Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
2020/21 30/11/23
Fabbricazione Meccanica
§A.A. 2023-2024
§Lezione B3.0
§
Prof. Franco Lombardi
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape
§ Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
§ In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts of uniform cross sections
§ Two basic types:
§ Direct extrusion
§ Indirect extrusion
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Direct Extrusion
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Indirect Extrusion
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Extruded Products
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Types of Extrusion
Types of extrusion: (a) direct; (b) indirect; (c) hydrostatic; (d) impact.
Advantages of Extrusion
§ Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
§ Limitation: part cross section must be
uniform throughout length
§ (Grain structure) and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
§ Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
§ In some operations, little or no waste of material
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Hot Extrusion
MATERIALE TEMPERATURA
[°C]
Zinco 100
Alluminio e sue leghe 400 – 450
Magnesio e sue leghe 400 – 450
Bronzi e Ottoni 750 – 850
Rame e sue leghe 800 – 900
Acciai dolci 1100 – 1200
Acciai legati 1300
Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
𝐴"
𝑅=
𝐴#
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
𝑤 = # σ# dε
Y !
( C ))*+
+
𝑌% = ))*+
= *+!
0 𝑑𝜀 𝜀#$% 𝜀
2
,=
𝑑𝜀 𝑑𝜀( − 𝑑𝜀, , + 𝑑𝜀, − 𝑑𝜀- , + 𝑑𝜀- − 𝑑𝜀( ,
3
1 1 1
𝑑𝜀( = 𝜎 𝑑𝜀, = −0.5𝜎( d𝜀- = −0.5𝜎(
𝐸 ( 𝐸 𝐸
, ≡ 𝑑𝜀(.
𝑑𝜀
19
Politecnico di Torino - A.Y. 2020-21 29/11/23
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Premessa
Assumendo di estrudere una billetta assial-simmetrica di lunghezza L0 e
sezione A0 per ottenere un prodotto analogo di sezione Af , la si immagini
suddivisa in tanti dischi di spessore infinitesimo. Si supponga inoltre che
nell’attraversamento dello stampo ciascun disco elementare subisca una
deformazione uniforme (la stessa in tutti i punti del suo volume) composta
dalla successione di deformazioni elementari uniformi e progressive,
subite dal materiale mentre procede all’interno dello stampo.
Ad ogni passo della deformazione elementare, la deformazione efficace
7 coincide con quella assiale (principale) 𝑑𝜀( . Quindi, la deformazione
𝑑𝜀
efficace complessiva può essere calcolata come:
)> )
) = ∫ .) 𝑑𝜀! = 𝜀!#
𝜀 ̃ = ∫= ) 𝑑𝜀 =
Fid = 𝑝 ⋅ A =
1
𝑊B = Fid ⋅ LC = 𝑝 ⋅ A C ⋅ LC = 𝑝 * 𝑉
Pressione di Estrusione
𝑊0 = 𝑊% ossia:
𝑝 T 𝑉 = 𝑉 T Y ⋅ ε1 𝑝 T 𝑉 = 𝑉 T 𝑌 ⋅ ε1
cioè: cioè:
𝑝 = Y ⋅ lnR 𝑝 = 𝑌 ⋅ lnR
Mechanics of Extrusion
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 ⋅ 𝐷 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 𝜋 ⋅ 𝐷 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
(𝜎2 + 𝑑𝜎2) ⋅ ⋅ (𝐷 + 𝑑𝐷), − 𝜎2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝐷, + 𝑝 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝜇 ⋅ 𝑝 ⋅ cos 𝛼 = 0
4 4 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼
Sapendo che:
𝐷 + 𝑑𝐷 = 𝐷 + 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ 𝑡𝑔𝛼
𝜇
𝐷 ⋅ 𝑑𝜎2 + 2 ⋅ 𝜎2 ⋅ 𝑑𝐷 + 2 ⋅ 𝑝 ⋅ (1 + ) ⋅ 𝑑𝐷 = 0
𝑡𝑔𝛼
s x + p =s 0
Si ottiene la seguente equazione:
dD dsx
=
D 2 B s x - 2 s 0 (1 + µ / tga )
4
𝜇 3 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝜎2
2⋅ i =i
𝑡𝑔𝛼 3# 𝐷 1 + 𝜇/𝑡𝑔𝛼
! 𝜎2 − 𝜎! ⋅
𝜇/𝑡𝑔𝛼
Le incognite sono due sigma_x e p, per questo introduco un’altra equazione utilizzando
il criterio Von Mises e ipotizzando il materiale perfettamente plastico (senza
incrudimento):
Chiamando con:
𝐵 = 𝜇/𝑡𝑔𝛼
µ cot g a
1 + B é æ A0 ö ù æ tan a ö é æ A0 ö ù
2B
s x =s0 ê1 - ç ÷ ú = s 0 çç1 + ê ç ÷
÷÷ 1 - ç ÷ ú
B ê çè A f ÷ø úû è µ ø ê è Af ø úû
ë ë
e la pressione esercitata sul pistone di estrusione:
𝑡𝑔𝛼
𝑝0 = 𝜎! ⋅ 1 + 𝑅8⋅9:; <= − 1
𝜇
ove :
- R è il rapporto di estrusione pari a: Ao/Af
- σ0 è Y nel caso di materiale privo di incrudimento.
Chiamndo con B…si hanno le seguenti due possibilità rispetto ai limiti di integrazione
(relative rispettivamente all’operazione di estrusione e a quella di trafilatura):
tg α
p=Y⋅ 1+ ⋅ Rµ > ctg(α) − 1
µ
espressione che tiene conto, oltre che del coefficiente d’attrito μ, anche dell’angolo α
di inclinazione della filiera
Schematic illustration of three different types of metal flow in direct extrusion. The
die angle in these illustrations is 90°.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Mechanics of Extrusion
Schematic illustration of extrusion force as a function of die angle:
a) total force;
b) ideal force;
c) force required for redundant
deform. energy;
d) force required to overcome friction.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram force.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
e! ≡ ep = 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 𝑙𝑛𝑅
p = 𝑌% 1 ep = 𝑌% 1 (𝑎 + 𝑏 1 𝑙𝑛𝑅) Strain-hardening
material
p ≅ 1.7 1 𝑌 1 ln 𝑅
6𝑉?
𝜀 ̇̄ ≅ ln 𝑅
𝐷?
Mechanics of Extrusion
qr@A st ut
𝑝# = 𝜋𝐷" 𝑘𝐿 → 𝑝# = 𝑘 =𝑌 (𝑘≡t0)
s r@ r@
Therefore:
2𝐿
𝑝B?C_EF2 = 𝑝0 + 𝑝# = 𝑌 ⋅ 1.7 ln 𝑅 +
𝐷!
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Extrusion Presses
§ Either horizontal or vertical
§ Horizontal more common
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Yf
Y
a
Af
A0
T
s1 = sT ≤ si
ef = ln(A0/Af)
0 x
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Bar Drawing
§ Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the
stock is pulled through one die opening
§ Beginning stock has large diameter and is a
straight cylinder
§ Requires a batch type operation
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Trafilatura: Premessa
Assumendo di trafilare una barra tonda di lunghezza L0 e sezione A0 per ottenere
un prodotto analogo di sezione Af , la si immagini suddivisa in tanti dischi di
spessore infinitesimo. Si supponga inoltre che nell’attraversamento della trafila
ciascun disco elementare subisca una deformazione uniforme (la stessa in tutti i
punti del suo volume) composta dalla successione di deformazioni elementari
uniformi e progressive, subite dal materiale mentre procede all’interno della trafila
stessa.
Ad ogni passo della deformazione elementare, la deformazione efficace
, coincide con quella assiale (principale) 𝑑𝜀(. Quindi, la deformazione efficace
𝑑𝜀
complessiva può essere calcolata come:
)> )
) = ∫ . 𝑑𝜀! = 𝜀!
𝜀 ̃ = ∫= ) 𝑑𝜀 a
Af
=
A0
Yf
Y
a
Af
A0
T
s1 = sT ≤ sR
ef = ln(A0/Af)
0 x
Nella trafilatura di barre o di fili aventi sezione circolare il tiro non deve superare il
carico ammissibile a trazione, ovvero la tensione reale non deve superare la tensione di
snervamento
Tensione di trazione
𝑊0 = 𝑊% ossia:
𝜎B T 𝑉 = 𝑉 T 𝑌 ⋅ ε1 𝜎B T 𝑉 = 𝑉 T 𝑌 ⋅ ε1
cioè: cioè:
𝜎B = 𝑌 ⋅ lnR 𝜎B = 𝑌 ⋅ lnR
𝑇 = 𝜎B T A 1 = A 1 T Y ⋅ lnR 𝑇 = 𝜎B T A 1 = A 1 T 𝑌 ⋅ lnR
A!
Materiale plastico ideale σH = Y ln = Y ln R
A1
A
Materiale plastico con incrudimento o ln ! = Y
σH = Y o ln R
A1
Yf
Y
a
Af
A0
T
s 1 = sT ≤ Y
T
σH = ≤ Y
ef = ln(A0/Af) AI
0 x
Nella trafilatura di barre o di fili aventi sezione circolare il tiro non deve superare il
carico ammissibile a trazione, ovvero la tensione reale non deve superare la tensione di
snervamento
{
σ{ = | ≤ 𝑌è conservativa o no?
G
σJ A!
lnR ≡ ε1 ≤ = 1 R= ≤ e ≅ 2,7
𝑌 A#
A! − A1 A# 1
r% = T 100 = (1− ) T 100 = (1 − ) T 100 = 63 %
A! A! e
e ‡))+
𝜎x = 𝑌% ⋅ lnR = ≤ 𝐾𝜀#*
e
0 e
𝜀
*+! #
de e
fin
0 de fin
A!
𝜀# ≤ 𝑛 + 1 lnR ≡ ε1 ≤ n + 1 R= ≤ en+1
A#
A! − A1 A1 n = 0,2
r% = = 1− ≤ 1−eM($'() r[%] ≤ 70%
A! A!
Yf
Y
a
Af
A0
T
s 1 = sT ≤ Y
ef = ln(A0/Af)
0 x
Drawing stress
Inhomogeneity factor
Drawing Stress
FIGURE 6.62 Variation in the (a) drawing stress and (b) die
contact pressure along the deformation zone. Note that as the
drawing stress increases, the die pressure decreases (see also
yield criteria, described in Section 2.11). Note the effect of back
tension on the stress and pressure.
1 2 3 4
a b c
va vb vc
Trafilatura.
Nella trafilatura i fenomeni che intervengono nella definizione del tiro T necessario
sono di diversa natura:
Riduzione della sezione,
Distorsione per effetto della conicità della matrice (cilindro-cono-cilindro),
Attrito sulle superfici a contatto.
Figure 19.41 Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Wire Drawing
§ Continuous drawing machines consisting of
multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated
by accumulating drums
§ Each drum (capstan) provides proper force
to draw wire stock through upstream die
§ Each die provides a small reduction, so
desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
§ Annealing sometimes required between dies
to relieve work hardening
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Tube-Drawing Operations
FIGURE 6.64 Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note
that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same tube stock (that
has been produced by other processes, such as extrusion
Drawing Dies
FIGURE 6.66 (a) Terminology for a typical die for drawing round rod
FIGURE 6.67 Schematic illustration of a typical
or wire. (b) Tungsten-carbide die insert in a steel casing. Diamond dies,
wear pattern in a wire-drawing die.
used in drawing thin wire, also are encased in a similar manner.
Rotary Swaging
FIGURE 6.68 (a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process. (b) Forming internal profiles in a
tubular workpiece by swaging.
Rotary Swaging
FIGURE 6.69 Reduction of outer and inner
diameters of tubes by swaging. (a) Free sinking
without a mandrel. The ends of solid bars and wire
are tapered (pointing) by this process in order to
feed the material into the conical die. (b) Sinking on
a mandrel. Coaxial tubes of different materials can
also be swaged in one operation.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Forming Economics