Chapter 6

6.1 What are enthalpy changes?

Exothermic
1. Exothermic - Chemical reactions that release energy to the surroundings.
 Temperature of the surroundings increases.
2. For example,
 Magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid in a test tube
 Energy released is transferred to the surroundings
 Temperature of the reaction mixture in the tube increases.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) →MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) (energy released)
3. The surroundings include:
 the solvent (in this case water)
 the air around the test tube
 the test tube itself
 anything dipping into the test tube (e.g. a thermometer).
4. Other examples of exothermic reactions include:
 the combustion of fuels
 the oxidation of carbohydrates in the bodies of animals and plants (respiration)
 the reaction of water with quicklime (calcium oxide).
Endothermic
1. Endothermic - Chemical reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings.
 temperature of the surroundings decreases.
2. For example,
 Sodium hydrogencarbonate reacts with an aqueous citric acid in a test tube
 The citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate are absorbing the heat energy from the solvent,
the test tube and the air.
 Temperature of the reaction mixture in the tube decreases.
3. Other examples of endothermic reactions include:
 the decomposition of limestone by heating
 (all thermal decomposition reactions are endothermic)
 photosynthesis (in which the energy is supplied by sunlight)
 dissolving certain ammonium salts in water

Enthalpy
changes and enthalpy profile diagrams
1. Enthalpy change – the energy transferred in a chemical reaction(∆ H )

2. The unit of enthalpy change = kJ/mol

3. Enthalpy profile diagrams
Exothermic Endothermic

6.2 Standard enthalpy changes

Standard conditions
 Pressure – 100k Pa
 Temperature - 295K (25℃ )

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 Each substance in its normal physical state
1. The symbol indicates that the enthalpy change refers to a reaction carried out under standard
conditions.
A variety of enthalpy changes
 Enthalpy change of reaction
 Enthalpy change of formation
 Enthalpy change of combustion
 Enthalpy change of solution
 Enthalpy change of atomisation
 Enthalpy change of hydration
Standard enthalpy change of reaction,
The standard enthalpy change of reaction is the enthalpy change when the amounts of reactants shown
in the equation react to give product under standard conditions.
The reactants and product must be in their standard state.
1. Enthalpy change of reaction can be exothermic and endothermic.
2. For examples,

Standard enthalpy change of formation,

The standard enthalpy change of formation is the enthalpy change when one mole of compound is
formed from its elements under standard conditions.
The reactants and product must be in their standard state.
1. Enthalpy change of formation can be exothermic and endothermic.
2. For examples,

Standard enthalpy change of combustion,

The standard enthalpy change of combustion is the enthalpy change when one mole of substances is
burnt in excess oxygen under standard conditions.
The reactants and product must be in their standard state.
1. Enthalpy change of combustion are always exothermic.
2. For examples,

Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation,

The standard enthalpy change of neutralisation is the enthalpy change when one mole of water is
formed by the reaction of an acid with an alkali under standard conditions.
1. For examples,

For any acid-alkali reaction the ionic equation is :

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Standard enthalpy change of solution,
The standard enthalpy change of solution is the enthalpy change when one mole of solute is dissolved
in a solvent to form an infinitely dilute solution under standard conditions.
1. For examples,

Standard enthalpy change of atomisation,

The standard enthalpy change of atomisation is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous
atoms is formed from its element under standard conditions
1. For examples,

Standard enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt

1. For examples,

6.3 Measuring enthalpy changes

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6.4 Hess’s law

Conserving energy
1. The Law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics)
 energy cannot be created or destroyed.
2. Hess’s law - the total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the route by which
the chemical reaction takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are the same.
Enthalpy cycles
1.

6.5 Enthalpy change of

reaction from enthalpy changes of
formation
1.
ΔHr = ΔH2 – ΔH1

2. Use the enthalpy changes of formation of the reactants and products to calculate the enthalpy
change of the reaction.
3.

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6.6 Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes

of
combustion
1.
ΔHf = ΔH1 – ΔH2

2.

6.7 Calculating
the enthalpy change of hydration of an
anhydrous salt
1.

6.8 Bond energies and enthalpy changes

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Bond breaking and bond making
1. Enthalpy changes are due to the breaking and forming of bonds.
2. Endothermic
 Breaking bonds requires energy.
 The energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces joining the atoms together.
3. Exothermic
 Forming bond release energy
4. In a chemical reaction:
 if the energy needed to break bonds is less than the energy released when new bonds are
formed, the reaction will release energy and is exothermic.
 if the energy needed to break bonds is more than the energy released when new bonds are
formed, the reaction will absorb energy and is endothermic.
5. Activation energy - The minimum energy required to break certain bonds in a compound to get a
reaction to start.

Bond energy
1. Bond energy – the energy needed to break 1 mole of a particular bond in 1 mole of gaseous
molecules.
2. The symbol for bond energy is E.
3. When new bonds are formed the amount of energy released is the same as the amount of energy
absorbed when the same type of bond is broken.

Average bond energy

1. Bond energy is affected by other atoms in the molecule.
 The O-H bond in water has a slightly different bond energy value to the O-H bond in ethanol
 In ethanol the oxygen is connected to a carbon atom rather than another hydrogen atom.

2. We cannot usually find the value of bond energies directly so we have to use an enthalpy cycle.

6.9 Calculating enthalpy changes

using bond energies
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