu et al., 2000; Cai et al., 2002). the concentration of thiodione increases with time and does not
The permeation of the1. nuclear membrane
Introduction . . . . . . in
. . .the . . . . . . . . . .oocyte
. . . Xenopus . . . . . . . . . . .reach
. . . . . .a. steady
. . . . . . . state
. . . . . .within
. . . . . . .the
. . . experimental
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .time.
. . . . . The
. . . . .solid
. . . . . line
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
by various mediators
2005).
intracellular glutathione via nucleophilic addition to form
2. hasPrinciples
also beenofstudied
the scanning (Guoelectrochemical
and Amemiya,microscope
3. SECM investigations of cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .based
. . . . . . . . . .fit
is a non-linear
. . . . . .on. . .a. .constant
. . .of
. . .the
. . . .concentration
. . . . . . . . .flux
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .of
. . . .model.
. . . . . . . .In. . this
. . .thiodione
. . . . model,
. . . . . . . . . .in . . .solution
. . . . . . . .it. .is. .assumed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
. . . . . . . . . that
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

the stable conjugate thiodione. Thiodione can also


We describe below4. several
Menadione
recentmetabolism
studies intoour thiodione
laboratory in humanof liver
the cells
initial . . .concentration
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .of
. . .thiodione
. . . . . . . . . .is. .zero
. . . . .at. .t.=. .0. .when
. . . . . .mena-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
+
the uptake and efflux5. ofSECM investigation
materials from living of Agcells interaction
by SECM. with respiratory dione ischain added, of Escherichia
and the flux coliof(Holt and Bard,
thiodione Jcell2005)from. .the . . . .cells
. . . . . is
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
6. HeLa cells activity probed using FcMeOH oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
generate ROS through redox reactions.
We also describe early attempts at using SECM to penetrate cells constant at2+ t > 0. There is a time lag caused by the time needed
7. SECM probing single giant liposomes containing Ru(bpy)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
and detect species inside the cells. for menadione uptake, conjugation and pump efflux processes.
8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Overall,
. . . . . . . . the
. . . .experimental
. . . . . . . . . . . . . results
. . . . . . . match
. . . . . . .well
. . . . .with
. . . . .the. . .calculation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
4. Menadione metabolism to thiodione in human liver results, suggesting that the constant flux model can be used to
cells describe the efflux of thiodione. Based on the model, the efflux

1. Introduction
The cytotoxic effect of menadione on hepatocytes was inves- cations in characterizing many different kinds of systems
tigated using the substrate generation/tip collection mode of (e.g. electrode surfaces, liquid/liquid interfaces and biological
SECM. Menadione The has ideal
longbiosensor
been used is usually
to study characterized
oxidative as being robust, samples), including surface structures in liquid environments
stress in cells as itselective, reproducible
readily generates and oxidative
reactive sensitive species
(with a large dynamic with micrometer and nanometer resolution (Bard and Mirkin,
range). to
(ROS) that are harmful If biological
it is to be systems.
used to characterize
Because of complete
its biological 2001). SECM combines the virtues of electrochemistry at very
amphiphilic nature,systems, like cells,
menadione when coupling
can diffuse andwithout
into the cell synergies can be probed, small electrodes (ultramicroelectrodes), such as minimization
the assistance of ittransmembrane
should also show good temporal
proteins and pumps
or transport spatial resolution. of uncompensated resistance and capacitive effects, with those
(Cai et al., 2002; LiuWe et describe
al., 2000;hereYi and
the Gratzl, 1998).
principles Once
of scanning electrochemi- of an adjustable thin layer cell. The latter twin-electrode aspect
inside the cell, menadione is rapidly
cal microscopy conjugated
(SECM), whichtohasintracellular
already found many appli- of SECM allows one to make steady-state measurements of the
glutathione via nucleophilic addition to form the stable conju- type previously carried out with the rotating ring–disk electrode,
gate thiodione. Thiodione can also generate ROS through redox but with considerably greater ease in fabrication and with com-
reactions. Therefore, it must be author.
∗ Corresponding removedTel.: from
+1 512the
471 intracellu-
3761; fax: +1 512 471 0088. parable mass transfer rates, without the requirement of forced
lar space. Because the product
E-mail thiodione
address: is too hydrophilic
asn@mail.utexas.edu (A.J. Bard). to convection. Moreover, the theory of SECM is well-developed
diffuse across the plasma membrane, an ATP-dependent pump
is used for extracellular export.
0956-5663/$ – see The
front loss
matterof© cell
2006viability upon
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.bios.2006.04.028
exposure to menadione is related to the depletion of glutathione Fig. 3. Electrochemical detection of thiodione from highly confluent Hep G2
within the cell, which occurs either through conjugating with cells using 10 !m Pt UME. The potential was scanned in deoxygenated PBS
menadione or through the oxidation of glutathione by forming a buffer at 37.5 ◦ C between −0.16 and 1.29 V vs. NHE at a scan rate of 100 mV/s.
The concentration of thiodione in solution was calculated from the tip current at
disulfide dimer (Di Monte et al., 1984; Duthie and Grant, 1989).
1.14 V vs. NHE and plotted vs. time. The solid line is the non-linear simulation
Electrochemical studies have shown that even though glu- fitting based on a constant flux model. Inset shows the optical micrograph of
tathione is not electrochemically active on Pt electrode, the 75–100% confluent liver cells used in these measurements and the black dot
quinone moieties of both menadione and thiodione exhibit a indicates the position of the Pt tip (Mauzeroll et al., 2004).
Microelectrodes and SECM

10 nL drop array
Interdrops distance 1 mm

Tip: Pt d= 10 µm

Mediator:
2 mM FMCA in 0.1 M
Phosphate buffer, pH
7.4, NaCl 0.1 M

!37

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


ME e Nanoelettrodi

Nanoelectrodes

Electroanalytical techniques using nanoelectrodes allow measurements in small


and confined sample volumes where other analytical methods often fail either
because of a lack of sensitivity or because of a lack of spatial resolution.

A nanometric electrochemical sensor senses the concentration of species


within its diffusion layer. The dimensions of the diffusion layer scale with the
size of the electrode, thus ensuring high spatial resolution of the measurement.

If additionally the overall dimensions of the nanometric sensors are sufficiently


small to grant access to small chemical microenvironments, the sensors can be
positioned in those microenvironments and perform highly localized
measurements there. These capabilities are most called for in the chemical
analysis of biological samples, tissues and single cells. In fact, the development
of nanoelectrode fabrication protocols was to a large extent driven by the
search for answers to biological questions.
!38

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


ME e Nanoelettrodi

A number of effects have to be considered for the quantitative analysis of


electrochemical phenomena at the nanoscale. Most of these effects are
derived from the observation that during a heterogeneous reaction, the thick-
ness of the diffusion layer (also termed depletion layer or concentration
distribution layer) linearly decreases with decreasing electrode size. While
in classical theory the diffusion layer and the electrochemical double
layer are treated separately from each other, this separation may no
longer be justified for treatment of nanometric electrodes. As the
electrode dimensions decrease, the electrochemical double layer occupies
an increasingly large fraction of the diffusion layer and electroactive species
start to interact with the interfacial electric field.
This effect is referred to as the electrochemical double layer effect. In the
presence of an excess of supporting electrolyte, when the Debye length is
short, this effect can be neglected for electrodes larger than 10 nm.
With smaller electrodes or in the absence of supporting electrolyte, however,
the mass transfer rates may be increased or decreased by the electric field
within the electrochemical double layer, depending on the charge of the
electroactive species with respect to the electrode surface.

!39

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


ME e Nanoelettrodi

However, the breakthrough in a precise and quantitative description of


electrochemistry at the nanometer scale is hampered by both the lack of
experimental methods to assess the geometrical and material properties
of nanometric electrodes as well of appropriate models to describe
nanoscale phenomena.

!40

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


ME e Nanoelettrodi
48 J. Clausmeyer, W. Schuhmann / Trends in Analytical Chemistry 79 (2016) 46–59

Fig. 1. Fabrication protocols to produce nanoelectrodes. Fabrication by laser-assisted fusing of Pt followed by pulling and polishing yields needle-type nanoelectrodes (scale
bar 5 μm) (a). Reinforcement with an additional capillary and polishing yields a Pt electrode with a size of 3 nm (b). Fabrication by pyrolysis of carbon gas inside quartz
nanopipettes yields high-aspect ratio bifunctional nanoprobes (c). This procedure requires only readily available and low-cost equipment and materials (d). Nanoelectrodes
can be severely damaged by electrostatic discharge (ESD) (scale bars 1 μm) (e). a: Adapted from [27] with permission from John Wiley and Sons. b: Reprinted with per-
mission from [28]. Copyright (2009) American Chemical Society. c: Reprinted from [29] with permission from John Wiley and Sons. d: Adapted with permission from [30].
Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society. e: Reprinted with permission from [31]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society.

Trends in Analytical Chemistry 79 (2016) 46–59


reports of the fabrication of microelectrodes [32] and a micrometric possibility of precise manipulation and polishing of the !41
capillary-based thermocouple [33] and was then further devel- nanoelectrodes. We have developed polishing protocols that ensure
Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
oped by our [27] and Mirkin’s group [34] to obtain nanoelectrodes. high control over the tip geometry and the defined state of the elec-
ME e Nanoelettrodi

The push for nano

Fig. 12.
Nanoelectrodes polishing
station.

The reduction in size of the tip electrode offers two advantages.


•With smaller tip the measurement of the rate of extremely fast redox reactions becomes possible.
• Submicrometer sized electrodes permit high resolution SECM imaging.
As can be expected, the smaller the electrodes the more fragile they become.
Fabricating SECM tip of nanometer dimension is a very challenging task as these electrodes need to
be polished by grinding the tip with abrasive material. Figure 12 shows a set up for polishing
nanometer size ultramicroelectrodes.
!42

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021


ME e Nanoelettrodi

Applicazioni:
Compared to the ubiquitous optical methods in the life sciences,
electrochemical detection of substances with biological relevance provide a
direct correlation between the measured signal and the amount of analyte via
Faraday’s law.

microelectrode: redox species are usually detected outside the cell and
hence, electrodes with dimensions similar to the cell’s dimensions (i.e. a few
μm) are desirable to assure a high collection efficiency of released
neurotransmitters.
nanoelectrode: redox species are usually detected inside the cell:
-the dimensions of the probes need to be reduced to avoid damages caused to
the cell when sensors are inserted.
-electrode an “innocent spectator” to minimize the influence of the
electrochemical conversion of the analyte at a micro/nanosensor on the
physiological state of the cell.

!43

Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021

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