PhrasClaus Mercatorum

Rowena Ricafrente - Phrases and Clauses
Attenzione! Questo materiale didattico è per uso personale dello studente ed è coperto da
copyright. Ne è severamente vietata la riproduzione o il riutilizzo anche parziale, ai sensi e
per gli effetti della legge sul diritto d’autore (L. 22.04.1941/n. 633).
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Indice
1 FOCUS ON PHRASES AND CLAUSES .................................................................................................................... 3

2 PHRASES ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
3 CLAUSES ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
BIBLIOGRAFIA ............................................................................................................................................................16
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1 Focus on Phrases and Clauses
The purpose of this section is not to provide a complete and detailed discussion of every
kind of phrase and clause in the English language. It is, rather, a place to turn for some practical
explanation that will help writers avoid certain kinds of grammar errors. It should also help students
understand better what their teachers are trying to tell them if both sides use the same terms. This
page should assist you in learning sentence skills.
In order to punctuate sentences correctly and avoid fragments, we need to know the
difference between two kinds of word groups: phrases and clauses. We can see the difference in
the following two groups of words:
Per punteggiare correttamente le frasi ed evitare frammenti, dobbiamo conoscere la
differenza tra due tipi di gruppi di parole: phrase e clause. Possiamo rilevare la differenza
nei seguenti due gruppi di parole:
 the bus to Eastmont Mall
 the bus goes to Eastmont Mall
In the second group of words, we can identify a subject-verb unit, while in the first we
cannot. To find the subject-verb units in sentences, follow these two steps:
 First find the verb by applying the time test: change the time or tense of the sentence; the
word you change is the verb. In number
 we can change The bus goes to Eastmont Mall. to: The bus went to Eastmont Mall.
(yesterday) or: The bus will go to Eastmont Mall. (tomorrow) When we change the time, we
have to change goes to went or to will go, so to go is the verb:
o l'autobus per Eastmont Mall
o l'autobus va a Eastmont Mall
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Nel secondo gruppo di parole, possiamo identificare un'unità soggetto-verbo, mentre nel
primo non possiamo. Per trovare le unità soggetto-verbo in frasi, bisogna seguire questi due
passaggi:
 Prima trovare il verbo applicando il test del tempo: cambia il tempo o il tempo della
frase; la parola che si cambia è il verbo.
 Possiamo cambiare “L'autobus va a Eastmont Mall” con” L'autobus è andato a
Eastmont Mall” (ieri) o l'autobus andrà a Eastmont Mall. (domani) Quando cambiamo il
tempo, dobbiamo cambiare “ goes in went o in will go ( andare in andavo o andro’) ,
in questo caso il verbo rimane sempre “to go”.
 To find the subject, ask "Who or what does the action of the verb?” What “goes?” The
answer is the bus, so the bus is the subject of the verb. (Alternatively, one can ask what
is the first noun in the sentence, and that is almost always going to be the subject of the
sentence.)
Per trovare il soggetto, chiedere "Chi o cosa fa l'azione del verbo?" Che cosa "va?" La
risposta è l'autobus, quindi l'autobus è il soggetto del verbo. (In alternativa, si può chiedere
qual è il primo nome nella frase, e questo sarà quasi sempre il soggetto della frase).
DEFINITION OF CLAUSE AND PHRASE: A clause is a group of words with a subject-verb unit;
the 2nd group of words contains the subject-verb unit the bus goes, so it is a clause.
A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb unit. If we try to change the time or
tense of the lst group of words, we cannot, because it contains no word that changes to show time
or tense. It has no verb, so it can't have a subject-verb unit. It is a phrase.
HOW TO FIND A PHRASE vs A CLAUSE To find out if a group of words is a complete sentence,
you can use this trick: Add Is it true that before the words. If the question does not make sense, the
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group of words is a sentence fragment. If the question does make sense, the group of words is a
complete sentence. Consider the examples below.
 Is it true that the bus to Eastmont Mall?
 Is it true that the bus goes to Eastmont Mall?
The first question above does not make sense. It does have a subject (“the bus”). But it does
not have a verb, and it is not a complete idea. It is a phrase, and hence a sentence fragment.
However, the second question does make sense. It has a subject and a verb and is a complete
idea. Therefore, “The bus goes to Eastmont Mall” is clause, and it is also a complete sentence.
Which of the following groups of words are phrases? Which are clauses?
Following the guidelines for finding subject-verb units in sentences, label each one. If there
is no main verb, it is a phrase.
Example: my cousin in Richmond phrase Is it true that my cousin in Richmond? The question
doesn’t make sense; it is a phrase.
my cousin lives in Richmond clause Is it true that my cousin lives in Richmond? The question
makes sense, and is a clause
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2 PHRASES
Special Kinds of Phrases: Our goal here is to fix fragments, run-ons, and comma splices, and
to fix all of these, we have to know the difference between a phrase and a clause. Here are two
kinds of phrases that sometimes look like clauses.
A. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB PHRASES
A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or a
pronoun (also called an OOP). Within a sentence, prepositional phrases always act as if they were
adjectives or adverbs—we call them adjective phrases and adverb phrases. When functioning like
an adjective, the phrase answers what kind?or which one?about the noun or pronoun it is
modifying.
Dad’s polka-dotted tie looked silly.
Here, polka-dotted is an adjective telling what kind of tie Dad had.
Dad’s tie with polka-dots looked silly.
Here, with polka-dots is a prepositional phrase (adjective phrase) acting like an adjective
modifying the noun tie.
Likewise, when functioning like an adverb, the phrase answers where? when? how?or to
what extent?about the verb, adjective, or adverb it is modifying.
We will begin class tomorrow. We will begin class on Monday.
Tomorrowis an adverb telling whenabout the verb beginin the sentence. On Monday is a
prepositional phrase (adverb phrase) acting like an adverb modifying the verb begin. Let’s look at
another example.
The ballerina danced gracefully across the stage. The ballerina danced with grace across
the stage.
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The adverb gracefully tells how the ballerina danced. The adverb phrase with grace also
tells how she danced.
B. APPOSITIVE PHRASES
An appositive is a word that renames, identifies, or gives more detail about a noun or
pronoun that it follows in the sentence.
Their son James is going to Princeton in the fall.
The noun son is being renamed and further identified by the appositive James in the
sentence. We can also add other modifiers to the appositive James and make an appositive
phrase:
Their son James, the oldest of four, is going to Princeton in the fall.
Appositives can also be compound:
Their son James the oldest of four and an outstanding student, is going to Princeton in the
fall.
C. GERUND AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
A gerund phrase begins with an -ing word, or a gerund. Unlike prepositional phrases, gerund
phrases act like a noun in a sentence, so you find them acting like subjects or objects.
Walking across the rickety wooden bridge was scary.
Walking across the rickety wooden bridge answers what was scary? Thus, it functions as a
noun in the sentence. Don’t confuse a gerund phrase with a participial phrase. Like a gerund, a
participle ends with -ing, but that is the extent of their likeness. A participial phrase functions like an
adjective in a sentence, describing a noun or a pronoun; a gerund phrase always acts like a noun.
Walking across the rickety wooden bridge, I stepped on each board with caution.
Walking across the rickety wooden bridge is describing the subject Iin the sentence. Thus, it
functions as an adjective
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3 CLAUSES
UNLIKE A PHRASE, a clause is a group of words that has its own subject and verb. This allows
some clauses to be considered sentences. Others, despite the fact that they have their own
subject and verb, are not sentences because they don’t express a complete thought. There are
three kinds of clauses: independent, subordinate, and relative. Let’s look at them more closely.
A. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
The independent clause, or main clause, can stand alone as a simple sentence, because it
not only has the two main components of a sentence, a simple subject and a simple predicate,
but it also expresses a complete thought.
Henry walked home from school. It began to rain.
Two or more clauses can be put together, with the help of semicolons or coordinating
conjunctions (and, or, for, nor, but, yet, and so), to form a longer sentence.
Henry walked home from school; it began to rain.
Henry walked home from school and it began to rain.
Henry walked home from school and it began to rain, but luckily he had an umbrella
stashed in his book bag; he is always prepared.
B. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
A subordinate clause, also referred to as a dependent clause, cannot stand alone as a
simple sentence, even though it contains a subject and a verb. Such clauses must be connected
with an independent clause to help them do their job.
Example: because Jack broke my cellphone
while he worked on his science
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subordinate clauses are different because they must begin with either a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronoun.
Both clause have a subject and a verb (Jack broke), (he worked) but it can’t stand on its
own. It depends on another clause to give it meaning. It is easy to hear dependent clauses if you
read them out loud. After an independent clause, you will feel relaxed, like an idea is complete,
but after a dependent clause, you will still be waiting; you will have unanswered questions. What
happened because Mary broke the cellphone? The idea isn’t complete. This is why it is dependent.
If you still have questions after hearing a group of words, chances are you are dealing with a
dependent clause (or a phrase).
More specifically, the clause is dependent because of the word because. Words like
because are called subordinators. When we use a subordinator at the beginning of a clause, the
clause becomes dependent (or subordinate) and can no longer stand alone as a sentence.
Dependent clauses (subordinate clauses) should always be attached to independent clauses.
Examples: Because Jack broke my cellphone, I had to get another phone on amazon
prime.
dependent clause + independent clause = sentence
I had to get another phone on amazon prime because Jack broke my cellphone.
independent clause + dependent clause = sentence Some Common
Subordinators and their logical meaning
Cause / Effect because, since, so that
Comparison / Contrast although, even though, though, whereas, while
Place & Manner how, however, where, wherever
Possibility / Conditions if, whether, unless
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Relation that, which, who
Time after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until
Some examples of dependent clauses, with subordinators underlined:
 When the child went to the dentist
 Because his girlfriend is upset
 Although she will buy new shoes
Subordinators are a great tool for connecting ideas.
TIP: When you begin a sentence with a subordinate clause, you have to put a comma after
it.
Whether I like it or not, Mom says I must wear my helmet when I skateboard.
However, when you end a sentence with one, you don’t.
Mom says I must wear my helmet when I skateboard whether I like it or not.
Relative Clause
There are two types of relative clauses:
 Defining relative clauses
 Non-defining relative clauses
Defining Relative Clause
DEFINING CLAUSES
A defining or identifying clause tells us which specific person or thing we are talking about in
a larger group of people or things. If a defining relative clause is removed, the meaning of the
sentence changes significantly. A defining relative clause is not separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas or parentheses.
The boy who was playing is my brother.
Defining Relative Pronouns
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For people - Who That Whom/Who That Whose
For things - Which, That, Which, That, Whose, Of which,
Defining Relative Clauses: people
A. Subject: who or that
Who is normally used:
The man who robbed you has been arrested.
The girls who serve in the shop are the owner’s daughters.
But that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those:
Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it.
B. Object of a verb: whom, who or that
The object form is whom, but it is considered very formal. In spoken English we normally use
who or that (that being more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit the object
pronoun altogether:
The man whom I saw told me to come back today.
The man who I saw told me to come back today.
The man that I saw told me to come back today.
The man I saw told me to come back today.
C. With a preposition: whom or that
In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be
put into the form whom:
The man to whom I spoke… In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the
preposition to the end of the clause.
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Whom then is often replaced by that, but it is still more common to omit the relative
altogether:
The man who/whom I spoke to… The man that I spoke to… The man I spoke to…
D. Possesssive
Whose is the only possible form:
People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
Defining Relative Clauses: things
A. Subject Either which or that.
Which is more formal.
This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.
The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
B. Object of a verb
Which or that or no relative at all.
The car which/that I hired broke down.
The car I hired broke down.
Which is hardly ever used after all, everything, little, much, none, no and compounds of no,
or after superlatives. Instead we use that, or omit the relative altogether, if it is the object of a verb:
All the apples that fall are eaten by the pigs.
This is the best hotel (that) I know.
C. Object of a preposition
The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual to move the preposition to
the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the relative altogether:
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The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.
The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip.
The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
D. Possesssive
Whose + a clause is possible but with + a phrase is more usual:
a house whose walls were made of glass
a house with glass walls
E. Relative adverbs: when, where, why
Note that when can replace in/on which (used of time):
the year when (= in which) he was born
the day when (= in which) they arrived
Where can replace in/at which (used of place):
the hotel where (= in/at which) they were staying
Why can replace for which:
the reason why he refused is…
When, where and why used in this way are called relative adverbs.
Non-Defining Relative Clause
Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite already. They do
not therefore define the noun. But merely add something to it by giving some more information
about it. They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion.
They are separated from their noun by commas. The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-
defining relative clause.
The boy who was playing is my brother.
Non-Defining Relative Pronouns
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For people - Who Whom/Who Whose
For things - Which Which Whose Of which
Non-Defining Relative Clauses: people
A. Subject: who No other pronoun is possible. Note the commas:
My neighbor, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.
Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
B. Object: whom, who
The pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form, though who is sometimes used
in conversation:
Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent.
C. Object of a preposition: whom
The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is normally placed before whom:
Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause.
This is commonly done in conversation, and who then usually takes the place of whom:
Mr Jones, who I was working for, was very generous about overtime payments.
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end:
Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me. could become:
Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter than me.
D. Possesssive: whose
Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.
This is George, whose class you will be taking.
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Non-Defining Relative Clauses: things
A. Subject: which
That is not used here: That block, which cost £5 million to build, has been empty for years.
The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today.
B. Object: which That is not used here, and the which can never be omitted. She gave me
this
jumper, which she had knitted herself.
These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you
need.
C. Object of a preposition The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the
end
of the clause:
Ashdown Forest, through which we’ll be driving, isn’t a forest any longer.
Ashdown Forest, which we’ll be driving through, isn’t a forest any longer.
His house, for which he paid £10,000, is now worth £50,000.
His house, which he paid £10,000 for, is now worth £50,000.
D. Possesssive: whose or of which
Whose is generally used both for animals and things.
Of which is possible for things, but it is unusual except in very formal English.
His house, whose windows are all broken, was a depressing sight.
The car, whose handbrake wasn’t very reliable, began to slide backwards.
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Bibliografia
 R. Fernández Carmona, English Grammar… with exercises, Longman, 2000 -
R. Murphy,
 Essential Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press 1994 - M. Harrison,
Grammar
 Spectrum 2, Oxford University Press, 1996
 My GrammarLab Pearsons 2012 Mark Foley and Diane Hall
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Rowena Ricafrente - Phrases and Clauses

1 FOCUS ON PHRASES AND CLAUSES .................................................................................................................... 3

1 Focus on Phrases and Clauses

page should assist you in learning sentence skills.

the following two groups of words:

Per punteggiare correttamente le frasi ed evitare frammenti, dobbiamo conoscere la

nei seguenti due gruppi di parole:

 the bus to Eastmont Mall

 the bus goes to Eastmont Mall

word you change is the verb. In number

have to change goes to went or to will go, so to go is the verb:

o l'autobus per Eastmont Mall

o l'autobus va a Eastmont Mall

frase; la parola che si cambia è il verbo.

 Possiamo cambiare “L'autobus va a Eastmont Mall” con” L'autobus è andato a

tempo, dobbiamo cambiare “ goes in went o in will go ( andare in andavo o andro’) ,

in questo caso il verbo rimane sempre “to go”.

or tense. It has no verb, so it can't have a subject-verb unit. It is a phrase.

complete sentence. Consider the examples below.

 Is it true that the bus to Eastmont Mall?

 Is it true that the bus goes to Eastmont Mall?

is no main verb, it is a phrase.

doesn’t make sense; it is a phrase.

makes sense, and is a clause

kinds of phrases that sometimes look like clauses.

A. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB PHRASES

Dad’s polka-dotted tie looked silly.

Here, polka-dotted is an adjective telling what kind of tie Dad had.

Dad’s tie with polka-dots looked silly.

modifying the noun tie.

what extent?about the verb, adjective, or adverb it is modifying.

We will begin class tomorrow. We will begin class on Monday.

tells how she danced.

pronoun that it follows in the sentence.

Their son James is going to Princeton in the fall.

Appositives can also be compound:

C. GERUND AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Walking across the rickety wooden bridge was scary.

but it also expresses a complete thought.

Henry walked home from school. It began to rain.

Henry walked home from school; it began to rain.

Henry walked home from school and it began to rain.

stashed in his book bag; he is always prepared.

A subordinate clause, also referred to as a dependent clause, cannot stand alone as a

with an independent clause to help them do their job.

Example: because Jack broke my cellphone

while he worked on his science

conjunction or a relative pronoun.

dependent clause (or a phrase).

Dependent clauses (subordinate clauses) should always be attached to independent clauses.

dependent clause + independent clause = sentence

independent clause + dependent clause = sentence Some Common

Subordinators and their logical meaning

Cause / Effect because, since, so that

Comparison / Contrast although, even though, though, whereas, while

Place & Manner how, however, where, wherever

Possibility / Conditions if, whether, unless

Relation that, which, who

Time after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until

Some examples of dependent clauses, with subordinators underlined:

 When the child went to the dentist

 Because his girlfriend is upset

 Although she will buy new shoes