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Metodi Strumentali Lezione 18
Metodi Strumentali Lezione 18
CHIMICA ANALITICA
5) Spettroscopia di impedenza
elettrochimica
(EIS)
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica
Questa tecnica viene utilizzata nello studio di: batterie, fuel cells, semiconduttori, materiali
ceramici, biosensori e sensori analitici, processi di corrosione e di inibizione della
corrosione, cristallizzazione, test audiometrici, test di massa muscolare, test di tossicità
cellulare, etc.
Spettroscopia: intensità di una grandezza fisica in funzione della loro energia, lunghezza
d'onda, frequenza o massa.
Impedenza: quanto facilmente un mezzo conduce una corrente alternata
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Spettroscopia di impedenza elettrochimica
Funzioni di trasferimento
La Spettroscopia di impedenza si basa sul metodo classico delle
funzioni di trasferimento (TF)
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
I = I sen (ωt + φ ) , (1
Spettroscopia di impedenza
0
elettrochimica
come si può osservare dalla Figura 1.6.
In EIS si sollecita il sistema con un
piccolo segnale, per favorire una
risposta lineare:
potenziale
( )
E = E0 sen ωt tempo
corrente
tempo
In un sistema lineare, per il quale è valido il
principio di sovrapposizione dei segnali, la
risposta della corrente I a un potenziale scostamento
sinusoidale è anch’essa di tipo sinusoidaleFigura 1.6 Risposta della corrente ad un potenziale applicato di tipo sinusoidale,
con la stessa frequenza, ma spostata diper un sistema lineare.
Risposta della corrente ad un potenziale
fase con uno scostamento φ e con una
applicato di tipo sinusoidale, per un
diversa ampiezza I0:
Analogamente alla legge di Ohm, si può definire l’impedenza come:
sistema lineare.
(
I = I 0 sen ωt + ϕ ) Z=
E
=
E0sen (ωt )
= Z0
sen (ωt )
, (1
I I 0sen (ωt + φ ) sen (ωt + φ )
E
Z= =
E0 sen ωt ( )
= Z0
sen ωt ( )
I I 0 sen ωt + ϕ
( )
sen inωttermini (
+ ϕ di ampiezza ) Z 0 e sfasamento φ .
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
mediante un vettore puntato nell’origine degli assi, con lunghezza |Z| e formante un
E(t) = Z⋅I(t)
(a) (b)
Z : I(t) → E(t)
Figura 1.7 Diagramma di Nyquist (a) e diagramma di Bode (b).
da C. Durante dispense
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Fitting e relativi modelli circuitali
Elementi circuitali
Elementi circuitali
La forma del modello di impedenza è dettata da quali e come gli elementi
elettrici vengono interconnessi tra loro (combinazione di elementi messi in
serie o parallelo). La grandezza di ciascuna forma dello spettro di
impedenza è dovuta dai parametri degli elementi del circuito
Il circuito equivalente deve essere il più semplice possibile e allo stesso
tempo dare la migliore aderenza possibile ai dati sperimentali.
Combinazioni differenti di elementi circuitali possono dare modelli che
soddisfano parimenti i dati sperimentali
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Strumentazione
6) Cenni di Bioelettrochimica
Lo studio della cellula attraverso l’elettrochimica:
Membrane electrochemistry,
Electroporation,
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le differenze nei potenziali chimici ed elettrici membranes: Discerning lipid and protein
contributions in shaping the cell,
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Metodi Strumentali in Chimica Analitica, AA 2020-2021
Bioelettrochimica
(b)
Intracellular
phase
-•H2O
Membrane
La ionizzazione dei gruppi amminici e dei gruppi (c)
have a very specific biological function. Table 17.1 lists some proteins and
superficie con i controioni in soluzione forma doppi their electrochemically active groups that have been studied with the
strati elettrici.
Es electrode.
mercury = ED + EThe DL
active groups are thiol, bisulphite, prosthetic
groups (acceptors of Fe , Cu2+, FAD, etc.) and aromatic groups,
3+
Bioelettrochimica
in which £i,DL a n d £ O ,DL
are the internal and external surface potentia
respectively, and E Diff expresses the diffusion of ionic species through
symmetric membrane (Em = EDm when Ei = Eo). When there is
Sperimentalmente si osserva la differenza di potenziale transmembrana, Em
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Model LBL to study drugs, proteins and other molecules interaction with cell
membranes
The study of charge transfer pathways at membrane proteins or permeation processes in biological
membranes can be done in simplified model systems
Bilayer membranes can be assembled on gold electrodes for electrochemical measurements. In this process
lipid vesicles with target molecules (e.g. redox-active reporters, indicated by the red ellipses within the figure)
assemble spontaneously on hydrophobic monolayers providing a fluid layer comparable to biological
membranes. This approach simplifies the analysis of electron transfer processes of redox-active molecules and
their target biomolecules. It also allows the construction of new biohybrid functionalities which imitate natural
membrane redox processes. The formation of lipid bilayers on electrodes is also essential for the study of
membrane proteins since they provide an environment comparable to the natural situation. It is a powerful tool
to study the interaction of molecules (drugs, pollutants, chemicals…) with cell membrane.
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4. The rate of mass transport to and from the electrodes increases as the
electrode size decreases; moreover steady state of mass transfer are
rapidly established.
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nFD1/2C 4nFDC
j = 1/2 1/2 +
π t πa
The first term is identical to that for a potential step under conditions of
linear diffusion to a plane electrode and will dominate at short times. The
second results from the hemispherical diffusion field and will dominate at
long times and will certainly be the only term necessary in the description
of the steady state.
Thus, at the steady state, transfer of electrons to the micro electrode (ME) is
recorded as a current and this current is expressed for a disk shape ME in
bulk solution as:
4nFDC
jL =
πa
iL = 4nFDCa
Where n is the number of electrons that one specie can transfer to the electrode, F
is the Faraday constant (96485.4 C/mol). The diffusion coefficient of species, D
(cm2/s), is a measure of how fast species can move through the solution, C is the
initial concentration of species in solution (mol/cm3), a is the radius of the
encapsulated metal wire (cm) and iL is the current measured at the ME (A=C/s), JL is
the current density (i/surface area of the microdisc).
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Bioelettrochimica
“n” is the number of electrons removed from each analyte
reported in recent years.
Cans' group deposited gold nanoparticles onto the sur
molecule and F ¼ 96,485 C mol"1. Therefore, the area under the 30-mm CFE disk electrodes, which was subsequently functi
transient current corresponds to the quantity of neurotransmitter by acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase. The final b
released while the shape of the signal reflects the release dy- design enabled the rapid detection to temporally resolv
in vitro and in vivo cell analysis
namics. In amperometric measurements, exocytosis of an indi- vesicle acetylcholine release from an artificial cell [20]. W
vidual cell is normally recorded as a series of oxidation spikes, his colleagues achieved high sensitivity and selectivity on a
revealing the cell secretion frequency, the number of molecules secretion detection by electrochemically pretreating CFE s
emitted per secretory vesicle and the kinetics of individual weakly basic solution (pH ¼ 9.5) [21]. Recently, Barlow
exocytotic event. In some cases, a main current spike is observed modified the traditional 5-mm tip CFE with an electrodepos
with a foot preceding the spike itself. It is generally considered to gold layer to catalyze the oxidation of dopamine at more
be related to the late phases of fusion pore opening. The corre- potentials and to improve electron-transfer kinetics (
sponding pre-spike parameters (tfoot , ifoot and Qfoot ) thus become Higher sensitivity was obtained with this decoration [22].
important factors to investigate the dynamics of the fusion pore. Ewing's group did great contribution to the applic
Note that current spikes resulting from vesicular exocytosis do not various CFEs for exocytosis investigation, especially at singl
always possess an amperometric foot and this is commonly level [9,23e25]. They established vesicle electrochemica
considered to be caused by their too fast time course beyond the etry, a novel method which enables monitoring exocytot
temporal resolution of amperometry. tion at single vesicle level. To be specific, individual ves
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Fig. 2. (a) Single-cell amperometric detection of vesicular exocytosis by a modified 5-mm CFE; amplified CFE tip with gold decoration; amperometric trace of the exocyt
from a single PC12 cell and an individual event was magnified. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22], Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (b) A conical C
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Scanning electrochemical
microscopy is briefly called
SECM. With SECM,
amperometric or
p o t e n t i o m e t r i c
ultramicroelectrodes are
employed as
electrochemically active
scanning probes (SECM
tips). SECM is used to
characterize interfacial
reactivity or to perform
surface modifications at
the micrometer scale using
an ultra-
microelectrode (UME) as a
local probe.
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SECM has also been used in studies of biological interest, two-electron reduction at about −0.1 V versus NHE. The steady-
Chemically imaging living cells by scanning electrochemical microscopy
e.g. in studies of enzymes and membranes, and to examine bio- state current of menadione is significantly larger than that of the
logical systems under physiological conditions with !m spatial thiodione ∗because of its greater diffusion coefficient in aqueous
resolution (Horrocks and Wittstock, 2000; Shiku et al., 2001).Allen In J. BardAlthough
solution. , Xiao the Li,reduction
Wei Zhan potential E1/2 of thiodione is
the SECM measurements, the tip is scanned Departmentover the surface and
of Chemistry of aBiochemistry,150 mVThe more negative
University of Texasthanatthat Austin,of Austin,
menadione, TX 78712, thisUniteddifference
States is
cell to obtain topographic images and maps of Received chemical24reactiv- January 2006;not enough
received to distinguish
in revised form 29 March between these two
2006; accepted 27 April compounds
2006 using
ity across the cell surface. In this way, it has been used to image onlyAvailable
their cyclic online 23voltammograms
June 2006 (CV). However, thiodione
biological systems.
Keywords:
electrodes have been Chemicallyin
demonstrated imaging; Living cells;
the detection of Scanning
calciumelectrochemical increasing microscopy
anodic oxidation tip current by using the steady-state
release at osteoclast cells that are responsible for the resorption current equation for a CV at an UME. Shown in Fig. 3 is the
of bone (Berger et al., 1999). Studies have also been undertaken dependence of thiodione concentration (black dots) in solution
1. Introduction
The cytotoxic effect of menadione on hepatocytes was inves- cations in characterizing many different kinds of systems
tigated using the substrate generation/tip collection mode of (e.g. electrode surfaces, liquid/liquid interfaces and biological
SECM. Menadione The has ideal
longbiosensor
been used is usually
to study characterized
oxidative as being robust, samples), including surface structures in liquid environments
stress in cells as itselective, reproducible
readily generates and oxidative
reactive sensitive species
(with a large dynamic with micrometer and nanometer resolution (Bard and Mirkin,
range). to
(ROS) that are harmful If biological
it is to be systems.
used to characterize
Because of complete
its biological 2001). SECM combines the virtues of electrochemistry at very
amphiphilic nature,systems, like cells,
menadione when coupling
can diffuse andwithout
into the cell synergies can be probed, small electrodes (ultramicroelectrodes), such as minimization
the assistance of ittransmembrane
should also show good temporal
proteins and pumps
or transport spatial resolution. of uncompensated resistance and capacitive effects, with those
(Cai et al., 2002; LiuWe et describe
al., 2000;hereYi and
the Gratzl, 1998).
principles Once
of scanning electrochemi- of an adjustable thin layer cell. The latter twin-electrode aspect
inside the cell, menadione is rapidly
cal microscopy conjugated
(SECM), whichtohasintracellular
already found many appli- of SECM allows one to make steady-state measurements of the
glutathione via nucleophilic addition to form the stable conju- type previously carried out with the rotating ring–disk electrode,
gate thiodione. Thiodione can also generate ROS through redox but with considerably greater ease in fabrication and with com-
reactions. Therefore, it must be author.
∗ Corresponding removedTel.: from
+1 512the
471 intracellu-
3761; fax: +1 512 471 0088. parable mass transfer rates, without the requirement of forced
lar space. Because the product
E-mail thiodione
address: is too hydrophilic
asn@mail.utexas.edu (A.J. Bard). to convection. Moreover, the theory of SECM is well-developed
diffuse across the plasma membrane, an ATP-dependent pump
is used for extracellular export.
0956-5663/$ – see The
front loss
matterof© cell
2006viability upon
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.bios.2006.04.028
exposure to menadione is related to the depletion of glutathione Fig. 3. Electrochemical detection of thiodione from highly confluent Hep G2
within the cell, which occurs either through conjugating with cells using 10 !m Pt UME. The potential was scanned in deoxygenated PBS
menadione or through the oxidation of glutathione by forming a buffer at 37.5 ◦ C between −0.16 and 1.29 V vs. NHE at a scan rate of 100 mV/s.
The concentration of thiodione in solution was calculated from the tip current at
disulfide dimer (Di Monte et al., 1984; Duthie and Grant, 1989).
1.14 V vs. NHE and plotted vs. time. The solid line is the non-linear simulation
Electrochemical studies have shown that even though glu- fitting based on a constant flux model. Inset shows the optical micrograph of
tathione is not electrochemically active on Pt electrode, the 75–100% confluent liver cells used in these measurements and the black dot
quinone moieties of both menadione and thiodione exhibit a indicates the position of the Pt tip (Mauzeroll et al., 2004).
Microelectrodes and SECM
10 nL drop array
Interdrops distance 1 mm
Tip: Pt d= 10 µm
Mediator:
2 mM FMCA in 0.1 M
Phosphate buffer, pH
7.4, NaCl 0.1 M
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Nanoelectrodes
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Fig. 1. Fabrication protocols to produce nanoelectrodes. Fabrication by laser-assisted fusing of Pt followed by pulling and polishing yields needle-type nanoelectrodes (scale
bar 5 μm) (a). Reinforcement with an additional capillary and polishing yields a Pt electrode with a size of 3 nm (b). Fabrication by pyrolysis of carbon gas inside quartz
nanopipettes yields high-aspect ratio bifunctional nanoprobes (c). This procedure requires only readily available and low-cost equipment and materials (d). Nanoelectrodes
can be severely damaged by electrostatic discharge (ESD) (scale bars 1 μm) (e). a: Adapted from [27] with permission from John Wiley and Sons. b: Reprinted with per-
mission from [28]. Copyright (2009) American Chemical Society. c: Reprinted from [29] with permission from John Wiley and Sons. d: Adapted with permission from [30].
Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society. e: Reprinted with permission from [31]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society.
Fig. 12.
Nanoelectrodes polishing
station.
Applicazioni:
Compared to the ubiquitous optical methods in the life sciences,
electrochemical detection of substances with biological relevance provide a
direct correlation between the measured signal and the amount of analyte via
Faraday’s law.
microelectrode: redox species are usually detected outside the cell and
hence, electrodes with dimensions similar to the cell’s dimensions (i.e. a few
μm) are desirable to assure a high collection efficiency of released
neurotransmitters.
nanoelectrode: redox species are usually detected inside the cell:
-the dimensions of the probes need to be reduced to avoid damages caused to
the cell when sensors are inserted.
-electrode an “innocent spectator” to minimize the influence of the
electrochemical conversion of the analyte at a micro/nanosensor on the
physiological state of the cell.
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