MARINE DIESEL ENGINE BASICS

Introduction:
An Engine is a device which transforms the chemical
energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses this thermal
energy to produce mechanical work.
Engines normally convert thermal energy into
mechanical
work and therefore they are called heat engines.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into :
i) External combustion engines ( E C Engines)
ii) Internal combustion engines ( I C Engines )

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 Heat Engines
Heat Engines

Open Wanke Gasoline Diesel Steam Stirling Steam Closed

cyclegas l engine engine engine engine turbine Cycle gas
turbine engine VIJAYAKUMARA ME NIE MYSORE turbine5
External combustion engines ( E C
Engines)

Figure 1 : External Combustion Engine

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Internal combustion engines can be classified
as
Continuous
Continuous ICIC engines and Intermittent IC engines.
Engines
In continuous
IC engines
products of
combustion of the
fuel enters into the
prime mover as the
working fluid.
Figure 2: Continuous IC
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Engines
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Intermittent Internal Combustion Engine

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 ▶ In 1876 four stroke engine based on Otto cycle was developed by a German engineer
Nikolous Otto. Diesel Engine was developed by another German engineer Rudolf Diesel in the year
1892.
▶ Engine refers as “Heat engine is a device which converts chemical energy of fuel into Heat energy
and this Heat energy further convert into mechanical work”.
▶ Based on where the combustion of fuel take place. Whether outside the working cylinder or inside
the working cylinder
▶ (a) External combustion engines (E.C.ENGINES), (b) Internal combustion engines
(I.C.ENGINES)
I. C. ENGINES E. C. ENGINES
Fuel combustion take place inside the cylinder. Fuel combustion take place outside the cylinder.

Compact in size and more efficient. Larger in size and less efficient.

Low initial cost. More initial cost.

Working fluid is mixture of air and fuel. Working fluid is steam.

Easier and quick starting of these engines. Starting is difficult and more time is required.

Costly fuels are required like petrol and diesel. Cheaper fuel may be used like coal.

More suitable for mobile applications. Less suitable for mobile applications.
▶ I.C.ENGINES are may be classified according to
• Type of fuel used as (1)Petrol engine (2)Diesel engine (3)Gas engines (4)Bi-fuel engine (two fuel engine)
• Nature of thermodynamic cycle as: (1)Otto cycle engine (2)Diesel engine cycle (3) Duel or mixed cycle engine
• Number of stroke per cycle as : (1) Four stroke engine (2) Two stroke engine
• Method of ignition as : (1) Spark Ignition engines (Mixture of air and fuel is ignited by electric spark)
(2) Compression Ignition engines (The fuel is ignited as it comes in contact with hot Compressed air)
• Method of Cooling as : (1) Air cooled engines (2) Water cooled engines
• Speed of the engines as : (1) Low speed engines (2) Medium speed engines (3) High speed engines
• Number of cylinder as : (1) Single cylinder engines (2) Multi cylinder engines
• Position of the cylinder as : (1) Inline engines (2) V-engines (3) Radial engines (4) Opposed cylinder engines
(4) Opposed piston engines

Inline Engine V- E n g i n e Opposed P i s t o n E n g i n e

The four stroke petrol engines works on the
▶

principle of theoretical Otto cycle. also known

as constant volume cycle. shown in Fig below

▶ In four stroke Petrol engine the vale operating for inlet is called inlet valve and the
valve operating for exhaust is called Exhaust valve. In Petrol engine SPARK plug
fitted at the top of cylinder head initiates the ignition of the air fuel mixture.
The piston performs four strokes to complete one working cycle. The four
▶ different strokes are ; (1) SUCTION STROKE (2) COMPRESSION STROKE
(3) POWER STROKE (4) EXHAUST STROKE.
F o u r stroke Petrol E n g i n e
P i s t o n s P o s i t i o n D u r i n g T h e F o u r Stroke Cycle
▶
The four stroke Diesel Engine works on the principle of
Diesel Cycle , also called CONSTANT PRESSURE
HEAT ADDITION PROCESS shown in Fig.

▶ The four stroke Diesel engine is also consists of SUCTION,

COMPRESSION,POWER and EXHAUST strokes.

▶ The basic construction of a four stroke diesel engine is same as that of four stroke
petrol engine, except instead of spark plug, a fuel injector is mounted in its place .
F o u r Stroke Die s e l E n g i n e
 The basic differences between Petrol and Diesel Engine given
below .
PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE
Works on Otto cycle . Works on Diesel Cycle .

Petrol is used as fuel . Diesel is used as fuel .

Air and fuel mixture enters in cylinder during suction stroke . Only Air is drawn during the suction stroke .

Low compression ratio ranging from 6 to 10 . High compression ratio ranging from14 to 20 .

The compressed charge is ignited by the spark plug. The fuel injector is used in Diesel engine.

High engine speed of about 3000 RPM . Low to medium engine speed ranging from 500 to 1500 RPM.

The Thermal efficiency is lower due to lower Compression ratio . The Thermal efficiency is higher due to high Compression ratio .

Lighter in weight because maximum pressure and Temperature is less . Heavier in Weight because maximum pressure and temperature is high .

Less Costlier . More Costlier .

Maintanence cost is Less . Maintanence cost is Slightly higher .

Easier starting even in cold weather . Difficult to start in cold weather .

Running cost Higher because petrol is Costlier . Running cost is Less because diesel is Cheaper .
▶ As the name itself implies, all the processes in two stroke cycle engine are completed in
two strokes.
1) In four stroke engine cycle Two complete revolutions of crank shaft is required for
completing one cycle .In two stroke Engine cycle Operations Suction ,
Compression , Expansion and Exhaust are completed in One Complete revolution of
the crank shaft in two stroke Engines.
2) These engines have one Power stroke per revolution of the crank shaft. In two stroke
engines there is two openings called PORTS are provided in place of valves of four
stroke engines.
3) These Ports are opened and closed by Reciprocating Motion of the Piston in the
Cylinder. One port is known as INLET PORT and another port is known as
EXHAUST PORT .
 FOUR STROKE ENGINE
Four piston strokes require to complete one cycle .
Two complete revolutions of crank shaft is required to complete one
cycle.
Equal to half of the speed of engine crank shaft . Number of power
stroke/min. n=N/2
Power is developed in every alternate revolution of crank shaft .
The power is developed in every alternate revolution, hence heavy fly
wheel is required .
These engines are Heavier, larger and required more space.
The inlet and exhaust valve are require and they are operated by valve
operated by valve operating mechanism.
Lubricating oil consumption is less .
Thermal efficiency is higher .
Mechanical efficiency is Low because of more number of moving
parts .
These Engines are used basically in High Power Application Where more
space is available like Cars , Truck, Tractors , Buses etc .
TWO STROKE ENGINE
Only two piston strokes required to complete one cycle .
Only one complete revolution of crank shaft is required to complete one
cycle .
Equal to the speed of engine crank shaft . Number of power
stroke/min. n=N
Power is also developed in every revolution of crank shaft hence for same
cylinder.
The power is developed in every revolution , hence lighter flywheel is
required .
These engine are lighter more compact and require less space.
In place of valve, ports are used which opens and close by motion of
piston itself.
Lubricating oil consumption is more because lubricating oil is mixed
with fuel
Less Thermal efficiency.
Mechanical efficiency is High because of less number of moving
parts .
These Engines are used basically in Low Power Application Where less
space is available like Mopeds ,Scooters ,Motor cycle etc .
 B.P.
 mech 
I .P.

I .P.
 it
m f  C .V

B.P.
  bt
m f  C .V

 it

 re l 
 a ir
 1
  1
air
(r )  1

1  
air   1 
1 
1 (r)   (  
1)

mf
SFC  kg / kW h
B.P.
 ADVANTAGES OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
1. Greater mechanical simplicity.
2. Higher power output per unit weight because of absence
of
auxiliary units like boiler , condenser and feed pump.
3. Low initial cost
4. Higher brake thermal efficiency as only a small fraction
of
heat energy of the fuel is dissipated to cooling system.
5. These units are compact and requires less space.
6. Easy starting from cold conditions.

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 DISADVANTAGES OF
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. I C engines cannot use solid fuels which are cheaper.
Only liquid or gaseous fuel of given specification
can be efficiently used. These fuels are relatively more
expensive.
2. I C engines have reciprocating parts and hence
balancing of them is problem and they are also
susceptible to mechanical vibrations.

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History
Internal combustion engines date back to 1876 when
Otto first developed the spark-ignition engine and 1892
when Rudolf Diesel invented the compression-ignition
engine.
Since that time these engines have continued to develop
as our knowledge of engine processes has increased, as
new technologies became available, as demand for new
types of engine arose, and as environmental constraints
on engine use changed.
Internal combustion engines, and the industries that
develop and manufacture them and support their use,
now play a dominant role in the fields of power,
propulsion, and energy.
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The last twenty-five years or so have seen an
explosive growth in engine research and development as
the issues of air pollution, fuel cost, and market
competitiveness have become increasingly important.
A more successful development-an atmospheric
engine introduced in 1867 by Nicolaus A. Otto (1832-
1891) and Eugen Langen (1833-1895)-used the pressure
rise resulting from combustion of the fuel-air charge early
in the outward stroke to accelerate a free piston and
rack assembly so its momentum would generate a vacuum
in the cylinder.

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In 1892, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858-
1913) outlined in his patent a new form of internal
combustion engine. His concept of initiating combustion
by injecting a liquid fuel into air heated solely by
compression permitted a doubling of efficiency over
other internal combustion engines.
Much greater expansion ratios, without detonation
or
knock, were now possible

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 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES.
There are different types of IC engines that can be
classified on the following basis.
1. According to thermodynamic cycle
i) Otto cycle engine or Constant volume heat supplied cycle.
ii) Diesel cycle engine or Constant pressure heat
supplied cycle
iii) Dual-combustion cycle engine
2. According to the fuel used:
i) Petrol engine ii) Diesel engine iii) Gas engine
3. According to the cycle of operation:
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4. According to the method of ignition:
i) Spark ignition (SI) engine ii) Compression ignition
(CI )
engine
5. According to the number of cylinders.
i) Single cylinder engine ii) Multi cylinder engine
6. According to the arrangement of cylinder:
i) Horizontal engine ii) Vertical engine iii) V-engine
v) In-line engine vi) Radial engine, etc.
7. According to the method of cooling the cylinder:
i) Air cooled engine ii) Water cooled engine
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8. According to their applications:
i) Stationary engine ii) Automobile engine iii) Aero
engine
iv) Locomotive engine v) Marine engine, etc.

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2
Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
■ Idealized processes
■ Idealize working Fluid

Fuel-Air Cycle
■ Idealized Processes
■ Accurate Working Fluid Model

Actual Engine Cycle

■ Accurate Models of Processes

■ Accurate Working Fluid Model

Air Standard, Air- Fuel and Actual Cycles

1. Air Standard Cycles 2. Air-Fuel Cycles

A. Carnot Cycle

B. Stirling Cycle 3. Actual Cycles

C. Ericsson Cycle
D. Otto Cycle
E. Diesel Cycle
F. Dual cycle
 Basic Air Standard/Ideal Cycles
• Air standard cycles are idealized cycles based on the
following approximations/assumptions:

– the working fluid is assumed to be a perfect gas (air as ideal gas)

and follows PV = mRT
– No change in the mass of working media
– No Heat loses from the system to surroundings
Basic Air Standard Cycles

– all the processes are internally reversible

– Heat assumed to be supplied from a cont. temp heat source and

not form chemical reaction/burning of fuel
– Heat rejection is used to restore fluid to initial state
– Working medium has Const. specific heats throughout the cycle

6
 A. Carnot Cycle:

1-2 Isothermal Expansion (Heat rejected at const. temp T1 = T2)

2-3 Isentropic Expansion
(thermally insulated and reversible adiabatic)
3-4 Isothermal Compression : Heat is transferred from a High
temperature source at constant temperature T3
4-1 Isentropic Compression: Expansion continues under
isentropic (thermally insulated and reversible adiabatic)
Pressure and Volume Ratios are huge in this system which is not
practically feasible. Hence Otto cycle was invented
4-S Petrol Works on Otto
Engine Cycle

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 Power Cycle: Otto cycle
The air standard Otto Cycle is an ideal cycle that approximates a spark-
ignition internal combustion engine. It assumes that the heat addition occurs
instantaneously while the piston is at TDC.
 Otto Cycle
Process
(1-2) Isentropic Compression
Compression from ν1 to v2
↓

↓
BDC(β=180º ) TDC
(θ=0º)

(2-3) Constant Volume Heat

Addition: QH
• While at TDC
• Ignition of fuel (chemical
reaction takes place)
Otto Cycle
● Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression of the air as the
piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center.
● Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the air
from an external source while the piston is at top dead
center. This process is intended to represent the ignition
of the fuel–air mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.
● Process 3–4 is an isentropic expansion (power stroke).
● Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume
process in which heat is rejected from the air while the
piston is at bottom dead center.
Otto Cycle

13
Otto Cycle

14
 Otto
Cycle

Effect of Ratio of Compression Ratio ( r) on

Otto Cycle Efficiency
 Air-Standard Diesel cycle

Process 1 2 Isentropic compression Process 2

3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

Qin

Qout

v2 v1
TC
TC BC BC
 Dual Cycle
Process 1  2 Isentropic compression
Process 2  2.5 Constant volume heat addition
Process 2.5  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection

2.5 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
2.5

4
4 2

1
1
Qout
B. Stirling Cycle: Used earlier for Hot Air Engines

1-2 Isothermal Compression (Heat rejected at constant

temperature T1 = T2)
2-3 Constant Volume Compression and Heat Addition at V2
= V3
3-4 Isothermal Expansion: Heat is added and Gas expanded at
constant temperature T3
4-1 Constant Volume Heat Rejection/ Expansion: Expansion
continues at constant volume V4 = V1
C. Ericsson Cycle
 C. Ericsson Cycle
Application:
In Gas turbines having
considerable number of
stages,
Heat Exchangers,
Insulators and reheaters

1-2 Isothermal
Compression
2-3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition
3-4 Isothermal Expansion
4-1 Constant Pressure Heat
Rejection
Advantage: smaller pressure ratio over Carnot and Stirling Cycles for a
given ratio of maximum to minimum specific volumes
A higher mean effective pressure for the cycle
Fuel-Air Cycles
 Fuel-Air Cycle
Considerations
Fuel-Air cycle is defined as the theoretical cycle that is
based on the actual properties of the cylinder gases.
✓Actual composition of the cylinder gas
✓fuel + air + water vapor in air + residual gas
✓The incomplete mixing (in-homogeneous) of
fuel and air at higher temperatures (@ above
1600oK).
✓Specific heat changes with
temperature (except for
✓mono-atomic gas),pressure
and hence, .
ratio of specific
and temperature
heats (k) also changes.
✓Changes in no. of molecules in cylinder with the
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change in
 Fuel-Air Cycles - Assumptions
There is no chemical change in either fuel or
air prior to combustion.
Subsequent to combustion, the charge/mixture is
always in chemical equilibrium (Reactant->
Products) There is no heat transfer between the
gases and cylinder walls in any process
(adiabatic).
Compression and expansion processes are
frictionless.
The velocities are negligibly small.
Combustion takes place instantaneously at top
dead center (TDC).
Fuel-Air Cycles

☐ The basic advantage of the fuel-air cycle analysis is

that while the air cycle studies the effect of CR only
on other parameters,
with fuel-air cycle we can also study the effect
of CR, F/A ratio, inlet pressure and temperature,
variable specific heat and other factors on engine
performance.
Fuel Air cycles considers the following:
The fuel – air cycle take the following assumptions
into consideration:
The actual composition of the cylinder
contents.
•
The variation in the specific heat of the
•
gases in the cylinder.
The dissociation effect (fuel & Air  in-
homogeneous attemp, leads to CO,H2..)
•
The variation in the number of moles present in the
cylinder as the pressure and
•
 Composition of Cylinder Gases
✓ The actual composition of the cylinder contents are
✓ Fuel +Air + Water vapor + residual/exhaust gases
✓ The fuel-air ratio changes during the engine operation

✓ The change in fuel-air ratio affects the composition of

gases before and after combustion particularly the
percentage of CO2, CO, H2O etc.. in the exhaust gas.
✓ The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume
varies with speed and load on the engine.
✓The fresh charge composition varies its composition

because when it enters in the cylinder comes in contact with

the burnt gases
Composition of Cylinder Gases
☐ The composition of the working gases changes as per the process for the
combustion

Process SI Engine CI Engine

Intake Air, Fuel, Recycled exhaust & Air, Recycled exhaust &
Residual gas Residual gas
Compression Air, Fuel Vapor, Recycled Air, Recycled exhaust &
exhaust & Residual gas Residual gas
Expansion Composition products Composition products
(CO2, CO, H2, O2, NO, OH, O, H, ( CO2, CO, H2, O2, NO, N2,
…) OH, H2O, O, H,…)
Exhaust Composition products (mainly
Composition products N2, CO2, H2O &
(mainly N2, CO2, H2O) O2)
Composition of Cylinder Gases

Additional Information:
➢ The effect of cylinder composition on the performance
of the engine can easily computed by means of
suitable numerical techniques.
➢ The computer analysis can produce fast and
accurate results.
➢ Thus, fuel-air analysis can be done more
easily using computer rather than manual calculations.
 Variable Specific Heats
9

✓Specific Heat is defined as the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of water by 1 degree.
✓Generally, all gases, except monatomic gases (helium, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon and radon), show an increase in specific heat
at high temperatures as shown below Figure.
 Variable Specific Heats

✓ The increase in specific heat does not follow any

particular law.
✓ However between the temperature range 300 K – 1500 K
the specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may
be approximately expressed in form
CP  a1  K1T
CV  b1  K1T
Where a1, b1, and k1 are constants
The characteristic gas constant R= Cp- C v = a1-b1
 Variable Specific Heats
10

Above 1500 Kthe specific heat increases is much

☐

more rapid and may be expressed in the form

C P  a1  K1 T  K 2T 2

CV  b1  K1T  K 2T 2
☐ Since the difference between Cp & Cv is constant (gas
const = Cp-Cv), the value of Ratio of Specific
Heats ( = Cp/Cv ) decreases with increase in
temperature.
CP

R  C V  1
R
C V CV CV
 Characteristics of Air- Fuel Cycle (contd.)
Variation of Specific heat with temperature:

Temp Cp Cv  =
(deg. K) (kJ/kg (kJ/kg Cp/Cv
K) K)

300 1.005 0.717 1.401

2000 1.345 1.057 1.273

1-2-3-4: With Constant Specific Heat 1-

Note: Cp-Cv = Constant (R ) 2’-3’-4’: With Variable Specific Heat
1-2’-3’-4’’: With Constant Specific Heat
from Point 3’
☐ Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken in to account during
the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be
lower compared to the value obtained at constant specific heat.
☐The magnitude of drop of temperature at the end of
compression is proportional to the drop in values of ratio of
specific heats.
➢ For process 1-2

With constant specific heat

k 1

T 2  T 1  v 1 
  v2 
With variable specific
heat k 1

 v1  
T2'  T1 
2 
v
C p
k v  v 
Cv ,vv  1    1  
Where
,  v2   v2' 
 Effect of Dissociation

❑ The process of dissociation is nothing but

disintegration of combustion products at
high
temperature
❑ Dissociation is the reverse process to combustion.

❑ Dissociation is the heat absorption where as

in combustion heat is liberated
❑ In IC engine, mainly dissociation of CO and
2 little
2CO 2  2CO + O 2 + Heat
dissociation of H 02
H2O  2H2+ O2 + Heat
 Effect of Dissociation
☐ The below fig shows the reduction in the temp of the exhaust
gas mixture due to dissociation wrt fuel-air ratio
☐ Max amount of dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the
chemically correct fuel mixture, but decrease with weaker
and rich mixture

There
☐ is no
dissociation inthe burnt gases
of a lean fuel-air mixture.
This mainly due to the
fact that the temperature
produced is too low for this
phenomenon to occur.
 The Effect of Dissociation
17

☐ On Exhaust Gas Temperature, Fig below shows the

reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas mixtures due to
dissociation w.r.t air- fuel ratio

➢ With no dissociation maximu

temperature is m

cahtteaminiecdally c@orrect A-F

ratio

➢ With dissociation maximum

temp is obtained when mixture is
slightly rich
 The Effect of Dissociation

On Power output, If there is no

☐

dissociation
The Brake power output is max
☐

@ stoichiometric mix
If there is dissociation, the Brake
☐

Power is Max @ slightly Rich

Mixture

☐ The shaded area shows the loss of

power due to dissociation
 The Effect of Dissociation
20
☐ On the p-v diagram of Otto Cycle
Because of lower maximum temperature due
to dissociation. the maximum pressure is
also reduced and state aftercombustion will be
replaced by 3’ instead of 3.
If there was no re-association due to fall of temp during Exp proc.
■ It would be represented by 3’ 4’’

If there is re-association
■ the Expansion follows the path 3’ 4’
 Effect of Number of Moles

The number of molecules in the cylinder varies as the

pressure and temperature change

The number of molecule presented after combustion

depend upon
■ Fuel-Air ratio
■ Pressure and temperature (PV=nRT)
➢ The
number of mole does a direct effect on the
amount of work that the cylinder gas impact on
 Fuel-Air Cycle:
Considerations/Assumptions
 Comparison of Air & Fuel-Air Cycles

Air cycle
• The air standard cycle analysis only shows how the efficiency is
improved by raising the compression ratio of air.
• It does not give any idea on the effect of F/A ratio on thermal
efficiency
Fuel- Air Cycle
• Allows study of fuel air ratio on thermal efficiency
• Allows study of fuel air ratio gives the effects of of Pmax, Tmax as fuel
air ratio is varied
• This helps in structural design of engine
• F/A Ratio and Compression Ratio play major role.
• Fuel Air cycle Gives a good estimate of the power expected from an actual
engine
 Comparison of Air-Standard (Ideal) &
Fuel-Air cycles

☐ Air standard cycle analysis is mainly to understood how

the efficiency is improved by increasing the compression
ratio (CR).
☐ Air standard cycle analysis do not consider the effect of Fuel-
Air ratio on the thermal efficiency because the working
medium was assumed to be air
☐ In general, fuel-air cycle analysis is used to study
the effect of fuel-air ratio on engine thermal efficiency
 Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air
cycles
❑ How the peak pressure and temperature during the cycle varying
and its influence on many engine operating variables (CR, Ignition
Timing, Speed, A/F Ratio, EGT).
❑Fuel-Air cycle analysis suggest that the thermal
efficiency will d e te rio ra te as the mixture supplied
to the engine is enriched.
Because of :-
• Increasing losses due to variable specific heats
• Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio will
lead to incomplete combustion and loss in thermal
efficiency
 Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles
24

☐Thermal efficiency will increase as the mixture is

made leaner.

● Beyond a certain leaning, the

combustion become erratic with loss
of efficiency.

● In general the maximum efficiency is

within the lean zone very near the
stoichiometric ratio.
 Effect of Operating variables

☐ The effect of the common engine operating variables on

the thermal efficiency, pressure and temperature within the
engine cylinder is better understood by fuel-air cycle analysis

☐ The major operating variables

Compression ratio
Equivalence ratio
 Fuel air otto cycle model for equivalen
ration and compression different t
26
ratio
Results obtained using the Furl-a ir O tto c y c le m o d e lfo r d iffe re nt e
q uiva le nc e ra tio s and different compression ratios are shown in the following
figures:
 Effect of Compression Ratio
27

☐ The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression

ratio in the same manner as the air-standard cycle efficiency,
principally for the same reason, due to more scope of the
expansion work

☐The indicated thermal efficiency inc re a s wit le a

e s m ix ture s and c o m p re s s io n ra tio s : Ł n
 Effect of Compression Ratio
28

☐ The variation of indicated thermal wit respect

efficiency equivalence ratio for various h to
compression ratios.
 Characteristics of Air- Fuel (contd.)
Cycle
Effect on Power
Produced:
Shaded area indicates
the loss in power
developed
In CI Engine:
Dissociation effects are
less:
Because of presence of
Heterogeneous mixture
Presence of excess air to
ensure complete
combustion.
Both these factors tend to
reduce the peak gas
temperature attained.
 Characteristics of Air- Fuel Cycle (contd.)
• The air standard cycle analysis only shows how the efficiency is
improved by raising the compression ratio of air.
• It does not give any idea on the effect of F/A ratio on thermal
efficiency
• Fuel air cycle
• Allows study of fuel air ratio on thermal efficiency
• Allows study of fuel air ratio gives the effects of of Pmax, Tmax as fuel
air ratio is varied
• This helps in structural design of engine
• F/A Ratio and Compression Ratio play major role.
• Fuel Air cycle Gives a good estimate of the power expected from an actual
engine
 Air Fuel Cycles

● The analysis of air standard cycle gives much higher

thermal efficiency as compared to actual engine due to over
simplified assumption
● In actual engine the working fluid is a mixture of air, fuel
and residual gases of previous cycle
● Performance of cycle considering the variation of specific
heats with temperature and dissociation of gases is very close
to actual cycle and such cycle is called fuel air cycle
● The efficiency of fuel air cycle is very near to actual cycle as
compared to air standard cycle
 Air Fuel Cycles

✓ Fuel-Air (or Air-Fuel) Cycle Analysis is based

on the Actual Properties of the Working Medium
viz., the Fuel and Air

✓ A Homogeneous Mixture of Air and Fuel

is assumed as the Working Fluid.
Actual cycles

●Actual cycles shows the conditions

existing in the cylinder of an IC engne
●The actual cycle for IC engines differ from the
fuel – air cycles and air standard cycles
●The actual efficiency is much lower than the
air-standard efficiency due to various losses
occurring in the actual engine operation
Actual Cycles
The major losses are due to
1. Variation of specific heats with tempt
2. Dissociation of combustion products
3. Progressive combustion
4. Incomplete combustion of fuel
5. Heat transfer into the walls of the CC
6. Blow down at the end of the exhaust process
7. Gas exchange process
 Comparison of air standard and
actual cycle
1. The working substance is the mixture of air and fuel
vapour or finely atomized liquid fuel in air
combined with the products of combustion left from
the previous cycle
2. The change in chemical composition of the
working substance
3. The variation of spec. heats with temperature
4. The residual gases change the composition ,
temperature and actual amount of fresh charge
 Comparison of air standard and actual cycle

5. The progressive combustion rather than the

instantaneous combustion (i.e combustion is not
instantaneous : some definite time is required for
combustion to takes place inside the engine cylinder)
6. The heat transfer to and from the working medium
7. The exhaust blow down loss i.e loss of work on the
expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust
valve
8. Gas leakage and fluid friction etc. in actual engines
 Actual Cycles

Major influence is exercised by

a. Time loss Factor: Loss due to time required for
mixing of fuel and air and also time required for
combustion
b. Heat Loss Factor: Loss of heat from gases to the
cylinder walls
c. Exhaust Blow-down Factor: Loss of work on the
expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust
valve.
 Time Loss
Factor
 It is due to the time required for mixing of
air-fuel mixture and complete combustion.

 Heat addition is not instantaneous, and

spread over a period (30 to 40 degrees of
crankshaft revolution). Therefore, pmax is not
at TDC, but just after TDC.

 Time loss depends upon flame velocity

which, in turn, again depends on type of
fuel used, A/F ratio, and shape of
combustion chamber.
58
 This is to have
Spark Advance
max
at TDC. If the spark
p
initiated
is at
TDC, peak pressure
would be lo
due to expansion
w
of gases. Further,if
the spark is initiated
too early,
additional
work is
required to
compress the
oThburning
petirmefgases
uomre,ti –
which is a direct
me
loss. to stathret the Spark at TDC, Advance
combustion is 150 – 00 59
300 bTDC.
 Time loss factor
● In air standard cycles the heat addition is assumed to be an
instantaneous process where as in an actual cycle it is over a
definite period of time

● The crank shaft will usually turn about 30 deg to 40 deg between the
initiation of the spark and the end of combustion ( time loss due to
progressive combustion)

● There will be a time loss during this period and is called time loss
factor

● Due to the finite time of the combustion peak pressure will not occur
when the volume is min i.e when piston is at TDC but will occur some
time after TDC
Time loss factor

● The pressure, therefore, rises in the first part of the

working stroke from b to c as shown in Fig

● This loss of work reduces the efficiency and is called

time loss due to progressive combustion.

● The time taken for combustion depends on( ie time loss

depends on) Flame velocity which in turn again depends on
type of fuel used, A/F ratio and shape and size of the
combustion camber
The Effect of Time Losses shown on p-
V Diagram
● Spark at T.D.C. – Advance : 0 Deg
● This is to have Pmax at TDC. If the spark is initiated at TDC With spark
at TDC (0 deg spark advance), the peak pressure would be low due to
the expansion of gases.
● Further if the spark is initiated too early(i.e 35 deg spark advance)
additional work is required to compress the burning gasses which is a
direct loss
● Therefore a moderate or optimum spark advance (15deg-30deg) is the
best compromise resulting in minimum losses on both the compression
Spark at T.D.C. – Advance : 0 Deg.
Combustion Completed at T.D.C. Advance : 35 Deg.
Optimum Advance : 15 deg – 30 Deg.
 Heat Loss Factor

 This
is due the of
through water jtotaracnkseftesrand
heat
cooling fins. Also, some heat is
duringbeing transferred and expansion
compression
processes.

 Due to heat loss, temperature (Tmax)

decreases, and specific heat gets
reduced. This decreases
efficiency. the

68
Heat loss factor
● During the combustion process and expansion stroke heat
flows from the cylinder gases into the water jacket or
cooling fins.through the cylinder walls and cylinder head
● Some heat enters the piston head and flows through the piston
rings into the cylinder wall
● Due to heat loss temp (Tmax) decreases, and sp heats gets
reduced. This decreases the efficiency.
 Blow-down Loss
 Blowdown Factor
loss is due to the early opening of
exhaust valves. This results in drop in pressure,
and a loss of work output during expansion
stroke. Too early opening results in loss of
expansion work. Best compromise is between 400
– 600 bBDC.

70
The effects of exhaust valve
early opening greatly 71

exaggerated
Exhaust blowdown
● Blow down loss is due to the early opening of exhaust valves
● The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is high as 7 bar
depending on the compression ratio employed.
● If the exhaust valve is opened at BDC, the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure during the early part of the exhaust stroke
● If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion
stroke is lost
● The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40 deg to 70deg before
BDC thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar)
before the exhaust stroke begins
Time Loss, Heat Loss and Exhaust Loss in
Petrol Engines

Time Loss: 6 %
Heat Loss : 12%
Exhaust Loss : 2 %
 Blowby
Losses
 The blowby loss is due to the leaking of gas
flow through crevices/gaps between the piston,
piston rings and cylinder walls. The
gas usually leaks/flows through them to the
crankcase.

12
Compression
Rings

13
 Rubbing Friction
Losses
 Rubbing friction loss is due to
between the piston and chamber
friction
friction inwalls,
various bearings and also
includes the energy spent in operating
various auxiliary equipments such as
cooling fans, water pumps etc.

 The piston ring friction increases rapidly

with engine speed. It also increases to
a small extent with increase in mean
effective pressure. The bearing friction
and the auxiliary friction also increase
with engine speed.
76
 The efficiency of an engine
maximum
is at full load and
decreases at part load. This is
because the % of direct heat loss,
pumping loss and rubbing friction
loss increase at part loads. The
approximate losses for an SI engine
using chemically correct mixture
are shown as % of fuel energy input.

77
78
Pumping
Losses
 Pumping work is the difference between
the work done in expelling the gases (during
exhaust stroke) andthe work done in inducing
thefresh charge (during suction stroke). The loss
is due to the pumping gases from low inlet
pressureto high exhaust pressure.
18
 Combustion in CI Engine

Combustion in a CI engine is quite different

from that of an SI engine. While combustion in
an SI engine is essentially a flame front moving
through a homogeneous mixture, combustion
in a CI engine is an unsteady process
occurring simultaneously in many spots in a
very non-homogeneous mixture controlled by
fuel injection.

Air intake into the engine is unthrottled, with

engine torque and power output controlled
by the amount of fuel injected per cycle.

111
Only air is contained in the cylinder during
compression stroke, and a much higher
compression ratios (12 to 24) are used in CI
engines.

In addition to swirl and turbulence of the

air, a high injection velocity is needed to
spread the fuel throughout the cylinder and
cause it to mix with the air.

Fuel is injected into the cylinders late in

the compression stroke by one or more
injectors located in each cylinders.
Injection time is usually about 200 of
crankshaft rotation (150 bTDC and 50 aTDC).

112
Cylinder pressure as a function of
crank angle for a CI engine.

A : point of fuel injection

B : point of ignition AB : delay period
C : end of fuel injection
113
 Combustion in CI Engine
In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly
into the cylinder and the fuel-air mixture ignites
spontaneously. These photos are taken in
a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air
flow

1 cm
0.4 ms after ignition 3.2 ms after ignition

3.2 ms after ignition Late in combustion process

114
 In Cylinder Measurements
This graph shows the fuel injection flow rate, net heat release
rate and cylinder pressure for a direct injection CI engine.

Start of injection
Start of combustion
End of
injection
115
 Four Stages of Combustion in CI Engines

Start of End of
injection injecction

-20 -10 TC 10 20 30

116
 Combustion in CI Engine
The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:

Ignition delay (ab) - fuel is injected directly into

the cylinder towards the end of the compression
stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops
and penetrates into the combustion chamber.
The fuel vaporizes and mixes the
temperature
with high-pressure air. high-

Premixed combustion phase (bc) –

combustion of the fuel which has mixed with
the air to within the flammability limits (air at
high-temperature and high-pressure) during
the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a
few crank angles.
117
Combustion in CI Engine – contd.
Mixing controlled combustion
phase (cd) – after premixed
gas consumed, the burning
rate is controlled by the rate
at which mixture becomes
available for burning. The
rate of burning is controlled in
this phase primarily by the
fuel-air mixing process.

Late combustion phase (de) – heat release may

proceed at a lower rate well into the expansion
stroke (no additional fuel injected during this phase).
Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is
responsible for this.
118
 CI Engine Types

Two basic categories of CI engines:

i) Direct-injection – have a single open

combustion chamber into which fuel
is
injected directly

ii) Indirect-injection – chamber is divided into

two regions and the fuel is injected into the
“pre-chamber” which is connected to the
main chamber via a nozzle, or one or more
orifices.

119
 CI Engine Types – contd.

• For very-large engines (stationary power generation) which operate at

low engine speeds the time available for mixing is long so a direct
injection quiescent chamber type is used (open or shallow bowl in
piston).

• As engine size decreases and engine speed incre ases, incre asing
amounts of swirl are used to achieve fuel-air mixing (deep bowl in
piston).

• For small high-speed engines used in automobiles chamber swirl is not

sufficient, indirect injection is used where high swirl or turbulence is
generated in
the pre-chamber during compression and
products / fuel blowdown and mix main
with chamber air.
120
 Types of CI Engines

Glow plug

Orifice
-plate

Direct injection: Direct injection:

quiescent chamber swirl in chamber Indirect injection: turbulent
and swirl pre-chamber 12
Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection
quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber

122
 Combustion Characteristics
 Combustion occur
throughout the chamber
s
over a range of
equivalence ratios
dictated by the fuel-air
mixing before and
the
during combustion

phase
 In general most of the
.
combustion occurs under
very rich conditions
within the head of the jet,
this a
considerable
produces
solid
amount carbon (soot).
of

123
 Ignition Delay
Ignition delay is defined as the time (or crank angle
interval) from when the fuel injection starts to the onset
of combustion.
Both physic al and chemical processes must take place
before a signific ant fra ction of the chemical energy of
the injected liquid is released.
Physical processes are fuel spray atomization,
evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air.
Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small
injector hole diameter, optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder
pressure (large divergence angle).
Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet
diameter, velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of
the air.
124
 Ignition Delay
Physical processes are fuel spray atomization,
evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with
cylinder air.

Chemical processes similar to that described

for auto-ignition phenomenon in premixed fuel-
air, only more complex since heterogeneous
reactions (reactions occurring on the liquid fuel
drop surface) also occur.

125
 Fuel Ignition Quality
The ignition characteristics of the fuel
affect the ignition delay.

The ignition quality of a fuel is defined

by its cetane number CN.

For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is

long and most of the fuel is injected
before autoignition and rapidly burns,
under extreme cases this produces an
audible knocking sound referred to as
“diesel knock”.

126
 Fuel Ignition Quality

For high cetane fuels the ignition delay

is short and very little fuel is injected
before auto-ignition, the heat release
rate is controlled by the rate of fuel
injection and fuel-air mixing – smoother
engine operation.

127
 Cetane Number
The method used to determine the ignition
quality in terms of CN is analogous to that
used for determining the antiknock quality
using the ON.

The cetane number scale is defined by

blends of two pure hydrocarbon reference
fuels.
 By definition, (heptamethylnonane,
has a cetane
isocetane
HMN) number of 15 and
cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a value
of 100.

128
 Cetane Number
In the original procedures a-
methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a
cetane number of zero represented the
bottom of the scale. This has since been
replaced by HMN which is a more stable
compound.
The higher the CN
ignitio the better the quality,
n i.e., shorter ignition
delay.

129
 Cetane Number Measurement
The method developed to measure CN uses a
standardized single-cylinder engine with
variable compression ratio

The operating condition is:

Inlet temperature ( o C) 65.6

Speed (rpm) 900
Spark advance (oBTC) 13
Coolant temperature ( o C) 100
Injection pressure (MPa) 10.3

130
Cetane Number Measurement – contd.
With the engine runnin at
conditions the g these
on ratio istest fuel,
compression starts varied TC, the
combustion at ignition until
period of 13o. delay
The above procedure is repeated using
blends of cetane and HMN. The blend that
gives a 13o ignition delay with the same
compression ratio is used to calculate the
test fuel cetane number.
131
Cetane vs Octane Number
The octane number and cetane number
of a fuel are inversely correlated.

Gasoline is a poor diesel fuel and vice versa. 23

 Factors Affecting Ignition Delay

Injection timing – At normal engine conditions the

minimum delay occurs with the start of injection
at about 10-15 BTC.

The increase in the delay time with earlier or later

injection timing occurs because of the air
temperature and pressure during the delay
period.

Injection quantity – For a CI engine the air is not

throttled so the load is varied by changing the
amount of fuel injected.

133
 Factors Affecting Ignition Delay – contd.

Increasing the load (bmep) incre ases

the residual gas and wall temperature which
results in a higher charge temperature at
injection which translates to a decrease in the
ignition delay.

Intake air temperature and pressure – an

increase in ether will result in a decrease in the
ignition delay, an increase in the compression
ratio has the same effect.

134
Factors Affecting
Ignition Delay

(gauge)

2
6
 Factors Affecting Delay Period (DP)

1. Compression Ratio: DP with

decreases increase of CR.
2.Engine Speed: DP decreases with
increase of engine speed.
3.Power Output: DP decreases with
increase of power output.

4.Fuel Atomization: DP decreases with fineness

of atomization.
5.Fuel Quality: DP decreases with
higher cetane number.
6.Intake Temp. & Pressure: DP
decreases with increase
of Temperature and pressure. 136
Effect of
Ignition
Delay

137
 Knock in CI Engines

Knock in SI and CI engines are fundamentally

similar. In SI engines, it occurs near the end of
combustion; whereas in CI engines, it occurs
near the beginning of combustion.

Knock in CI engines is related to delay

period. When DP is longer, there will be more
and more accumulation of fuel droplets in
combustion chamber. This leads to a too rapid
a pressure rise due to ignition, resulting in
jamming of forces against the piston and rough
engine operation. When the DP is too long, the
rate of pressure rise is almost instantaneous
with more accumulation of fuel.
138
Knock in SI and CI Engines

139
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION
1. Cylinder :- It is a container fitted with piston, where
the fuel is burnt and power is produced.
2.Cylinder Head/Cylinder Cover:-One end of the
cylinder is closed by means of cylinder head. This
consists of inlet valve for admitting air fuel mixture and
exhaust valve for removing the products of combustion.
3. Piston:- Piston is used to reciprocate inside the
cylinder. It transmits the energy to crankshaft through
connecting rod.
4. Piston Rings:- These are used to maintain a
pressure tight seal between the piston and cylinder walls
and also it transfer the heat from the piston head to
cylinder walls.
MYSORE ME 140
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 141
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
5. Connecting Rod:- One end of the connecting rod
is connected to piston through piston pin while the
other is connected to crank through crank pin. It
transmits the reciprocatory motion of piston to rotary
crank.
6. Crank:- It is a lever between connecting rod and
crank shaft.
7. Crank Shaft:- The function of crank shaft is to
transform
reciprocating motion in to a rotary motion.
8. Fly wheel:- Fly wheel is a rotating mass used as an
energy storing device.
MYSORE
9. Crank Case:-VIJAYAKUMARA ME
It supports andNIE covers the cylinder and
142
IC ENGINE – TERMINOLOGY

MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 20
Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called
the bore.
Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder
axis between the two limiting positions of the piston is
called stroke.
Top Dead Centre (T.D.C) : The top most position of
the piston towards cover end side of the cylinder” is called
top dead centre. In case of horizontal engine, it is
called as inner dead centre
Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C):The lowest position of
the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder is
called bottom dead centre. In case of horizontal
engine, it is called outer dead centre (O.D.C).
MYSORE ME 144
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the
cylinder above the top of the piston, when the piston is
at the top dead centre is called clearance volume.
Compression ratio : It is the ratio of total cylinder
volume to clearance volume.

MYSORE ME 145
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Four-Stroke Petrol Engine OR Four stroke
Spark Ignition Engine (S.I. engine)
The four-stroke cycle petrol engines operate on
Otto (constant volume) cycle shown in Figure . Since
ignition in these engines is due to a spark, they are
also called spark ignition engines.
The four different strokes are:
i) Suction stroke
ii) Compression stroke
iii) Working or power
or expansion stroke
iv) Exhaust stroke.
MYSORE ME 146
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
The construction and working of a four-
stroke petrol engine

MYSORE ME 147
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
The construction and working of a four-
stroke petrol engine

MYSORE ME 148
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Four Stroke Diesel Engine (Four Stroke
Compression Ignition Engine— C.I.Engine)
The four stroke cycle
diesel engine operates on
diesel cycle or constant
pressure cycle.
Since ignition in these
engines
compressed they are also
called
is compression of the
due to the temperature
air,
ignition engines. The
construction and working of
diesel
the fourengine
strokeis shown
figures shows in a
diesel cycle. Thetheoretical
four strokes
are as follows:
MYSORE ME 149
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
The construction and working of a four-
stroke diesel engine

MYSORE ME 150
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MYSORE ME 151
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MYSORE ME 152
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TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE

In two stroke cycle engines, the suction and exhaust

strokes
are eliminated.
There are only two remaining strokes i.e., the
compression stroke and power stroke and these are usually
called upward stroke and downward stroke respectively.
Also, instead of valves, there are inlet and exhaust ports
in two stroke cycle engines.
The burnt exhaust gases are forced out through the
exhaust port by a fresh charge which enters the cylinder
nearly at the end of the working stroke through the inlet port.
The process of removing burnt exhaust gases from the
engine
MYSORE
VIJAYAKUMARA
ME
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Two Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine
The principle of two-stroke cycle petrol engine is
shown in Figure . Its two strokes are described as
follows:

MYSORE ME 154
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MYSORE ME 155
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COMPARISON OF SI AND CI ENGINES
SI Engine CI Engine
• It works on Otto cycle. It works on Diesel or Dual
• A fuel having higher self-ignition combustion
temperature is desirable, such as cycle.
petrol (gasoline). A fuel having lower self-ignition
temperature is desirable such as
diesel oil.
•Air and fuel mixture in gaseous form is Only air is introduced into the
inducted through the carburettor in the cylinder during the suction stroke and
cylinder during the suction stroke. therefore the carburettor is not
required. Fuel is injected at high
•The throttle valve of the carburettor pressure through fuel injectors direct
controls the quantity of the charge. into the combustion chamber.
The quality of the charge remains The amount of air inducted is fixed
almost fixed during normal running but the amount of fuel injected is
conditions at variable speed and load. varied by regulating the quantity of
So it is a quantity governed engine. fuel in the pump. The air-fuel ratio
• is varied at varying load. So, it is a
quality governed engine.
MYSORE ME 156
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
•Spark is required to bum the fuel. Combustion of fuel takes place on
For this, an ignition system with its own with out any external
spark plugs is required. Because of ignition system. Fuel bums in the
this it is called a spark-ignition (SI) presence of highly compressed air
engine. inside the engine cylinder.
• A compression ratio of 6 to 10.5 is A compression ratio of 14 to 22
employed. employed.
is The upper limit
The upper limit is fixed by the compressio of ratio
anti- knock quality of fuel. The engine rapidly
n increasing weightis limited
tends to knock at higher compression engine. of Engine tends to knock by at the
ratios. lower the
•Part load efficiency is poor, since compression ratios.
even at part load the air/fuel ratio Part load efficiency is good. As the
is notpart
the much
load varied.
efficiencyIn oforder to load decreases, the fuel supply to the
improve the MPFI
engine, engine
supply is used in modem engines.the
technique SI can also be reduced
• The cost of the petrol is higher and lean mixture of fuel to the engine
than
that of the diesel oil. volume basis and diesel oil has
is then supplied.
higher
The costspecific gravity,
of diesel oil more
is less than that
weight is obtained in one litre.
of
MYSORE MEpetrol. Moreover, as fuel 157 is
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
•Noise and vibration are less Noise and are
because of less engine becausevibrations
of heavier
weight. components more
compression ratio.
due engine
•The main pollutants are carbon to
monoxide (CO), oxides of Apart from CO, NOx higher
and HC,
nitrogen (NO.J and hydrocarbons soot or smoke particles are also
(HC). emitted to the atmosphere.

MYSORE ME 158
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
COMPARISON OF FOUR-STROKE
AND
TWO-STROKE ENGINES

MYSORE ME 159
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Actual Valve Timing Diagram
The valve timing of an engine is set to give the
best possible performance. This means that the valves
must be opened and closed at very precise times.
The traditional way of showing exactly when the
valve opens and closes is by the use of a valve-timing
diagram.
As can be seen the valves are opened and closed in
relation to the number of degrees of movement of the
crankshaft.
When comparing the diagrams for the petrol engine
of medium and high performance cars, it will be noticed
that the high performance car has larger valve opening
MYSORE ME 160
periods, especially the closing of the inlet valve which is
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
This is so that at high operating speeds the increased
lag allows as much pressure energy as possible to
be generated in the cylinder by the incoming air and
fuel charge, prior to its further compression by the
rising piston.
There is also an increase in the value of valve overlap
for the high performance engine. This means that at TDC
both inlet and exhaust valves will be open together for a
longer period of time giving a better breathing of the
engine at these higher engine speeds .
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VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Actual Valve Timing Diagram

MYSORE ME 162
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 40
Valve timing diagram of 4 stroke
petrol
engines
IVO – Inlet valve Opens
IVC – Inlet Valve
Closes IS – Ignition
Starts
EVO – Exhaust Valve
Opens
EVC – Exhaust
Valve Closes
TDC – Top Dead
Center BDC – Bottom
Dead Center
MYSORE ME 164
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Four-Stroke Cycle Events diesel engines
Four-Stroke Cycle Events diesel engines
1. In four-stroke cycle engines the head contains passages connecting to air
supply and exhaust manifolds, and also carries the air and exhaust valves
as well as the fuel injector.
2. Air and exhaust valves are opened into the cylinder mechanically by push
rods and rocker arms operated by the camshaft, and are closed by the
combination of pressure within the cylinder and the force of the valve
springs.
3. The camshaft is gear- or chain-driven from the crankshaft at one-half of
crankshaft R P M in order to complete one cycle of events in two
,

revolutions. (Each revolution causes two strokes of the piston: one up,
one down.) Starting with the piston at top dead center at the start of the
charging stroke, the events are as follows: -
MYSORE ME 167
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Four-Stroke Cycle Events diesel engines
1. The charging stroke (in naturally aspirated engines, this is the intake or suction
stroke). The air valve is open but the exhaust valve is closed. The piston has
passed the top dead center position and is being moved down by the connecting
rod as the crankshaft rotates. As the piston descends, air flows into the cylinder
because the pressure in the cylinder is slightly less than that in the air manifold.
Power to turn the crankshaft is provided by the other cylinders in a multiple-
cylinder engine, or by energy stored in the flywheel.
2. The compression stroke. The air valve closes as the piston passes through
bottom dead center, trapping the charge of air in the cylinder. The piston is driven
up as the crankshaft rotates, compressing the charge to one-tenth to one-
twentieth of its initial volume (the actual value, called the compression ratio, is at
the lower end of this range in turbocharged engines). As the charge is
compressed, its temperature rises until, toward the end of the stroke, it is well
above the ignition temperature of the fuel.
3. Fuel injection. Fuel injection begins during the compression stroke, before the
piston reaches top dead center. Ignition will occur as soon as the first droplets of
fuel are heated to ignition temperature by the hot charge. The brief time between
the beginning of injection and ignition is the ignition delay period. (The fuel which
accumulates during the ignition delay period accounts for the initial explosive
combustion phase of the dual combustion cycle.
MYSORE ME 168
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Four-Stroke Cycle Events diesel engines
4. The power stroke. After the piston passes through TDC, the pressure
developed by the combustion of the fuel begins to force the piston down. As the
cylinder volume increases, however, the continued combustion maintains the
pressure in the cylinder until injection and then combustion cease (points that are
called, respectively, cut off and burn out). the piston continues to be forced down by
the expanding gas.
5. The exhaust stroke. The exhaust stroke actually begins just before the piston
reaches bottom dead center, when the exhaust valve opens and the residual high
pressure in the cylinder is relieved into the exhaust manifold as the gases blow
down . As the crankshaft pushes the connecting rod and piston up, most of the gas
remaining in the cylinder is forced out. At top dead center only a fraction of the gas
remains. In turbocharged engines this will be swept out as the air valve opens, just
before the exhaust valve closes. This brief period when both valves are open is the
overlap period, and the process in which incoming air sweeps the cylinder clear of
exhaust gas is called scavenging .
Theoritical & Actual Valve Timing for
4
stroke Diesel Engine

MYSORE ME 171
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 172
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Valve timing diagram of a four stroke engine gives a
clear idea about the actual position of the piston
during the opening & closing of inlet & exhaust valves.
In practice, the events of the four-stroke cycle do not
start and finish exactly at the two ends of the strokes
- to improve the breathing and exhausting, the inlet
valve is arranged to open before TDC and to close after
BDC and the exhaust valve opens before BDC and
closes after TDC.
These early and late opening and closing events can
be shown on a valve timing diagram such as Fig.

MYSORE ME 173
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 174
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Valve lead :This is where a valve opens so many
degrees
of crankshaft rotation before either TDC or BDC.
Valve lag :This is where a valve closes so many degrees
of crankshaft rotation after TDC or BDC.
Valve overlap : This is the condition when both the
inlet and the exhaust valves are open at the same time
during so many degrees of crankshaft rotation.

MYSORE ME 175
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 176
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 50
Variable valve
timing
Variable valve timing is a development that has
been enabled by the use of electronic control which
permits valve timing to be changed while the engine is
operating, to suit low speed, intermediate speed and
high speed operation. The variations in inlet valve
timing are approximately as follows:
Low speed inlet valves opened later to improve
idling performance;
Intermediate speed inlet valves opened a few degrees
earlier to take advantage of manifold design and thus
improve cylinder filling and performance.
High speed a larger degree of early opening of the
valves.
inlet VIJAYAKUMARA M ME NIE MYSORE 51
Valve timing diagram of 4-
stroke
single
 IVO -cylinder
25 beforediesel
TDC engine.
 IVC - 30 after BDC
 EVO - 45 before BDC
 EVC - 15 after TDC
 FVO - 15 before TDC
 FVC - 25 after TDC

MYSORE ME 179
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Valve timing diagram of 4- stroke single cylinder
petrol
engine.(low speed)
IVO - 10 before TDC
IVC - 20after BDC
EVO - 25 before BDC
EVC - 5 after TDC
Valve timing diagram of 4- stroke single cylinder
petrol engine.(high speed)
IVO - 10 before TDC
IVC - 50 after BDC
EVO - 45before BDC
EVC - 20 after TDC
MYSORE ME 180
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Port timing diagram of 4- stroke single cylinder
petrol engine
EPO - 45before TDC
EPC - 45 after BDC
TPO - 35 before BDC
TPC - 35 after TDC

MYSORE ME 181
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle and Actual cycle
 Air - standard cycle is based on several assumptions
 Consequently the performance levels are higher
 Ex: Thermal efficiency of an SI engine with Comp. Ratio
8:1 is 56% whereas actual is 28%.

 Deviation from actual performance attributed to a small extent to

progressive burning of fuel, incomplete combustion, valve
operation etc.

 Main reason is the assumptions made.

MYSORE ME 182
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle
The gases contain fuel, air, water vapour and residual gas
 Fuel - Air ratio varies during operation
 Consequently CO2, water vapour etc. change
 Specific heats increase with temp.
Fuel, air, do not completely combine chemically at high
temp. (1600K) leads to presence of CO, H2, H and O2 at
equilibrium condition
No. of molecules present after combustion depend and on
pressure and temperature after combustion.
MYSORE ME 183
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle –
assumptions
No chemical change in fuel or air prior to combustion
Subsequent to combustion charge is always in
chemical equilibrium
 No heat exchange between cylinders and gas
(Adiabatic),
compression and expansion are frictionless
 Fluid motion is ignored
For constant volume fuel cycle,
 Fuel completed vapourised and mixed with air
 Instant burning at TDC (constant vol)
MYSORE ME 184
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle - Composition of gas

 Air fuel ratio changes during operation

 Consequently the composition in exhaust changes
(O2,
CO and water vapour)
 Fresh charge mixes with the burnt gases
 Amount of burnt gases in the cyl. depends on load
and
speed
MYSORE ME 185
 VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle – Variable specific heats
Gases except monoatomic show an increase of
specific heat with temp,
 Increase in sp. Ht. does not follow any particular law
 Upto 1500 K specific heat follows:
 Cp = a + kT, Cv = b + kT
Where a, b and k are constants.
Now R= Cp-Cv = a-b
 Above 1500 K specific heat follows:
 Cp = a1+k1T + k2𝑇 2 , Cv = b1+k1T+k2𝑇 2

MYSORE ME 186
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle – Variable specific heats
 When temperature rises larges fraction of heat is required
to produce motion of atoms within molecules.
 This is does not contribute to temperature rise
 Consequently final temp and pressure will be lower

MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 60
MYSORE ME 188
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Fuel air cycle – Dissociation
Disintegration of combustion products at high temp.
 Deemed as reverse process of combustion
 During dissociation heat is absorbed
 During combustion heat is released
 At 1000 C, CO2 will be CO, O2 and little of H2O
 CO2 + Heat < =>2 CO + O2 at 1000 C
 H2O + Heat < => 2 H2 + O2 at 1300C
Heat released consequent to reversal at the end of power
stroke dissipates into exhaust (not as power)
 Dissociation not pronounced in CI due to excess air

MYSORE ME 189
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Fuel air cycle – No. of moles
 No. of molecules depends on fuel – air ratio, type/extent
of combustion
Pressure depends on no. of molecules and
consequently on work
Effect of dissociation on temp wrt air fuel ratio
 Rich mixture : Presence of CO and O2 in burnt gas
tend
to prevent dissociation.
 Lean mixture : Nearly no dissociation due to low
temp.
 Stoichiometric : Dissociation pronounced
Reduction to the tune of 300  C

MYSORE ME 190
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 191
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 192
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 193
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Actual cycle

Fuel air cycle - Merits

 Fairly accurate estimate possible
 85% of the actual efficiency
 Peak pressure and Exhaust estimate can be
temp.
reasonably close to actual engine
 Influence of many variables engine
on performance
understood
Deviates better
largely from Air- standard cycle and
fuel-air
cycle
 Efficiency is VIJAYAKUMARA
MYSORE ME
much lower than NIE Air – standard cycle
194
Actual cycle
( Conditions common to Fuel – Air cycle)
 Air and fuel mixture combines products of
with
combustion of previous cycle
Change in chemical composition of working substance
 Variation of specific heats with temp.
Change in composition, temp., and actual amount of fresh
charge because of residual gases

MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 70
Actual cycle
(Conditions – Responsible for the
Exclusive, Actual cycle anddifference
between Fuel-air cycle
 Progressive combustion (not instantaneous)
 Heat transfer to and from working medium
 Exhaust blow-down (loss of work due to early
EVO)
 Gas leakage, fluid friction

MYSORE ME 196
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Actual cycle
Major influencing factors:
Time loss factor- loss due to time required for mixing
of
air and fuel as also for combustion
Heat loss factor – loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls
Exhaust blow-down factor – loss of work due to
early
EVO in the power stroke

MYSORE ME 197
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
MYSORE ME 198
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Combustion
Fuel combustion in a diesel cylinder
may be considered to occur in four
phases : -

Combustion in a diesel cylinder

does not take place at the tip of
the injector, but rather at a
distance away from it, as the
individual fuel droplets will have
to travel (diffuse) through the hot
cylinder contents for sufficient
time (the preparation time) to
heat, begin to vaporize and mix
with air, and finally ignite.

MYSORE ME 199
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Phases of combustion
1. The ignition delay period. The ignition delay period is the interval between
injector opening and the start of Ignition. During this period the first droplets to
enter the cylinder are heated by the surrounding charge of compressed air,
begin to vaporize, and finally ignite. Until ignition occurs, there is no noticeable
increase in the pressure in the cylinder above what it would be had no injection
occurred.
2. The ignition delay period is primarily a function of the ignition quality of the fuel,
hence of its chemical composition. Fuels of low ignition quality (i.e., of low
cetane number) will require more preparation time, and the delay period will
therefore be longer. It is important to note that in a high speed engine the
crankshaft rotates farther in a given period of time than in a low speed engine,
which explains the generally lower tolerance of high speed engines for fuel of
low ignition quality.
3. The rapid combustion period. During this period, the fuel that has accumulated in
the cylinder during the delay period before ignition burns rapidly. Because the
fuel has already mixed with the charge air and begun the process of preparation
for combustion, this is sometimes called the premixed combustion phase. The
rapid combustion is accompanied by a sharp rise in cylinder pressure. If the
pressure rises too sharply the combustion becomes audible, a phenomenon
known as diesel knock .
 Phases of combustion
1. The steady combustion period. Once combustion has been established in the
cylinder, further fuel droplets entering the cylinder will burn as soon as they
have penetrated, heated, vaporized, and mixed, so that the combustion rate
lags behind the injection rate by the preparation time. Because the droplets
burn as they diffuse into the cylinder, this is sometimes called the diffusion
combustion phase . This period ends shortly after the injector closes (cut off),
when the last of the fuel has burned. Cylinder pressure usually peaks just after
TDC, near the middle of the steady combustion period, and then falls off
smoothly after cutoff as the expansion stroke begin
2. The afterburning period. If all the fuel has burned cleanly and completely by
the end of the steady combustion period, the pressure trace will be smooth
through the expansion stroke, and the afterburning period could be neglected.
Typically, however, there will be some irregularities reflecting combustion of
incompletely burned fuel or of intermediate combustion products, and some
delayed chemical end reactions. It is during this period that soot and other
pollutants are produced.
Performance Parameters
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat
Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.

MYSORE ME 202
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to
obtain
mechanical power.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal
to the product of force and linear velocity or the product
of torque and angular velocity.
Thus, the measurement of power involves the
measurement of force(or torque) as well as speed.
The force or torque is measured with the help
of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.
The power developed by an engine and measured at
the output shaft is called the brake power (bp) and is given
by,
 P=2NT/60
where, T is torque
MYSORE
in N-mMENIE
VIJAYAKUMARA
203
and N is the rotational speed
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in
the combustion chamber is, however, more than the bp
and is called indicated power (ip).
Of the power developed by the engine, i.e. ip, some
power is consumed in overcoming the friction between
moving parts, some in the process of inducting
the air and removing the products of combustion
from the engine combustion chamber.

MYSORE ME 204
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Indicated Power IC Engine Testing
It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus,
forms the basis of evaluation of combustion efficiency
or the heat release in the cylinder.
IP= pim LANk/60
where, pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for
four stroke engine) and
k = Number of cylinders.
Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output
can be measured in terms of mean effective pressure.
MYSORE ME 205
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
The difference between the ip and bp is the indication
of the power lost in the mechanical components of the
engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of
mechanical efficiency; which is defined as follows :
Mechanical efficiency=bp/ip
The difference between ip and bp is called friction
power (fp).
fp = ip − bp
 Mechanical efficiency= bp /(bp+fp)

MYSORE ME 206
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Mean Effective Pressure and Torque
Mean effective pressure is defined as a
hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to be
acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.
Therefore,
Pm=ip  60 / LANk
where, Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
Ip = Indicated power, Watt,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for
four stroke engine) and
k = Number of cylinders.
MYSORE ME 207
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called
the brake mean effective pressure (bmep Pmb replace
ip by bp), and if based on ihp it is called indicated mean
effective pressure (imep). Similarly, the friction
mean effective pressure (fmep) can be defined as,
fmep = imep-bmep
The torque is related to mean effective pressure by
the relation
 P=2NT/60
IP= pim LANk/60
By equation
 2NT/60= bemp.A.L.Nk/60
 T=( bemp.A.L.k) / 2
MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 80
Specific Output
Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake
power
(output) per unit of piston displacement and is given by,
Specific output=Bp /A × L
= Constant × bmep × rpm
The specific output consists of two elements – the
bmep (force)available to work and the speed with
which it is working.
Therefore, for the same piston displacement and bmep
an engine operating at higher speed will give more output.
It is clear that the output of an engine can be
increased by increasing either speed or bmep. Increasing
speed involves increase in the mechanical stress of
more
various
MYSORE
loadengine
on engine
parts whereas
ME
increasing bmep requires
better heat release
cylinder. and
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 81
Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of
the measure of the degree to which the engine fills its
swept volume.
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of
the air corresponding to the swept volume of the
engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Alternatively, it can be defined as the ratio of the
actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at
intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.
Volumetric efficiency, v =
Mass of charge actually sucked in / Mass of charge
corresponding to the cylinder intake P and T
conditions
MYSORE ME
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 82
The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on
the volumetric efficiency of an engine and hence puts a limit on
the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the
power output.
For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has
no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.
Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass
of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal
of fuel-air ratio.
Fuel-air ratio of the mixture the combustion
phenomenon
affects in that it determines the propagation
flame
velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the
maximum
MYSORE
temperature and the
ME
completeness of
combustion. VIJAYAKUMARA NIE 83
Relative fuel-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the
actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-
air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied.
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is
one in which case fuel is completely burned due to
minimum quantity of air supplied.
Relative fuel-air ratio, FR =(Actual fuel-Air ratio)/
(Stoichiometric fuel -Air ratio)
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of
fuel consumed for each unit of brake power developed per
hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the
engine develops power from fuel.
This parameter is widely used to compare the performance
of different engines.
MYSORE
VIJAYAKUMARA
ME
NIE
212
Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of
the output to that of the chemical energy input in the form of
fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output.
It is the true indication of the efficiency with which
the chemical energy of fuel (input) is converted into
mechanical work.
Thermal efficiency also accounts for combustion
efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy
of the fuel is not converted into heat energy during
combustion.
Brake thermal efficiency = bp / mf  Cv
where, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
MYSORE ME 213
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms –
a part is in the form of brake output, a part into exhaust,
and the rest is taken by cooling water and the lubricating
oil.
The break-up of the total energy input into these
different parts is called the heat balance.
The main components in a heat balance are brake
output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust, radiation
and other losses.
Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about
the amount of energy wasted in various parts and allows
us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.

MYSORE ME 214
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions
Smoke and other exhaust emissions such oxides of
nitrogen,
as unburned hydrocarbons, etc. are nuisance for
the public environment. With increasing emphasis on
air pollution control all efforts are being made to keep
them as minimum as it could be.
Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It
limits the output of an engine if air pollution
control is the consideration.
Exhaust emissions have of late become a matter of
grave concern and with the enforcement of legislation
on air pollution in many countries; it has become necessary
to view them as performance parameters.

MYSORE ME 215
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
Specific
Weight
Specific weight is defined as the weight of the engine
in kilogram for each brake power developed and is
an indication of the engine bulk.
Specific weight plays an important role in applications
such as power plants for aircrafts.

MYSORE ME 216
VIJAYAKUMARA NIE
 Formation of CO in IC
Engines
• Formation of CO is well established.
• Locally, there may not be enough O2 available for complete
oxidation and some of the carbon in the fuel ends up as CO.
• The amount of CO, for a range of fuel composition and C/H ratios, is
a function of the relative air-fuel ratio.
• Even at sufficient oxygen level, high peak temperatures can
cause dissociation.
• Conversion of CO to CO2 is governed by reaction

CO  OH  CO2  H
• Dissociated CO may freeze during the expansion stroke.

The highest CO emission occurs during engine start up (warm up) when the engine is run
fuel rich to compensate for poor fuel evaporation.
 Formation of CO in CI Engines
• The mean air-fuel mixture present in the combustion
chamber per cycle is far leaner in the diesel engine than in the
SI engine.
• Due to a lack of homogeneity of the mixture built up by
stratification, however, extremely “rich” local zones are exist.
• This produces high CO concentrations that are reduced to a
greater or lesser extent by post-oxidation.
• When the excess-air ratio increases, dropping
temperatures cause the post-oxidation rate to be reduced.
• The reactions “freeze up”.
• However, the final CO concentrations of diesel engines
therefore are far lower than in SI engines.
• The basic principles of CO formation, however, are the same
as in SI engine.
 Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for CI Engines

Overmixing of fuel and air - During the ignition delay period

evaporated fuel mixes with the air, regions of fuel-air mixture
are produced that are too lean to burn.
Some of this fuel makes its way out the exhaust.
Longer ignition delay more fuel becomes
overmixed.
Undermixing of fuel and air - Fuel leaving the injector nozzle at
low velocity, at the end of the injection process cannot completely
 NOx Formation in I.C.
Engines form the Zeldovich reaction
Three chemical reactions
are:

Forward rate constants:

k1, f  1.81011 exp 38370/ T

k 2, f
 1.8107 exp 4680 / T 
k 3, f  7.11010 exp 450 / T 
Zelodvich reaction is the most significant mechanism of
NO formation in IC engines.
 Particulates
• A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as
visible smoke in the exhaust gases.
• Particulates are any substance other than water that can be
collected by filtering the exhaust, classified as:
• Solid carbon material or soot.
• Condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation
products.
• Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas
temperatures below 500oC, HC compounds become absorbed
on the surface.
• In a properly adjusted SI engines soot is not usually a
problem .
• Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture
are used.
• Burning crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during
 Mechanism of Formation of Particulates (soot)

Experimentally it is found that the critica C/O ratio for onset of soot
formation is between 0.5 and 0.8.
The CO, H2, and C(s) are subsequently oxidized in the diffusion
flame to CO2 and H2O via the following second stage.
y
C x H y  aO2  2aCO 2 H2  (x 
2a)C(s)
The soot formation process is very fast.
10 – 22 C atoms are converted into 106 C atoms in less than 1 ms.
Based on equilibrium the composition of the fuel-oxidizer mixture soo
formation occurs when x ≥ 2a (or x/2a ≥ 1) in the following reaction:
1
1 C(s)  O2  CO2 H2 
CO  2 O2  2
O 2
2 2

CO HO
Any carbon not oxidized in the cylinder ends up as soot in the
exhaust!
 Emissions
Control
• Three basic methods used to control engine emissions:
• 1)Engineering of combustion process -advances in fuel
injectors, oxygen sensors, and on-board
computers.
• 2) Optimizing the choice of operating parameters -two Nox
control measures that have been used in automobile
engines are spark retard and EGR.
• 3) After treatment devices in the exhaust system -catalytic
converter.

23
The active catalyst material is impregnated on the surface of catalyst substrate or support.
The function
of catalyst substrate is to provide maximum possible contact of catalyst with reactants.
Following arethe main requirements of catalyst substrate:

High surface area per unit volume to keep a small size of the converter Support should
be compatible with coating of a suitable material (washcoat) to provide high surface area
and right size of pores on its surface for good dispersion and high activity of thecatalyst.
Low thermal capacity and efficient heat transfer properties for quick heat-up to working
temperatures.
Ability to withstand high operating temperatures up to around to 1000º C.
High resistance to thermal shocks that could be caused by sudden heat release when HC
from engine misfire get oxidized in the converter.
Low pressure drop
Ability to withstand mechanical shocks and vibrations at the operating temperatures under
road
conditions for long life and durability

The following types of catalysts supports are used;

Pellets
Monolithic supports
Ceramic monoliths
Metal monoliths
 Three way catalytic convertor
• A catalyst forces a reaction at a temperature lower than normally
occurs.
• As the exhaust gases flow through the catalyst, the NO reacts
with the CO, HC and H2 via a reduction reaction on the catalyst
surface.
• NO+CO→½N2+CO2 , NO+H2 → ½N2+H2O, and others
• The remaining CO and HC are removed through an oxidation
reaction forming CO2 and H2O products (air added to exhaust
after exhaust valve).
• A three-way catalysts will function correctly only if the exhaust
gas composition corresponds to nearly (±1%) stoichiometric
combustion.
• If the exhaust is too lean – NO is not destroyed
• If the exhaust is too rich – CO and HC are not destroyed
• A closed-loop control system with an oxygen sensor in the
exhaust is used to A/F ratio and used to adjust the fuel injector so
that the A/F ratio is near stoichiometric.
The oxides of base metals such as copper, chromium, nickel, cobalt etc.
have been studied. The base metal oxides are effective only at higher
temperatures. In addition, they sinter and deactivate when subjected to
high exhaust gas temperatures experienced at high engine loads. Their
conversion efficiency is severely reduced by sulphur dioxide produced by
sulphur in fuel.
The noble metals platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) were
found to meet the above mentioned performance requirements. In
practice, only the noble metals are used although these are expensive.
Mixtures of noble metals are used to provide higher reactivity and selectivity of conversion.
Following
are typical formulations;
Pt : Pd in 2:1 ratio for oxidation catalysts
(Pt + Pd): Rh in ratio of 5 :1 to 10: 1 for simultaneous oxidation and reduction such as in 3-
way catalysts
Palladium has higher specific activity than Pt for oxidation of CO, olefins and methane.
For the oxidation of paraffin hydrocarbons Pt is more active than Pd. Platinum has a higher
thermal resistance to deactivation. Rhodium is used as a NOx reduction catalyst when
simultaneous conversion of CO, HC and NO is desired as in the 3-way catalytic converters.
The amount of noble metal used typically varies from about 0.8 to 1.8 g/l (25 to 50 g/ft3) of
catalytic
 Properties of Catalyst

• The active catalyst material is required to posses

the following main characteristics
• High specific reaction activity for pollutants
• High resistance to thermal degradation
• Good cold start performance, and
• Low deactivation caused by fuel contaminants
and sulphur Other desirable requirements are
low
• cost.
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation-EGR
• NOx Emissions
• In many countries around the world, the emissions of NOx from diesel
and gasoline vehicles are restricted. NOx is formed in the combustion
chamber of engines, when high temperatures cause oxygen and
nitrogen (both found in the air supplied for combustion) to combine.
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation

• A widely adopted route to reduce NOx emissions is Exhaust Gas

Recirculation (EGR). This involves recirculating a controllable proportion
of the engine's exhaust back into the intake air. A valve is usually used
to control the flow of gas, and the valve may be closed completely if
required.

• The substitution of burnt gas (which takes no further part in

combustion) for oxygen rich air reduces the proportion of the cylinder
contents available for combustion. This causes a correspondingly lower
heat release and peak cylinder temperature, and reduces the formation
of NOx. The presence of an inert gas in the cylinder further limits the
peak temperature (more than throttling alone in a spark ignition
engine).
The gas to be recirculated may also be passed through an EGR cooler, which is
usually of the air/water type.

This reduces the temperature of the gas, which reduces the cylinder charge
temperature when EGR is employed.

This has two benefits- the reduction of charge temperature results in lower peak
temperature, and the greater density of cooled EGR gas allows a higher proportion
of EGR to be used.

On a diesel engine the recirculated fraction may be as high as 50% under some
operating conditions.

Advantages of EGR
Reduced NOx
Potential reduction of throttling losses on spark ignition engines at part load
Improved engine life through reduced cylinder temperatures (particularly exhaust
valve life)
• Disadvantages and Difficulties of EGR
• Since EGR reduces the available oxygen in the cylinder, the
production of particulates (fuel which has only partially
combusted) is increased when EGR is applied. This has
traditionally been a problem with diesel engines, where the
trade-off between NOx and particulates is a familiar one to
calibrators.
• The deliberate reduction of the oxygen available in the
cylinder will reduce the peak power available from the
engine. For this reason the EGR is usually shut off when full
power is demanded, so the EGR approach to controlling
NOx fails in this situation.
• The EGR valve can not respond instantly to changes in
demand, and the exhaust gas takes time to flow around the
EGR circuit. This makes the calibration of transient EGR
behavior particularly complex- traditionally the EGR valve
has been closed during transients and then re-opened once
steady state is achieved. However, the spike in NOx /
particulate associated with poor EGR control makes
transient EGR behavior of interest.
• The recirculated gas is normally introduced into the intake system
before the intakes divide in a multi-cylinder engine. Despite this,
perfect mixing of the gas is impossible to achieve at all engine
speeds / loads and particularly during transient operation. For
example poor EGR distribution cylinder-to-cylinder may result in
one cylinder receiving too much EGR, causing high particulate
emissions, while another cylinder receives too little, resulting in
high NOx emissions from that cylinder.
• Although the term EGR usually refers to deliberate, external EGR,
there is also a level of internal EGR. This occurs because the residual
combustion gas remaining in the cylinder at the end of the exhaust
stroke is mixed with the incoming charge. There is therefore a
proportion of internal EGR which must be taken into account when
planning EGR strategies. The scavenging efficiency will vary with
engine load, and in an engine fitted with variable valve timing a
further parameter must be considered.
Particulate Trap
 Application

Today, diesel engines are used serving as propulsion units for small boats and ships.

Medium-sized combatant ships and many auxiliary vessels are powered by diesel
engines for more economy and operational flexibility, by combinations of somewhat
smaller engines.

Ship propulsion systems employ many different arrangements of engines, shafts,

reduction gears, and propellers to suit the operating requirements of the ships they
serve.

One such arrangement is independent units for ships propulsion, where the engines are
entirely independent of each other; they are on opposite sides of the ship, one forward
and one aft of an intervening compartment for damage control.
1. In the diesel and dual combustion cycles,
ignition occurs when fuel is injected into
the hot, compressed charge, and
combustion continues after injection
ceases until the fuel is consumed.
2. Engines operating on these cycles are
categorized as compression-ignition
engines.
3. The diesel cycle, in which the rate of
combustion is so matched to the descent
of the piston that pressure during the
combustion period is constant, is difficult
to achieve in practical engines.
4. The dual combustion cycle assumes the
initial combustion process to be explosive
and the rest to occur at constant
pressure, which more closely
approximates conditions in diesel
engines of current design.
5. Most oil-burning diesel engines of current
design are compression ignition types
whose thermodynamic cycle is
approximated by the dual combustion
cycle.
 MAIN ENGINE CHARECTERISTICS
1. A modification of the dual combustion cycle
known as the Miller cycle or the modified
Atkinson cycle has been used with diesel engines
fitted with two-stage turbochargers.
2. The piston operates in the cylinder block, which,
in all but the smallest engines, is fitted with a
replaceable cast iron cylinder liner as well as a
separate cylinder head.
3. The liner and the head are usually water cooled,
while the piston is usually oil cooled except in
some of the large, low speed engines where it is
water cooled.
4. The reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted to rotary motion of the crankshaft by
the connecting rod , which swivels about the wrist
(piston or gudgeon) pin at the top, and at its
bottom end rotates about the crank pin .
1. The inside diameter of the cylinder is the
bore.
2. The uppermost position of the piston (and
therefore of the crank) is top dead center, or
TDC, while the lowest is bottom dead center,
or BDC.
3. The distance travelled by the piston between
TDC and BDC is the stroke , which, when
multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the
cylinder bore, yields the volume displaced by
the piston during its stroke, called the
displacement.
4. Since, in the two-stroke cycle, one cycle of
events is completed in each revolution of the
crankshaft, the camshaft speed is the same
as that of the crankshaft
LOOP VS UNIFLOW SCAVENGE
Scavenging, Supercharging & Exhausting
1. Scavenging is the process of replacing the
exhaust gas in a cylinder of an internal
combustion engine with the fresh air/fuel
mixture (or fresh air, in the case of direct-
injection engines) for the next cycle. If
scavenging is incomplete, the remaining
exhaust gases can cause improper combustion
for the next cycle, leading to reduced power
output.
2. Small but simultaneous improvements in the
efficiencies of components, through improved
component design and manufacturing, have
compounded effects on overall turbocharger
efficiency.
3. While these improvements tend to result in
higher turbocharger cost, the environment of
high fuel costs that has prevailed since the mid-
Seventies makes the cost increase acceptable
because of the resulting improvements in
engine fuel consumption and power output.
 LOOP VS UNIFLOW SCAVENGE
1. Engines operating on the two-stroke
cycle may be loop-scavenged or
uniflow –scavenged
2. In two-stroke cycle engines, air is
supplied to the cylinder through a row
of ports arranged around the
circumference of the cylinder liner just
above the bottom dead center position
of the piston crown, the piston and
ports therefore serving the same
function as the air valves of the four-
stroke cycle engine.
3. In loop-scavenged engines, exhaust
also takes place through a row of ports
in the cylinder, these being arranged
just above the air ports.
4. Uniflow-scavenged engines (except
opposed piston engines) exhaust
through a valve (or two valves) in the
cylinder head, which is operated by the
camshaft.
1. Air is always supplied to the cylinders
under pressure, either the higher discharge
pressure of a turbocharger or the lower
pressure of a boost blower.
2. With the piston at bottom dead center at
the start of a cycle, events are as follows: -
a) Scavenging and charging. As the piston
passes through bottom dead center, the
airports are open, as are the exhaust ports
(or valves). Scavenging occurs without
exhaust valves.
b) The cylinder liner has ports arranged at
each end: one set is for air, the other for
exhaust, and each set is controlled by one
of the pistons.
c) Loop-scavenged engines with exhaust
valves. Some older loop-scavenged
engines are fitted with rotating valves in the
passage from the exhaust ports to the
manifold so that, even when the exhaust
ports remain exposed by the piston on the
upstroke, compression can begin earlier.
TURBOCHARGING
 TURBOCHARGING
1. An engine and its turbocharger(s) are
1. if the air leaving the compressor is
interdependent in their performance: a
not cooled, because the
defective or mismatched turbocharger will
temperature rise of the air during
preclude proper engine performance.
the compression process has the
2. The principal reason for turbocharging is
opposite effect, decreasing the
to increase the power output of an engine
density.
of given size and speed, by enabling the
2. Consequently, in most applications,
cylinders to be charged with air at high
charge air coolers are fitted after
pressure, hence at higher density than
the compressor and are therefore
atmospheric.
often called aftercoolers.
3. Since the greater mass of air then present
3. Turbocharging tends to reduce fuel
will permit a correspondingly greater mass
consumption, in part because the
of fuel to be burned, the engine output will
friction losses ofthe turbocharged
be higher.
engine do not increase as rapidly
4. The effect on the cycle is an increase in
as the power output, and in part
the intensity or duration of the combustion
because the improved charging
period and an increase in the work per
results in better combustion
cycle and, therefore, the MEP.
conditions
5. The power increase will be directly
proportional to the increase in MEP if
other factors, including cylinder
dimensions and RPM, are unchanged.
TURBOCHARGING
 TURBOCHARGING
1. The boost ratio compares the pressure in 1.
the air manifold to atmospheric pressure.
2. The pressure ratio compares the pressure
at the compressor discharge to intake
pressure.
3. The two ratios differ because of the
pressure drops across the charge air
cooler and intake air system.
4. The compression ratio , while actually a
ratio of cylinder volume at BDC to cylinder
volume at TDC, is also indicative of the
pressure rise during the compression
stroke.
5. Turbocharged engines, which by definition
have elevated boost ratios, tend to have
relatively low compression ratios in order
to avoid excessive maximum pressures.
A turbocharger is an energy
recovery device: a more efficient
turbine will recover more energy
from the exhaust gas stream; low
friction rotor shaft bearings will
absorb less of the turbine output;
and a more efficient compressor
will better utilize the remaining
energy to compress more air to a
higher pressure.
2. Expressed mathematically
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOCHARGER
Turbochargers may be classified
as follows: -
I. Number of stages
II. Compressor type
III. Turbine type
IV. Discharge pressure
V. Bearing location
VI. Turbine cooling
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOCHARGER
I. In general, turbochargers use a single stage compressor, driven by a single
stage turbine. (Where engines have been fitted with two-stage
turbocharging, two single stage units are fitted, with turbines and
compressors in series.)
II. Turbochargers almost always have centrifugal compressors.
III. Turbines of large turbochargers are usually axial flow , while those of smaller
units are usually radial flow,
IV. Compressor discharge pressure is usually described by its ratio to intake
pressure, called the pressure ratio . Currently, turbochargers are suitable for
pressure ratios as high as 4.0.
V. When the bearings are located at the extreme ends of the shaft, they are
outboard bearings. Because the ends of the shaft can have reduced
diameters, outboard bearings will usually have lower friction losses. Inboard
bearings are located between the turbine disk and the compressor impeller.
VI. Traditionally, large turbocharger turbines are cooled by circulating engine
jacket water through passages in the casing an uncooled turbocharger in
which, while water may still be used to cool the turbine bearing, the turbine
casing is not cooled, improving waste heat recovery from the exhaust gases
downstream of the turbocharger.
Compressor characteristics and the surge limit
 Compressor characteristics and the surge limit
1. Centrifugal compressor characteristics are similar to those of centrifugal
pumps. Most compressors used for turbocharging have essentially radial
vanes, though slight backward curvature is increasingly used.
2. At constant speed the discharge pressure first rises as volumetric flow
increases, then drops off rather sharply. The compressor efficiency curve also
rises to a peak, although at any constant speed this peak is slightly to the right
of the pressure peak.
3. The power consumed by the compressor is related to the product of discharge
pressure and flow rate. Thus, in the region to the right of the peak in the
pressure curve, operation will be stable: in this region a momentary drop in
volumetric flow rate perhaps brought on by a momentary reduction in engine
speed, will be countered by a rise in pressure, with little or no effect on the
turbine. In the region to the left of the pressure peak, a momentary drop in
volumetric flow rate will be accompanied by a drop in discharge pressure and
a reduction in compressor power consumption.
4. Operation in the unstable area to the left of the pressure peak may result in
compressor surge . As the pressure at the compressor discharge falls below
that downstream, the flow can reverse. The result can simply be a pulsation if
the situation is not severe or of long duration, or the reversed flow can
continue to the air intake and become audible, ranging in volume from a soft
sneezing to a very loud backfiring sound.
 Compressor characteristics and the surge limit
1. In order to completely define the characteristics of a particular compressor,
similar data must be obtained at several constant speeds covering the range
of its operation, and plotted together on the same axes.
2. Effects of wheel diameter and diffuser vane height the performance of a
particular compressor, comprising a wheel of given design and diameter, and
a diffuser with vanes of given height. In practice, turbocharger manufacturers
design a series or "family" of geometrically similar compressors with a range
of compressor wheel diameters to cover a range of flow rates.
3. For each compressor wheel, a narrow range of performance variation is
possible by exchanging the diffuser for one with a different vane height: higher
vanes will shift compressor performance slightly to the right, while lower vanes
will move the performance slightly to the left.
4. In general, these adjustments of vane height away from the optimum are
accompanied by a small penalty in compressor efficiency.
5. Turbocharger frame size and turbine characteristics. In general, turbine
characteristics are more straightforward than compressor characteristics.
Usually, for any given turbocharger series, selection of a compressor wheel
diameter specifies the turbocharger; i.e., for each compressor wheel diameter
there is a given compressor casing, turbine casing, and turbine disk.
Adjustment of turbine performance is then obtained by selection of nozzle and
blade characteristics.
Compressor characteristics and the surge limit
 Intake Systems
1. The function of the intake system is to ensure a supply of clean air to the engine, within
reasonable limits of temperature and pressure. The components of the system mounted on the
engine may not be alone in achieving this: an engine installed in a clean, warm engine room
may appear to have the most rudimentary intake system but in this case the engine room and
its air supply system must be considered part of the engine air intake system as well
Very low intake air temperatures can cause the turbochargers to surge. Surge can also be
caused by low intake pressures at the compressor brought about by excessive pressure drop in
the intake system because of its length, or tight turns, or restricted air flow areas.
2. Engines with direct air intake have the filter mounted locally at the engine. Small, naturally
aspirated engines will have intake filters of either the oil bath or the disposable dry media
type mounted on the air intake manifold. In the most common configuration for large,
turbocharged engines, washable dry media panels are mounted in an array surrounding the
circumference of the compressor inlet. The design of these filters usually provides adequate
silencing, but in some installations a plenum may be installed for further silencing.
3. Most marine charge air coolers are configured as a bank of finned water tubes over which the
air flows, but sometimes compact heat exchangers of proprietary design are fitted. In either
case, the air side will be prone to fouling and, because of the impact that this has on engine
performance, maintaining cleanliness of the surface is of paramount importance, even though
some compact cooler designs may be particularly difficult to clean. (Frequency of cleaning is
best determined by observation of the air pressure drop across the cooler.)
Intake Systems
1. Proper cleaning of the oily residue that accumulates on charge air coolers requires
the use of a solvent and time for the solvent to soak into the residue. Therefore,
cleaning with the engine in operation is impractical.
2. Ideally, charge air coolers would be arranged to allow cleaning with a minimum of
dismantling, but this is not always the case and ad hoc arrangements are common.
Often a blind flange is inserted to close of the lowest end of the cooler, allowing the
entire external heat exchange surface to be immersed in solvent while the cooler
remains in place. In other installations the cooler is broken out of its location and
lowered into a solvent-filled tank, an arrangement which, after soaking, permits more
thorough cleaning by use of a compressed-air.
3. Most charge air coolers for large engines are cooled by seawater, but increasingly
ships are being fitted with central seawater-to-freshwater coolers which then allow
the charge air coolers to be circulated with fresh water. The advantage ofthe more
complex central system is in its reducing the potential for fouling and corrosion ofthe
charge air cooler water sides and water piping. Most smaller engines have charge air
coolers that are freshwater cooled by the engine jacket water.
4. The air entering the charge air cooler can exceed 200°C in the case of engines with
high boost ratios and, in some more recent plants fitted with extensive waste heat
recovery systems for turbogenerator drive, this source is used to preheat feedwater to
the boiler.
 Intake Systems

1. The air manifold serves to distribute the air uniformly to the cylinders. In turbocharged
engines, it is typically located below both the turbochargers and the charge air coolers.
2. It is important to note, therefore, that water leakage from the charge air cooler or
turbocharger will accumulate in the intake manifold while the engine is stopped. If the
engine is subsequently rotated without draining the manifold, the water will be drawn
into the cylinders, where, because it is relatively incompressible, it can cause cracking
of the piston crowns, skirts, liners, or heads, bending of the connecting rods, or damage
to the bearings or crankshaft.
3. At low engine loads the air leaving the charge air cooler may be too cool for optimal
combustion conditions and may become saturated if it cools to below ambient
temperature. In those engines where the cooler is normally circulated with jacket water,
limited low load air heating is inherent in the design, but this can be increased using
cooling water crossovers at low loads to circulate the charge air cooler with jacket
water leaving the jackets.
 Exhaust Systems
1. The typical exhaust system of a turbocharged engine comprises ducting and
manifolds, the turbocharger, often a waste heat boiler or other heat recovery device,
and a silencer, and usually terminates with a spark arrestor at the top of the ship's
stack. Exhaust systems of multiple engine installations are usually independent of
each other.
2. Pulse versus constant pressure turbocharging. A pressure probe located at the exhaust
port of a cylinder will indicate a sharp pressure peak as the port first opens, called the
blow downpulse. A second, lesser, scavenging pulse occurs when the air ports first
open, and charge air sweeps through the cylinder to the exhaust port. When the
exhaust piping is designed to maintain these pulses all the way to the turbine inlet
nozzles so that their energy can be utilized in the turbine, the engine is said to be
pulse turbocharged.
3. In its simplest form, pulse charging would require that separate exhaust ducts be led
from each cylinder to separate groups of turbine nozzles in order to avoid the
interference of pulses from different cylinders, but in fact it is possible to combine
exhaust branches from groups of two or more cylinders that are sufficiently far apart
in their firing order.
4. If the selected cylinders are too close in firing order, or if the valve timing is
incorrect, the exhaust pulse of one cylinder can interfere with the exhaust of another.
Pulse charging uses small diameter piping from the cylinders to the turbine to
prevent the pulses from dissipating en route.
 Exhaust Systems
1. Constant pressure turbocharging is characterized by a large diameter exhaust manifold
running the length of the engine, into which the cylinders exhaust through short
branches. The energy of the pulses can be partly recovered as the gas enters the
manifold if these entrances are carefully designed as diffusers (sometimes called pulse
converters), which will elevate manifold pressure above what it would otherwise be.
2. The volume of the manifold must also be large enough to accommodate the gas flow
from individual cylinders without causing any localized pressure rise in the manifold as
exhaust gas leaves the cylinder. The combined effect of having sufficient volume in the
manifold together with the eddies in the exhaust gas from individual cylinders causes
the pressure in the manifold to remain very nearly constant. The exhaust gas is led from
the manifold into the exhaust gas turbocharger at a constant pressure.
3. Two-stroke marine engines are often fitted with a constant pressure turbocharging
system because it helps to maintain a steadier and more consistent airflow into the
engine. This is important for the operation of two-stroke engines, which rely on a
specific timing of air and fuel intake, compression, and exhaust. On the other hand,
four-stroke engines are often fitted with a pulse-type turbocharging system because it is
better suited to the engine's cycle of intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes.
The pulse-type system can provide better responsiveness and efficiency for the four-
stroke engine's operation.
 Exhaust gas heat recovery
1. The energy in the gas leaving the turbocharger turbine, at temperatures ranging from a
low of about 250°C for some large two-stroke engines to a high of about 500°C for
some higher speed, four-stroke engines, is often recovered in waste heat boilers or
other heat exchangers. The extent of waste heat recovery and the use to which the
recovered heat is put are matters which must be determined by examining the
economic trade-offs involved; these, in turn, are affected by different operating
patterns of the ship as well as fluctuations in costs, principally of fuel.
2. Almost all ships burning heavy fuel are fitted with waste heat boilers in the main
engine uptakes sufficient to meet fuel oil heating requirements, plus domestic needs.
It is usually not feasible to recover sufficient heat to meet more than a small portion
of a tanker's cargo-heating requirements, for which an oil-fired boiler is necessary.
3. In the case of ships with minimal electrical load (bulk carriers and tankers), sufficient
heat can be recovered from main engines operated at as little as about 10,000to
15,000 BHP to supply the ship's normal electrical and steam requirements from a
waste heat boiler/steam turbogenerator plant.
4. These systems are common on high-powered ships. The BHP threshold will be lower
in the case of four-stroke engines with their higher exhaust temperatures than for two-
stroke engines, but in either case it can be reduced further by using charge air coolers
for feedwater heating, using multiple pressure boilers and turbines, reducing the
electrical load by using engine-driven auxiliaries, supplementing steam production
with the oil-fired boiler, or supplementing electrical supply with shaft-driven
generators.
 Exhaust gas heat recovery
1. Generally, waste heat boilers are fitted to the main engines, but under some
circumstances-for example, passenger cruise ships with high electrical loads and
relatively low utilization of the main engines-waste heat boilers are sometimes fitted to
the auxiliary engines. In these cases much of the steam produced is used for fresh water
production.
2. It should be noted that, in addition to the exhaust gases, the engine cooling water also
contains recoverable heat. The use of the air cooler as a boiler feed heater is mentioned
above. Most oceangoing motor ships utilize the jacket water as the heat source for the
fresh water generators (i.e., the evaporators or distilling plant)
3. Fresh water generator can also be regarded as a waste heat recovery plant
Starting & Reversing System
Reversing gears of a marine
diesel engine
1. The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine which ignites the fuel by
injecting it into hot, high-pressure air in a combustion chamber. In common with all
internal combustion engines the diesel engine operates with a fixed sequence of
events, which may be achieved either in four strokes or two, a stroke being the
travel of the piston between its extreme points. Each stroke is accomplished in half a
revolution of the crankshaft.
2. The gearing arrangement used to reduce the medium-speed engine drive
down to suitable propeller revolutions . Where a gearbox is used with a
diesel engine, reversing gears may be incorporated so that the engine
itself is not reversed. Where a controllable pitch propeller is in use there
is no requirement to reverse the main engine.
3. However, when it is necessary to run the engine in reverse it must be
started in reverse and the fuel injection timing must be changed. Where
exhaust timing or poppet valves are used they also must be retimed.
With jerk-type fuel pumps the fuel cams on the camshaft must be
repositioned.
4. This can be done by having a separate reversing cam and moving the
camshaft axially to bring it into position. Alternatively a lost-motion
clutch may be used in conjunction with the ahead pump-timing cam.
Reversing gears of a marine
diesel engine
1. The shaping of the cam results in a period of pumping first then about
10° of fuel injection before top dead centre and about 5° after top dead
centre. A period of dwell then occurs when the fuel pump plunger does
not move.
2. A fully reversible cam will be symmetrical about this point, as shown. The
angular period between the top dead centre points for ahead and astern
running will be the 'lost motion' required for astern running. The lost-
motion clutch or servo motor uses a rotating vane which is attached to
the camshaft but can move in relation to the camshaft drive from the
crankshaft. The vane is shown held in the ahead operating position by oil
pressure.
3. When oil is supplied under pressure through the drain, the vane will
rotate through the lost-motion angular distance to change the fuel timing
for astern operation. The starting air system is retimed, either by this
camshaft movement or by a directional air supply being admitted to the
starting air distributor, to reposition the cams. Exhaust timing or poppet
valves will have their own lost-motion clutch or servo motor for astern
timing.
Reversing gears of a marine
diesel engine
1. The fuel pump cam and lost-motion
clutch arrangement is shown in Figure.
2. Marine Diesel Engine basically starts
when the compressed air ( Starting
Air ) at 12 to 30 bar pressure; impact
on the piston to create sufficient torque
to rotate the shaft for one complete
revolution.
3. This is done by inserting compressed
air into the cylinder using starting air
valve operation; using starting air
distributor.
4. The double acting piston with the
reversible cylinder is used to reverse
the operation of starting air distributor.
Similarly the position of camshaft is
changed with the help of control air.
Changing the camshaft position change
the rotation angle and thus the fuel
injection time w.r.t the firing order.
Engine Safety System
 Discussion - Common faults during
diesel engine starting & manoeuvring
a Air must be drained regularly to remove water and oil that may have accumulated in
) receivers
receiver. Draining
themust be carried out especially before the engine is manoeuvred. Where automatic
draining devices are provided, correct operation of these devices must be confirmed. Water carry
over with the starting air can cause corrosion of the starting air pipes, automatic valve, air
distributor and cylinder air start valve leading to failure or malfunction of these components.

b) Oil deposits in starting air pipes can create conditions leading to starting air line explosions, if
high
pressures build up in the Pressure relief devices in starting air lines must be correctly
lines.maintained to engine manufacturers
and adjusted
recommendations.
c) If an excessive pressure wave builds up in the starting air line, bursting disc ruptures relieving
the pressure. If a bursting disc ruptures during manoeuvring the butterfly nut is released and the
safety cap rotated to cover the relief holes. Temporarily closing the cap in this manner enables
further manoeuvring of the engine.
 Discussion

d) The Automatic valve (Master stop valve) must be overhauled as recommended by

the
manufacturer. Most automatic valves have lubricating points and must be lubricated regularly.
However over lubrication must be avoided. All automatic valves have some method of manual
operation. An engineer must be familiar with manual operation of the automatic valve and the
functioning of the device must be checked regularly.

e Starting air distributorsmust be maintained according to engine manufacturer’s

) common fault associated
A recommendations.
with air distributors is the sticking of pistons in the distributor. The
distributor must be lubricated and the piston operation checked. Again care must be taken not to
over lubricate.

f Air start should be overhauled periodically. During overhaul all parts must be dismantled
) valves The spring
cleaned. and length and piston rings must be checked and renewed if required. The valve
and valve seat are ground to a fine finish with lapping paste. On completing reassembly, the
tightness of the valve seat must be tested
 Discussion

d) The Automatic valve (Master stop valve) must be overhauled as recommended by

the
manufacturer. Most automatic valves have lubricating points and must be lubricated regularly.
However over lubrication must be avoided. All automatic valves have some method of manual
operation. An engineer must be familiar with manual operation of the automatic valve and the
functioning of the device must be checked regularly.

e Starting air distributorsmust be maintained according to engine manufacturer’s

) common fault associated
A recommendations.
with air distributors is the sticking of pistons in the distributor. The
distributor must be lubricated and the piston operation checked. Again care must be taken not to
over lubricate.

f Air start should be overhauled periodically. During overhaul all parts must be dismantled
) valves The spring
cleaned. and length and piston rings must be checked and renewed if required. The valve
and valve seat are ground to a fine finish with lapping paste. On completing reassembly, the
tightness of the valve seat must be tested
Fuel Oil System
Fuel Oil System
FUEL OIL SYSTEM consists of three
parts: -
1. Fuel bunkering system.
2. Fuel oil treatment system
3. Fuel oil service and forwarding
system
Fuel Oil bunkering and transfer System
1. The heavy fuel oil (HFO) filling and transfer system enables all HFO bunker tanks to be
filled under pressure from pumps ashore or aboard a bunker barge. Good design practice
calls for all the valves to be concentrated in one location to facilitate one-man operation.
By using the valve at the foot of the filling line from deck to hold the pressure in the
filling main below the static head ofthe overflow/vent pipes ofthe tanks, the possibility of
an overflow to deck is reduced: overflow will be to the designated overflow tank instead,
and this should be the last tank to be filled.
2. The transfer pumps are normally used to transfer fuel from bunker tanks to the settling
tanks, but can also serve between tanks or back up the filling line if it becomes necessary
to discharge the contents of a tank ashore or to a barge. The suction from the distillate
fuel oil (DO) transfer system enables the main engine to be run on DO for extended
periods when necessary. Usually the suction main and the branches to the tanks will be
steam traced and insulated
3. The transfer pumps are generally positive displacement rotary pumps, with coarse
suction strainers for their own protection. The capacity ofthe transfer pumps is dictated
by operational considerations: it may be reasonable to size each pump to fill the settling
tank within an eight-hour workday. If the machinery arrangement permits, the duplicate
transfer pump may be deleted, with standby provided by cross connections to one of the
HFO booster pumps.
4. The (DO) filling and transfer system is a simplified version of the HFO system, with
fewer tanks and no need for steam tracing or insulation.
Fuel Oil treatment System
1. Fuel treatment systems include the settling tanks and purifiers, which enable most ofthe
water and solids in the fuels to be removed. While clean distillate fuels are sometimes
considered suitable for combustion in diesel engines without any treatment other than
settling and filtration, given current refining practices it is advisable to centrifuge even
the distillate fuel. In normal operation, fuel is transferred directly into the settling tanks
from the bunker tanks, but passes to the day tanks only via the purifiers.
2. Each HFO settling tank of 24-hour capacity, so that fuel can settle undisturbed for an
extended period. To avoid drawing settled water and sediment into the purifier, the
settling tank should be fitted with a sloping bottom, with the suction connection at the
upper end, rising about 50 mm into the tank. HFO settling tank temperature will
normally be 40°Cto 50°Cbut should be kept well below the flash point.
3. Most plants are fitted with centrifugal purifiers, with at least two units intended for full-
time HFO operation either in series or in parallel, as described earlier. The rated capacity
of each of the HFO purifiers should, at the very least, meet the main engine consumption
at MCR with a 10 percent margin to allow for cleaning and other maintenance. The
benefit of this apparent oversizing is more effective purification.
4. Where existing piping precludes the flexibility of series or parallel operation of the HFO
purifiers, a rearrangement of the piping should be undertaken. If existing purifiers are of
low capacity or are otherwise inadequate, installation of at least one new purifier should
be considered.
Fuel Oil treatment System
1. Modern purifiers tend to be self-cleaning, i.e., sludge-ejecting, and fully
automated, with each HFO unit equipped with its own heater. Frequently, one
of the HFO purifiers is arranged to stand by for a single DO purifier.
2. Generally, purifier feed pumps are attached, positive displacement units, with
throughput controlled by dumping back to the suction, in preference to
throttling a suction valve.
3. An alternative is to fit independent, motor-driven, variable displacement feed
pumps. In most installations, oil leaves the purifiers under sufficient head to
reach the day tanks, but where this is not the case discharge pumps must be
fitted .
4. HFO must be heated close to the boiling point of water to facilitate purification
both by reducing the viscosity and by enhancing the difference in specific
gravity between the fuel and the water; this hot oil input to the day tank can
alone force the day tank temperature above the flash point. Consequently,
some installations are fitted with a fuel cooler in the HFO purifier discharge
line.
5. Day tanks and settlers are likely to be fitted with level alarms, as well as local
and remote level indicators. Settling tanks may be arranged so that a high level
will stop the transfer pumps automatically.
6. HFO tanks are fitted with steam heating coils, temperature indicators, and,
Fuel Oil treatment System
1. Remote operated valves at the tank outlets, that are capable of operation from
outside the space containing the tank in the event of a fire, are a requirement of
most regulatory bodies.
2. Where the configuration permits, the day tank in each system may be arranged to
overflow into the settlers, with the settlers in turn overflowing into the overflow
tank in the double bottom.
3. Just like the automotive industry where fuel additives are popular, the maritime
industry also uses chemicals in fuels for different jobs; However, this process is not
much popular. The main types of residual fuel additives for marine heavy fuel oil
are:
• pre-combustion additives such as demulsifiers, dispersants
• combustion improvers
• ash modifiers
4. These two drains are the most important drains in the engine room. The fuel oil
settling and service drains are used to remove water from the tanks which is carried
over when the fuel oil is transferred from the bunker tank to the settling tank.
5. The water present in the fuel oil (in small quantities) is generally removed by a fuel
oil centrifugal separator, most commonly known as a purifier. The purifier may fail
to remove the water, if present in large quantities. Thus, letting it carry over to the
fuel oil supply pumps.
Fuel oil service and forwarding system
1. The fuel forwarding system ofFigure 16-45 serves to supply HFO to engine
injection pumps at the correct viscosity. Because the volume of fuel consumed
will be small in relation to the volume available in the piping, the residence time
between the heaters and the injectors would be sufficient, especially at low loads,
for the fuel to cool.
2. To prevent this cooling, a much larger flow rate is maintained, two or three times
engine consumption at MCR, with the unconsumed excess leaving the spill
valves of the injection pumps and recirculating back to the booster pump suction
via the mixing tank.
3. The amount drawn into the mixing tank from the day tank therefore corresponds
to the amount consumed, while the oil temperature entering the heaters will
reflect the amount of hot oil recirculated.
4. The mixing tank is sometimes called the buffer tank since it enables the
transition from hot HFO to cold DO (or vice versa) to occur gradually; it is also
called a deaerating or degassing tank, since lighter fractions in the HFO can vent.
5. In the typical configuration shown, the mixing tank is supplied by gravity from
the day tank; its bottom, therefore, must be lower than the bottom ofthe day tank,
while the top must be higher than the top of the day tank to enable degassing to
occur.
Fuel oil service and forwarding system
1. Nevertheless, to facilitate a reasonably rapid changeover from HFO to DO and
vice versa, the volume of the mixing tank must be limited; consequently the
mixing tank is most often configured as a pipe column.
2. Because of the high temperatures to which the heaviest fuels must be heated and
the increased amount of gas formation which would occur at atmospheric
pressures, some engine manufacturers now recommend that the hot circuit of the
forwarding system be designed as a closed and pressurized loop.
3. This requires an additional set of low pressure booster pumps to feed the mixing
tank from the day tank, but the mixing tank can then be more conveniently
proportioned and located. Venting of gas that forms in the pressurized loop must
be done through a relief valve.
4. Booster pumps are fitted in duplicate and are usually of the positive displacement,
rotary type. While the booster pumps will normally handle partly preheated oil,
they must also be capable of handling DO on occasion, as well as cold HFO being
recirculated while the system is brought up to operating conditions.
5. At least two fuel heaters are fitted, each with sufficient capacity to heat the
heaviest fuels likely to be encountered, and each conservatively rated in regard to
fouling margins. The steam supply to the heaters is controlled by the viscosimeter,
which must be sited in close proximity to the injection pumps, either just ahead of
them or in the fuel return line as shown.
Fuel oil service and forwarding system
1. When a ship's auxiliary engines are fitted for operation on HFO, the forwarding
system may be duplicated on an appropriate scale, and may incorporate an in-
line blending unit, comprising metering pumps and mixing devices.
2. To permit operation of the auxiliary engines on HFO when steam is unavailable,
an electric fuel heater will be provided in parallel with the steam heaters.
3. A final fuel filter is fitted after the heaters, where filtration is facilitated by the
reduced viscosity. This filter serves principally as a backup to the purifiers.
4. Modern installations are most likely to have a fine mesh, self-cleaning unit as
shown, or a disposable-element type of even finer mesh. On older ships, fitted
with duplex basket strainers, an upgrade may be advisable.
5. All of the HFO piping in the forwarding system, sometimes including the filters
and pumps, is likely to be steam traced and insulated. The extent of automation
of the system will vary but will typically include automatic changeover for the
pumps, low pressure alarms at pump discharge points, temperature alarms after
the heaters, and a differential pressure alarm at the final filter.
 Discussion - Methods of utilizing
diesel engines for ship propulsion
1 Direct Coupled -A propulsion system arrangement where the engine is directly coupled to
. the

shaft line. It is usually applied on low-speed engines. It provides high power, can
burn low grade fuels and has high thermal efficiency. The cylinders and
crankcase
2 areSlow
Reversing isolated, which
- The gearing reducesusedcontamination
arrangement and permits
to reduce the medium-speed enginethe
driveuse of
specialized
. lubricating
to suitable oil in cylinders
downrevolutions.
propeller and bearings.
Where a gearbox The
is used with use engine,
a diesel of tworeversing
strokegears
cycle
may be incorporated so that the engine itself is not reversed. Where a controllable pitch
usually means there are no inlet and exhaust valves. This reduces maintenance
propeller is in use there is no requirement to reverse the main engine.
and simplifies engine construction.
3 Medium Speed Engines - The medium-speed diesel engine operates in the range 250—
. 750
rev/min must be direct coupled to the propeller shaft. So, a gearbox is used to provide a low-
speed drive for the propeller shaft.
 Discussion
4. Clutched and geared reversible and unidirectional medium speed engines with a fixed pitch
propeller - The propeller thrust must be reversible in order to do manoeuvring of a ship. Usually
manoeuvring is done while entering a port or leaving a port. In case of a controllable pitch
propeller a unidirectional engine is sufficient. In case of limited power systems like medium speed
engines of high-speed engines, clutches and reverse gears may be used. To reverse an engine the
engine cycle may require re-timing. Engines working with constant pressure turbocharge systems
also have symmetrical exhaust valve timing and hence no change in timing is required. Only the
fuel timing to be changed since it will be the opposite flank of the cam.

5 Fixed pitch - A propeller with fixed pitch. A propeller’s pitch is defined as the distance
propeller
. propeller would move during
the one complete revolution if operating in a solid material, if in water the
movement will be less due to slip. If a propeller has a pitch of 40 inches, it will move forward 40
inches during a complete revolution. To increase or reduce the vessel’s speed, the rpm of the
propeller is increased or reduced. To give astern movement the direction of rotation is reversed,
i.e., the propeller rotates the opposite way to ahead movement.
 Discussion

6. Clutched and geared reversible and unidirectional medium speed engines with a
controllable pitch propeller - Controllable pitch propellers are normally fitted to a flanged tail
shaft as the operating mechanism is housed in the propeller boss. As its name implies, it is
possible to alter the pitch of this type of propeller to change ship speed or to adjust to the
prevailing resistance conditions. This change in pitch is affected by rotating the blades about their
vertical axes, either by hydraulic or mechanical means.
A shaft generator can be driven at constant speed while allowing at the same time a change of
ship's speed through the propeller. Since it is normally possible to reverse the pitch completely, this
type of propeller is used with a uni-directional engine to give full ahead or astern thrust, when
manoeuvring.
7 Diesel Electric Drive - A diesel electric power system can drive multiple propellers from a
.
engine or use multiple single
engines to power one or more propeller. Diesel-electric drive takes less
space than the equivalent direct-drive two-stroke engine allowing the aft section to be slimmer and
giving better flow over the propeller. Not only is the diesel-electric drive train lighter than a two-
stroke engine, but also its weight can be distributed more evenly. Also, there is no need for
auxiliary generators.
Conclusion
As conclusion what we must focus on how main engine operating and make sure maintenance
need to be done frequently to ensure any abnormalities can be detected in early stage. The
benefits of conduct routine maintenance toward main engine are improved fuel economy, higher
levels of performance, decreased emissions and less frequent repairs.

The most important thing as engineers onboard also need to focus on how to achieve efficient
combustion in marine diesel engines such as:

1) Fuel Treatment
2) Correct Fuel
Temperature
Correct Air Fuel
3) Correct Injection
Ratio
4) Timing
Atomization
5) Penetration
6) Air Fuel
7) Mixing
Compression
8) temperature