Chapter 5

5.1 States of matter

1. Gases have no fixed shape or volume.
2. Gas particles:
 are far apart
 can be compressed
 randomly arranged
 can move freely from place to place, in all directions.
3. Liquids take the shape of the container they occupy.
4. Liquid particles:
 are close together
 have a fixed volume
 can be compressed slightly
 arranged fairly randomly
 have limited movement from place to place, in all directions.
5. Solids have a fixed shape and volume.
6. Solid particles:
 are touching each other
 cannot be compressed
 usually in a regular arrangement
 cannot change positions with each other – they can only vibrate.
7. The state of a substance at room temperature and pressure depends on its structure and bonding.
8. Five types of structure are found in elements and compounds:
 simple atomic, e.g. argon
 simple molecular, e.g. carbon dioxide
 giant ionic, e.g. sodium chloride
 giant metallic, e.g. iron
 giant molecular, e.g. silicon(IV) oxide.
9. The simple atomic structures found in the noble gases generally have similar physical properties to
simple molecular gases.
5.2 The gaseous state
The kinetic theory of gases
1. kinetic theory of gases – the theory that particles in gases and liquids are in constant movement.
2. This theory makes certain assumptions:
 the gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
 the distance between the gas molecules is much greater than the diameter of the molecules so the
volume of the molecules is negligible
 no forces of attraction or repulsion between the molecules
 all collisions between particles are elastic
 no kinetic energy is lost in collisions
 the temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
3. Ideal gas – a gas whose volume is directly proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to
pressure.
4. Noble gases with small atoms, such as helium and neon, approach ideal gas behaviour. This is because
the intermolecular forces are so small.
5. Real gases – gases that do not obey ideal gas law, especially at low temperatures and high pressures.

Ideal gases
1. The volume that a gas occupies depends on:
 its pressure; measure in pascals, Pa
 its temperature; measure in kelvin, K.
2. The kelvin temperature(K) equals the Celsius temperature(°C) + 273.
 For example, 100 °C is 100 + 273 = 373K.
3. Gases in a container exert a pressure.
 Gas molecules are constantly hitting the walls of the container.

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 Decrease the volume of a gas, the molecules are closer together and hit the walls of the container more
often.
 Pressure of the gas increases.
 Volume is inversely proportional to the pressure.

4. When a gas is heated at constant pressure its volume increases.

 the particles move faster and hit the walls of the container with greater force.
 The volume of a gas at constant pressure is proportional to its temperature measured in kelvin.

Limitations of the ideal gas laws

1. Real gases do not always obey the kinetic theory in two ways:
 not zero attraction between the molecules
 cannot ignore the volume of the molecules themselves.
2. These differences are especially noticeable at very high pressures and very low temperatures.
Under these conditions:
 the molecules are close to each other
 the volume of the molecules is not negligible compared with the volume of the container
 there are van der Waals’ or dipole–dipole forces of attraction between the molecules
 attractive forces pull the molecules towards each other and away from the walls of the container
 the pressure is lower than expected for an ideal gas
 the effective volume of the gas is smaller than expected for an ideal gas.

The general gas equation

1. General gas equation :
 pV = nRT
 p is the pressure in pascals, Pa
 V is the volume of gas in cubic metres, m3 (1 m3 = 1000 dm3)
 n is the number of moles of gas (n=m/Mr)
 R is the gas constant, which has a value of 8.31 J/K mol
 T is the temperature in kelvin, K.
Calculations using the general gas equation

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1.

2.

Calculating relative molecular masses

1.

1. This method can also be applied to find the relative molecular mass of a volatile liquid.
 The volatile liquid is injected into a gas syringe placed in a syringe oven.
 The liquid vaporises and the volume of the vapour is recorded.
 The procedure is:
i. Put a gas syringe in the syringe oven and leave until the temperature is constant
ii. Record the volume of air in the gas syringe (initial gas syringe volume)
iii. Fill a hypodermic syringe with the volatile liquid and find its total mass (initial mass of
hypodermic syringe + liquid)
iv. Inject a little of the liquid into the gas syringe then find the total mass of the hypodermic
v. syringe again (final mass of hypodermic syringe + liquid)
vi. Allow the liquid to vaporise in the gas syringe
vii. Record the final volume of vapour + air in the gas syringe (final gas syringe volume)
viii. Record the atmospheric temperature and pressure.
 The volume of vapour produced is:
=final gas syringe volume – initial gas syringe volume
 The mass used in the calculation is:

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= (initial mass of hypodermic syringe + liquid) – (final mass of hypodermic syringe + liquid)

5.3 The liquid state

The behaviour of liquids
1. When solid is heated (melting)
 Energy makes the particles vibrate vigorously
 Forces of attraction between particles is weaken
 Solid changes to a liquid when its temperature is enough high
2. When liquid is cooled (freezing)
 Lose kinetic energy so they do not move readily
 Increasing forces of attraction
 Stop sliding past each other when temperature is enough low
 Liquid solidifies
Vaporisation and vapour pressure
1. When liquid is heated (vaporisation)
 Energy makes particles move faster
 Forces of attraction between particles is weaken
 Particles with most energy escape from the force holding them together
 Liquid evaporates
 Particles move fast and spread out after forces is weaken enough
 Liquid boils
2. When vapour is cooled (condensation)
 Lose kinetic energy so the molecules move around less quickly
 Increasing forces of attraction
 Particles move slowly and become closer when temperature is enough low
 Gas liquefies

3. Vapour pressure will increase when temperature increase

 Gas particles have more kinetic energy
 Gas particles are able to overcome intermolecular forces of attraction easily
 Temperature at vapour pressure = Boiling point of liquid

5.4 The solid state

Ionic lattices
1. Ionic lattices
 3d arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions (giant ionic structure)
 Size of ions decide the type of lattice

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2. Properties
 Hard (strong force between
ions)
 Brittle (when being hit, the layers of ions with the same charge come together, and the repulsion of same
charge causes it to split)
 High melting/boiling point (lot of + and – ions in direction bond strongly. When charge increase e.g.
Mg2+ O2- much more energy needed because there is a greater electrostatic force)
 Conduct electricity when molten or in solution (ions are free to move and to carry current)
Metallic lattices
1. Metallic structure
 Positive ions in ‘sea of electron’
 Packed in hexagonal layers or in cubic arrangement
 Malleable and ductile. (metallic bond can re-formed when there is a forces exerted which change the
position)
 High tensile strength and hard (force of attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised electron)

Alloys and their properties

1. Alloys
 Mixture of metals or metal with a non-metal
 New metal can be added to increase the strength (layers cannot slide easily due to different size of ions)
 Brass, copper70%, zinc 30% (musical instrument, door handles)
 Cu, Mg, Si and Mn can be added to Al to make it strong, resistant to corrosion and lightweight to use in
aircraft
 Bronze (Cu and Sn) can make statue

5.5 Simple
molecular lattices
1. Properties of Simple Molecular :
 Low melting point
 Have a regular arrangement of molecules

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 Distance between the nuclei of neighbouring iodine molecules is greater than the distance between the
nuclei within the iodine molecule
 This is because the forces between the molecules are weak van der Waals’
 Very little energy needed to overcome
 E.g. iodine, ice (cyrstalline lattice)

Giant molecular structures

1. Giant molecular structures
 Three-dimensional network of covalent bonds
 Have high melting point & boiling point
 Because of large number of strong covalent bonds linking whole structures
 Allotropes - Different molecular forms of the same element

2. Graphite
 Arranged in planar layers (flat sheets)
 Each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds
 The fourth electron is in the bonding level
 “spare electron” become delocalized over the whole of the sheets of atoms in one layer
(p orbital)
 They are free to move to anywhere
3. Properties of graphite :
 High melting & boiling point
 Prescence of strong covalent bonding
 Softness
 Easily scratched. The forces between the layers of C are weak
 Layers can slide over each other when force is applied
 “flakiness” is why graphite feels slippery when used in pencil leads
 Good conductor of electricity
 When voltage is applied, the delocalized electron can move along the layers
4. Diamond
 Tetrahedrally arranged around each other
 Each carbon atom shares electrons with four other carbon atoms
 Regular arrangement
5. Properties of Diamond:
 High melting & boiling point
 Prescence of strong covalent bonding
 Hardness
 Cannot be scratched
 Difficult to break the three-dimensional network of covalent bonds
 Does not conduct electricity
 no free electrons
6. Silicon(IV) Oxide (Si02)
 Each Si is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms

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 Each oxygen is bonded to 2 silicon atoms
 Has similar properties like diamond.
 SAND is larger than silicon(IV) oxide

5.6
carbon nanoparticles
Fullerenes
1. Allotropes of carbon in the form of hollow spheres or tubes.
2. Similar in structure to graphite.
 Each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.
3. Contain ring of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons and pentagons.
4. Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
 First fullerenes discovered
 Football shape
 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons
 The bond between 2 hexagons is shorter than bond between hexagon and pentagon
 Some of the electron in C60 are delocalised

5. The properties of buckminsterfullerene are

different from diamond and graphite
 Soft
 no need much energy to overcome the weak intermolecular forces.
 Poor conductor of electricity compared with graphite
 the extent of electron delocalisation is lower
 Soluble in solvent such as carbon disulphide and methylbenzene
 More reactive compared with graphite or diamond. Can react with H, F, Cl, Br and O.
 high electron density in certain parts of the molecule.
6. Nanotubes
 Single layer of graphite bent into the form of a cylinder.
 Diameter of a nanotube is very small.
 Length of the nanotube cylinder can be a million times greater than its diameter.

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7. Nanotubes have characteristic properties:

 high electrical conductivity
 some of the electrons are delocalised. They are able to move along the cylinder.
 very high tensile strength
 100 times stronger than steel of the same thickness.
 very high melting points (typically about 3500 °C)
 strong covalent bonding throughout the structure.
8. Fullerenes have a large range of potential uses.
 metal complexes can be formed.
 Possible medical uses include delivering drugs to specific places in the body.
 Used in the treatment of certain types of cancer.
 Used in tiny electrical circuits as ‘wires’ and as electrodes in paper-thin batteries.
 Can be incorporated into clothing and sports equipment for added strength.

Graphene
1. Graphene is a single isolated layer of graphite.
2. The hexagonally arranged sheet of carbon atoms is not completely rigid and it can be distorted.

3. Graphene has some of the properties of graphite, but they are more exaggerated.
For example:
 most chemically reactive form of carbon.
 Single sheets of graphene burn at very low temperatures
 more reactive than graphite.
 extremely strong for its mass.
 conducts electricity and heat much better than graphite.
 Potential uses in tiny electrical circuits and for tiny transistors, touchscreens, solar cells and
other energy storage devices.
5.7 Conserving materials
Why conserve materials?
 limited supply of metal ores in the Earth.
 use them all up, they cannot be replaced.
 Extracting metals from their ores requires a lot of energy.
 One way to help conserve materials and energy is to recycle metals.
Recycling materials
1. Recycling has several advantages:
 Saves energy
 burn less fossil fuel so global warming will not happen
 Conserves supply of the ore

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 Cheaper than extracting the metal from the ore.
2. Not easy to recycle metals.
 Have to collect and sort then transport to the recycling plant.
 Takes energy and money.
 Difficult to separate individual metals.
Copper
1. Most copper ores remaining in the Earth contain less than 1% copper.
2. Recycling copper is important because:
 Less energy is needed to recycle copper
 Less energy is needed to extract and refine the recycled copper
3. The copper used for water pipes and cooking utensils does not have to be very pure, so little
purification of recycled copper is needed.
4. The copper used for electrical wiring = 99.99% pure.
5. Purified by electrolysis.

Aluminium
1. Purifying and remoulding aluminium is much cheaper than extracting aluminium from bauxite
ore.
2. Savings are made because:
 not necessary to extract the aluminium ore from the ground because this requires energy
 the expensive electrolysis of aluminium oxide does not need to be carried out.
3. There is a 95% saving in energy if we recycle aluminium rather than extract it from its ore.

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Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

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