Second Language Acquisition Theories

Student: Pamela Vietri

Tutors: Dr. Darío Banegas - Mgtr. Gimena San Martín - Mgtr. Ana Cecilia Cad

Retrospective reflective essay

As I write this reflective essay on my language acquisition journey, I critically examine

the steps, challenges, and insights gained from this Second Language Acquisition
(SLA) course. This introspection delves into my personal experiences, growth and
milestones in becoming proficient in a new language. Moreover, through the lens of a
meta-analysis of reflective entries and peer responses, I aim to enhance understanding
of these experiences, considering both the personal and theoretical aspects that have
contributed to my language learning journey and my professional development.

In the next paragraphs, I will include the six reflective entries we were required to post
in a forum throughout this course:

Reflective entry 1

I remember the first time I had to write an essay while getting ready to sit for my first
Cambridge Exam. I felt like I was never going to get it right, because of its new
structure, length and new vocabulary I had to incorporate to use in that type of writing.
During some special writing lessons, my teacher introduced the task and guided me in
understanding the requirements. She taught me to plan before writing, helping me
organize my ideas effectively. I then was asked to compose the essay, taking into
account our discussions. Throughout these lessons, my teacher provided sample
writings and lists of useful expressions, aiding me in conveying my ideas. Initially, my
essays were subpar, but my teacher's consistent feedback and guidance played a
crucial role in my improvement.

I relate this experience with sociocultural theory. Lev Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes the
importance of social interaction and cultural context in language learning. According to
this theory, learners acquire language through interactions with more knowledgeable
individuals (zone of proximal development (ZDP)). In this case, the more
knowledgeable individual was my teacher who mediated and scaffolded my essay-
writing learning process. This theory is also related to the concept of dynamic
assessment, which is process-oriented and integrates teaching and testing in
educational interventions (Ghahderijani et al, 2021). This was the type of assessment
my teacher used throughout the initial stages of my essay-writing learning process.

Reflective entry 2
Spanish is my native language (L1), and I began learning English (L2) at the age of 6,
German (L3) at 10 when I enrolled in a German primary school, and Italian (L4) at 20.
Now, at 41, I'm proficient in English and Italian, though I have lost some fluency in
German due to infrequent use. While I can read and write in all languages, speaking
German proves to be the most challenging for me. When I started learning German, the
correlation between spelling and pronunciation posed confusion in certain instances.
For instance, the letter V sounded like /f/ and W like /v/. Early on, I stumbled over
pronouncing German words with these letters. I would say “Vater” (father in German) as
/vater/ instead of /fater/, as in Spanish. Similarly, words starting with W, like “Wasser”
(water in German), were mispronounced with the English /w/ sound (/waser/) rather
than the German /v/ sound (/vaser/).

This experience is related to crosslinguistic influence, i.e. the influence L1 or another

previously acquired language has on the learning or use of a new language. In this
case, we can see how both previously acquired languages influence L3 production. I
believe that this is an example of Westergaard’s (2021, as cited in Jensen &
Westergaard 2022) full transfer potential, by which a learner can activate properties of
either L1, L2, or both at the same time, when needed, and said activation will depend
on the degree of shared features with the L3. Finally, I would like to add that this
confusion regarding the pronunciation of this type of words was overcome through the
passing of time and lots of practice. However, here and there, there have been and
might still be some slips of the tongue, which could be considered an example of the
non-linearity feature of the complex dynamic systems theory as proposed by Evans &
Larsen-Freeman (2021).

Reflective entry 3

SLA is believed to be affected by age of acquisition (AOA). Fledge (2003, as cited in

Saito, 2022) states there are two opposing positions on the matter: maturational and
nonmaturational. The former is related to the idea posed by several scholars that there
is an optimal period (referred as “critical period”, from childhood until puberty) in which
SLA occurs more easily and effectively (Chomsky, Halle & Lenneberg, 1968). The latter
emphasizes that language development is not solely determined by an individual's
biological development or predetermined timeline but is influenced by interactions with
the environment, exposure to language, social interactions, and cognitive processes.

In reflective task 2, I discussed my fluency in English and Italian, acquired at different

ages. The "earlier, the better" concept applies to my natural and effortless acquisition of
English, as children are receptive to new sounds, patterns and linguistic structures, and
their brains are more adaptable and capable of forming native-like connections for
language. However, adults can also attain language proficiency due to cognitive skills,
metalinguistic awareness, and broader knowledge base. This is evident in my ease
picking up Italian beyond the "critical period." Therefore, I stand by the nonmaturarional
position regarding SLA and L2 proficiency, since there are many factors that play
significant roles in shaping how individuals acquire language skills. For instance, a
factor that could have influenced my acquisition of Italian could be cultural and family
related (heritage language learning). My grandfather was Italian and when I was a little
kid, he would tell me stories and sing me songs in his language. I did not have the
opportunity to learn the language when I was a child, so later on I chose to learn it
independently, establishing a special connection that facilitated a smooth learning
process.

Reflective entry 4

In today’s lesson, we covered the concepts of identity, motivation, and investment.

Darvin and Norton (2023), following a poststructuralist approach, state that identity is a
site of struggle negotiated through language and social interaction. This negotiation is
affected by power relations, motivation, and investment, which reminded me of two
different experiences I had as an English learner.

At the time I started primary school, English instruction was not part of the curriculum.
Therefore, encouraged by a friend's excitement, I started private English lessons with
Sandra, marking the beginning of my language journey. I quickly developed a deep
fondness for the language, with lessons tailored to my interests and learning needs. In
secondary school, English classes were uninspiring and lacked challenge, following
standardized curricula. This differed greatly from my customized private lessons. At
school, I completed tasks to meet expectations without faulting the teachers, as
personalized learning was not common then. In contrast, I loved my private lessons.
Sandra invested in my learning process, profiting from her understanding of my
background, preferences, and dislikes.

Reflecting on these experiences, I can see how teachers hold the power to shape
teaching practices as they see fit, and how it can have a positive or negative impact on
their students' learning outcomes. The teachers I had during secondary school failed to
encourage my participation in class and sometimes even attempted to limit it, effectively
ignoring or silencing me, simply because I tended to disrupt the normal flow of the
class. In contrast, Sandra always encouraged me to be better and to keep improving.
This experience has played a significant role in shaping my identity as a teacher today.

Reflective entry 5

I have never considered myself a multilingual person until recently. However, after
today's lesson and reflecting on the definition of bi-/multilingualism, I now recognize
myself as a multilingual person.

According to Grosjean (2016), being bilingual means using two or more languages
regularly, even if proficiency levels vary. Therefore, proficiency or native-like fluency is
not the sole criterion for considering oneself a multilingual language user. Bilingualism
aligns with the complementary principle discussed by Gass et al. (2013), where
language users employ different languages based on various situations, contexts,
interlocutors, and tasks. This is evident in the experience I describe in reflective task 2. I
do not have equal proficiency in all four languages. For instance, I can read and write in
all of them comfortably, but I can have fluent conversations only in English and Italian. I
feel confident speaking Spanish or English in academic settings, whereas I prefer Italian
or German in informal and friendly contexts. Consequently, I now view
bi-/multilingualism as a continuum rather than a binary "monolingual vs. bi-/multilingual"
opposition.

Reflective entry 6

The term "technology" involves using science, tools, and methods to solve problems
and achieve goals. This evolution impacts how learners and educators engage in
language learning. During my schooling years, there were only physical books to read
from and access to information was both limited and time-consuming. However, with the
advent of technology, nowadays we have instant access to anything we would like to
know about, and we can choose different devices (PCs, laptops, tablets, smartphones)
and mediums (print texts and digital texts) to access reading materials. However, this
transition is not without its challenges.

Reiber-Kuijpers et al (2020) state that the emergence of new digital reading contexts
prompts a reevaluation of the concept of literacy. Readers need to learn to read again in
this new digital environment. This is equally relevant for Lx readers, who experience
different challenges not only due to language-related issues, but also because of the
new skills and strategies for reading they have to develop. The digital reading
environment, in spite of its challenges, allows for greater motivation and engagement of
language learners. This key aspect of successful language acquisition has been
identified to be related to the availability and easy access to authentic texts in the target
language, or to digital tools (like word glosses, annotation tools, online dictionaries)
which facilitate reading comprehension. This holds true for both my experience as a
reader and as a foreign language teacher. This is true for my experience as a reader
and as a teacher of a foreign language. Today’s easy access to and availability of
digital reading materials, influence our approach to texts and the skills and strategies
we employ to comprehend them.

In the following paragraphs, I will share the forum responses to my reflective entries I
received from my classmates:

María Belén Strione (2023) wrote the following response to my reflective entry 1:

“Pamela, while reading your post I felt identified with your words in many ways. To start
with, I used to struggle with my writing tasks at the Teacher Training College, especially
during the first two years. I lacked plenty of the necessary structures to be able to
communicate my thoughts in an organized way. I remember one of our teachers
providing me and my classmates with sample writings, lists of useful expressions, and
various readings to help us see the structure and vocabulary we were supposed to use
in certain writings. That scaffolding was very useful to use my prior knowledge, adding
all the information provided by the teacher to feel more confident in writing.”

Emilse Mariana Soria (2023) wrote the following response to the same entry:

“[...] One of the experiences that helped me the most when learning how to write essays
was an experiment that my teachers were conducting when I was a student. They
divided our class into two groups. One of the groups attended to Spanish classes on
writing and argumentation and the other group would follow the English instructions
provided by our teachers. My teachers wanted to show the significance of learning how
to write in our mother tongue before learning how to write in English. I belonged to the
first group and the experience was enlightening. [...] I think that it would have been
really helpful if you had had the previous knowledge of Spanish language on how to
write essays. While constructing our interlanguage, the influence of L1 may be really
helpful when acquiring a second language. [...] IL is found where L2 learners express
the knowledge that they already have in the new language that they are trying to learn.
Selinker (1972) suggests that IL, as the transitional processes between L1 and L2, is
observable in a learner's language and can be explored. Having knowledge of Spanish
writing while you were acquiring your L2 would have assisted you and, as a result, the
process would not have been so hard for you.”

Monica Patricia Lacci (2023) wrote the following response to my reflective entry 3:

“I extensively agree that Pamela’s case of her L3 learning responds to Saito’s (2022)
concept of nonmaturation. She started learning Italian in her twenties when the critical
period was over. What is more, she became good at it. Therefore, her age did not
prevent her from reaching a high proficient level of Italian. Probably her L3 learning
motivation has also been reinforced by her heritage. She mentions her grandfather
came from Italy and spoke Italian to her at childhood. Following Darvin and Norton’s
(2023) concept of investment, she decided to invest in her linguistic heritage and
potentially increased her sense of belonging and identity.”

Analysing all my reflective entries and responses I received from my classmates, a

recurring pattern emerges, shedding light on the language learning journey across
diverse experiences and the application of language acquisition theories. The common
thread that runs through these reflective entries is the exploration of various aspects
and factors that contribute to the process of language learning. Each entry delves into
different aspects of language acquisition, drawing connections between personal
experiences and broader linguistic theories. Despite the diverse topics, the overarching
theme revolves around the intricate and multifaceted nature of language acquisition and
how it is influenced by a combination of individual, social, cognitive, and environmental
elements.

Reflective entries 1 and 4 focus on the role of guidance and support. Reflective entry 1
highlights the impact of teacher guidance and scaffolding in the writing process, which
extends to reflective entry 4, where the power dynamics between teachers and students
influence the learning experience. Reflective entry 2 illustrates how previous language
learning experiences influence the acquisition of new languages, demonstrating the
concept of crosslinguistic influence and its effects on pronunciation and vocabulary.
Reflective entry 3 connects the concepts of AOA and learning strategies, exploring the
effects of AOA on language proficiency, underlining that learning can occur at different
stages of life and is influenced by various cognitive and motivational factors. Reflective
entry 5 addresses multilingual identity and adaptability, delving into the evolving
perception of multilingualism, highlighting that proficiency levels and language use can
vary in different contexts and situations. Lastly, reflective entry 6 discusses the
transformative effect of technology on language learning, emphasizing how digital
reading contexts redefine literacy and create new challenges and opportunities. As it
can be seen, while each entry focuses on a specific theme, they collectively contribute
to a comprehensive understanding of language learning as a dynamic process
influenced by a multitude of interconnected elements.

I would now like to explore in depth the correlation between my reflections and the
responses from my peers in reflective entry 1, which will subsequently be examined in
relation to my professional development. This entry highlights the practical application
of sociocultural theory, with my teacher playing a central role in guiding and scaffolding
my essay-writing skills. The use of sample writings, lists of expressions, and prompt
feedback aligns with Vygotsky's (1978) emphasis on social interaction and mediation in
language learning. This concept finds additional reinforcement through a classmate's
post, where a similar experience is recounted. In this context, Selinker’s (1972) concept
of interlanguage gains significance. The situation described by my classmate, where
she navigated the process of writing essays in a new language while already
possessing proficiency in her native language, exemplifies the core of interlanguage,
embodying the learner's evolving linguistic state, where elements from both languages
coexist. Just as my other classmate's experience showcases the interplay of linguistic
influences, the sociocultural approach presented in reflective entry 1 emphasizes the
collaborative and interactive essence of language learning, which further resonates with
the principles underlying interlanguage development.

Finally, I would like to highlight that these insights carry significant implications for my
professional development. In this opportunity, I will delve into the teaching implications
regarding my role as an English teacher at the secondary level, particularly focusing on
the teaching of how to write an essay for the B2 First Cambridge exam. The learner
experience I described in reflective entry 1 has shaped my instructional approach in
teaching essay writing to my students. Recognising the power of sociocultural theory
(Vygotsky, 1978) in shaping effective teaching practices emphasizes the importance of
fostering collaborative and interactive environments as a means of scaffolding the
learning process. In line with this, as my teacher did, I provide step-by-step guidance to
students, including understanding the requirements, planning, and organization of
ideas. By breaking down the process into manageable stages, I support students in
gradually building their skills and confidence.

However, it is important to acknowledge that challenges do arise. It is difficult to engage

students in the writing process. This circumstance is closely linked to Norton's (2023)
definition of identity as a site of struggle negotiated through language and social
interaction. This negotiation is affected by power relations, motivation, and investment.
In this context, as the educator holding a position of power, I consciously try to avoid
replicating the approaches employed by my own teachers during my secondary school
years (reflective entry 4). I am committed to tailoring activities to align with my students'
interests and requirements, an approach aimed at fostering a more engaged and
participatory learning experience.

In essence, these reflective entries have not only enriched my understanding of

language acquisition theories but also offered a lens through which to view my own
language learning journey. This new awareness equips me with a more holistic
perspective as an educator, encouraging me to foster inclusive and dynamic learning
environments that celebrate the diverse linguistic backgrounds and multifaceted factors
that shape each learner's path towards language proficiency.

References

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