Ancient Greece and Rome

a very basic wiki history

Contents

1 Ancient Greece 1
 %JTQPQNQI[                                               
 *KUVQTKQITCRJ[                                              
 *KUVQT[                                                  
 #TEJCKE RGTKQF                                         
 %NCUUKECN )TGGEG                                        
 *GNNGPKUVKE )TGGEG                                       
 4QOCP )TGGEG                                         
 )GQITCRJ[                                                
 4GIKQPU                                             
 %QNQPKGU                                             
 2QNKVKEU CPF UQEKGV[                                           
 2QNKVKECN UVTWEVWTG                                        
 )QXGTPOGPV CPF NCY                                      
 5QEKCN UVTWEVWTG                                         
 'FWECVKQP                                            
 'EQPQO[                                            
 9CTHCTG                                             
 %WNVWTG                                                 
 2JKNQUQRJ[                                           
 .KVGTCVWTG CPF VJGCVTG                                      
 /WUKE CPF FCPEG                                        
 5EKGPEG CPF VGEJPQNQI[                                     
 #TV CPF CTEJKVGEVWTG                                       
 4GNKIKQP CPF O[VJQNQI[                                     
 .GICE[                                                  
 5GG CNUQ                                                 
 4GHGTGPEGU                                                
 (WTVJGT TGCFKPI                                             
 'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                              

2 Ancient Rome 16
 (QWPFKPI O[VJ                                             

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 -KPIFQO                                                 
 4GRWDNKE                                                 
 2WPKE 9CTU                                           
 .CVG 4GRWDNKE                                              
 /CTKWU CPF 5WNNC                                        
 %CGUCT CPF VJG (KTUV 6TKWOXKTCVG                                
 1EVCXKCP CPF VJG 5GEQPF 6TKWOXKTCVG                              
 'ORKTG  VJG 2TKPEKRCVG                                         
 ,WNKQ%NCWFKCP F[PCUV[                                     
 (NCXKCP F[PCUV[                                         
 0GTXC#PVQPKPG F[PCUV[                                    
 5GXGTCP F[PCUV[                                         
 %TKUKU QH VJG 6JKTF %GPVWT[                                   
 'ORKTG  VJG &QOKPCVG                                         
 &KQENGVKCP                                            
 %QPUVCPVKPG CPF %JTKUVKCPKV[                                  
 (CNN QH VJG 9GUVGTP 4QOCP 'ORKTG                                   
 5QEKGV[                                                  
 %NCUU UVTWEVWTG                                         
 (COKN[                                              
 'FWECVKQP                                            
 )QXGTPOGPV                                           
 .CY                                               
 'EQPQO[                                            
 /KNKVCT[                                             
 %WNVWTG                                                 
 .CPIWCIG                                            
 4GNKIKQP                                             
 #TV OWUKE CPF NKVGTCVWTG                                    
 %WKUKPG                                             
 )COGU CPF TGETGCVKQP                                      
 6GEJPQNQI[                                               
 .GICE[                                                  
 *KUVQTKQITCRJ[                                              
 +P 4QOCP VKOGU                                         
 +P OQFGTP VKOGU                                         
 5GG CNUQ                                                 
 0QVGU                                                  
 4GHGTGPEGU                                                
 (WTVJGT TGCFKPI                                             
 'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                              
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 6GZV CPF KOCIG UQWTEGU EQPVTKDWVQTU CPF NKEGPUGU                           

 6GZV                                               
 +OCIGU                                             
 %QPVGPV NKEGPUG                                         
Chapter 1
Ancient Greece
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VKXGN[ C UVCNGOCVG HQT OWEJ QH VJG YCT #VJGPU UWGTGF
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BOE IFS PXM PO UIF SFWFSTFUI DFOUVSZ #$ HQNNQYGF D[ C FKUCUVTQWU OKNKVCT[ ECORCKIP MPQYP CU VJG
5KEKNKCP 'ZRGFKVKQP UGXGTGN[ YGCMGPGF #VJGPU #TQWPF
VJKTV[ RGT EGPV QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP FKGF KP C V[RJQKF GRK
FGOKE KP  $%=?
5RCTVC YCU CDNG VQ HQOGPV TGDGNNKQP COQPI #VJGPUU CNNKGU
HWTVJGT TGFWEKPI VJG #VJGPKCP CDKNKV[ VQ YCIG YCT 6JG
FGEKUKXG OQOGPV ECOG KP  $% YJGP 5RCTVC EWV Q
VJG ITCKP UWRRN[ VQ #VJGPU HTQO VJG *GNNGURQPV (QTEGF
VQ CVVCEM VJG ETKRRNGF #VJGPKCP GGV YCU FGEKUKXGN[ FG
HGCVGF D[ VJG 5RCTVCPU WPFGT VJG EQOOCPF QH .[UCPFGT
CV #GIQURQVCOK +P  $% #VJGPU UWGF HQT RGCEG CPF
5RCTVC FKEVCVGF C RTGFKEVCDN[ UVGTP UGVVNGOGPV #VJGPU NQUV
JGT EKV[ YCNNU
KPENWFKPI VJG .QPI 9CNNU JGT GGV CPF CNN
QH JGT QXGTUGCU RQUUGUUKQPU

4th century
"UUJD SFEHVSF QPUUFSZ M[NKZ CZ UIF 5SJQUPMFNPT 1BJOUFS D 
#$ 1BSJT -PVWSF
)TGGEG VJWU GPVGTGF VJG VJ EGPVWT[ WPFGT C 5RCTVCP
JGIGOQP[ DWV KV YCU ENGCT HTQO VJG UVCTV VJCV VJKU YCU
Byzantium
YGCM # FGOQITCRJKE ETKUKU OGCPV 5RCTVC YCU QXGT
UVTGVEJGF CPF D[  $% #VJGPU #TIQU 6JGDGU CPF
IS
NT
Perinthos Astakos

O PO
II Kios
PR

%QTKPVJ HGNV CDNG VQ EJCNNGPIG 5RCTVCP FQOKPCPEG TGUWNV

Proconnesus
Maroneia
Abdera
se
Cyzicus
e
Thasos on
AD

Amphipolis 436
er Lampsacus
Ch
KPI KP VJG %QTKPVJKCP 9CT
 $% #PQVJGT YCT QH
465/3 Samothrace
Eion 476/5 Abydos
RI

Stageira Imbros
Olynthus

UVCNGOCVGU KV GPFGF YKVJ VJG UVCVWU SWQ TGUVQTGF CHVGT VJG

Methone
AT

Tenedos
Potidaea432
Torone Lemnos
Assos
Mende I Halonnesus
IC

VJTGCV QH 2GTUKCP KPVGTXGPVKQP QP DGJCNH QH VJG 5RCTVCPU

Lesbos
A

Mytilene
E

Ikkos Kymi
SE

Skiathos
G

Phocaea
Peparethos
E

Kerkyra

6JG 5RCTVCP JGIGOQP[ NCUVGF CPQVJGT  [GCTU WPVKN

Oreos 446 Chios Erythrae
A

Euboea Skyros 469 Clazomenae

Chios
N

Chalcis 446 Ephesus

Eretria V III Samos

YJGP CVVGORVKPI VQ KORQUG VJGKT YKNN QP VJG 6JGDCPU

Priene
S

Karystos 469/8 440

E

Leucas LOCRIS ATTICA Ikaros

D Miletus
A

Athens Andros O Iasos

D
EC

VJG 5RCTVCPU UWGTGF C FGEKUKXG FGHGCV CV .GWEVTC KP 

Salamis Tinos Patmos
A Halicarnassus
Cephallenia Keos Leros N
Mykonos ES
Aegina 456 Delos Kalymnos E
Kythnos Naxos
Zakynthos Cos Cnidus
468

$% 6JG 6JGDCP IGPGTCN 'RCOKPQPFCU VJGP NGF 6JGDCP

Seriphos Paros Rhodes
The Athenian Empire at the brink of the Amorgos
ADES
Siphnos Nisyros Telos
Peloponnesian War (431 BCE) CYCL Kameiros
Ios Astypalaia
Sikinos Lindos
Aegina (456) Melos
IV
VTQQRU KPVQ VJG 2GNQRQPPGUG YJGTGWRQP QVJGT EKV[UVCVGU
Rhodes
City-state (date captured) Ana
Cleruchy (Athenian garrison) (date) Thera
Rebellion against Athens (date)

FGHGEVGF HTQO VJG 5RCTVCP ECWUG 6JG 6JGDCPU YGTG VJWU

Athenian territory Karpathos
Kythira
Territory of allied city-states
I Thrace district

CDNG VQ OCTEJ KPVQ /GUUGPKC CPF HTGG VJG RQRWNCVKQP

II Hellespontic district
III Ionic district
IV0 Carian
50 district (joined with ionic after 438)
100 km
0 50 100 km
V Islands district 0 25 50 mi

&GRTKXGF QH NCPF CPF KVU UGTHU 5RCTVC FGENKPGF VQ C

UGEQPFTCPM RQYGT 6JG 6JGDCP JGIGOQP[ VJWU GUVCD
%FMJBO -FBHVF "UIFOJBO &NQJSF
JNNFEJBUFMZ CFGPSF UIF
1FMPQPOOFTJBO 8BS JO  #$ NKUJGF YCU UJQTVNKXGF CV VJG $CVVNG QH /CPVKPGC KP 
$% 6JGDGU NQUV KVU MG[ NGCFGT 'RCOKPQPFCU CPF OWEJ
QH KVU OCPRQYGT GXGP VJQWIJ VJG[ YGTG XKEVQTKQWU KP DCV
RKTG FGEKFGF VQ UWDLWICVG )TGGEG *KU KPXCUKQP KP  VNG +P HCEV UWEJ YGTG VJG NQUUGU VQ CNN VJG ITGCV EKV[UVCVGU
$% YCU GPFGF D[ VJG #VJGPKCP XKEVQT[ CV VJG $CVVNG QH CV /CPVKPGC VJCV PQPG EQWNF GUVCDNKUJ FQOKPCPEG KP VJG
/CTCVJQP WPFGT /KNVKCFGU VJG ;QWPIGT CHVGTOCVJ
:GTZGU + QH 2GTUKC UQP CPF UWEEGUUQT QH &CTKWU + CV 6JG YGCMGPGF UVCVG QH VJG JGCTVNCPF QH )TGGEG EQKPEKFGF
VGORVGF JKU QYP KPXCUKQP  [GCTU NCVGT DWV FGURKVG JKU YKVJ VJG 4KUG QH /CEGFQP NGF D[ 2JKNKR ++ +P VYGPV[
NCTIGT CTO[ JG UWGTGF JGCX[ ECUWCNVKGU CHVGT VJG HCOQWU [GCTU 2JKNKR JCF WPKGF JKU MKPIFQO GZRCPFGF KV PQTVJ
TGCTIWCTF CEVKQP CV 6JGTOQR[NCG CPF XKEVQTKGU HQT VJG CN CPF YGUV CV VJG GZRGPUG QH +NN[TKCP VTKDGU CPF VJGP EQP
NKGF )TGGMU CV VJG $CVVNGU QH 5CNCOKU CPF 2NCVCGC 6JG SWGTGF 6JGUUCN[ CPF 6JTCEG *KU UWEEGUU UVGOOGF HTQO
 )*4503: 

JKU KPPQXCVKXG TGHQTOU VQ VJG /CEGFQP CTO[ 2JKNNKR KP

VGTXGPGF TGRGCVGFN[ KP VJG CCKTU QH VJG UQWVJGTP EKV[
UVCVGU EWNOKPCVKPI KP JKU KPXCUKQP QH  $%
&GEKUKXGN[ FGHGCVKPI CP CNNKGF CTO[ QH 6JGDGU CPF #VJGPU
CV VJG $CVVNG QH %JCGTQPGC
 $% JG DGECOG EF GBDUP
JGIGOQP QH CNN QH )TGGEG GZEGRV 5RCTVC *G EQO
RGNNGF VJG OCLQTKV[ QH VJG EKV[UVCVGU VQ LQKP VJG .GCIWG QH
%QTKPVJ CNN[KPI VJGO VQ JKO CPF RTGXGPVKPI VJGO HTQO
YCTTKPI YKVJ GCEJ QVJGT 2JKNKR VJGP GPVGTGF KPVQ YCT
CICKPUV VJG #EJCGOGPKF 'ORKTG DWV YCU CUUCUUKPCVGF D[
2CWUCPKCU QH 1TGUVKU GCTN[ QP KP VJG EQPKEV
#NGZCPFGT UQP CPF UWEEGUUQT QH 2JKNKR EQPVKPWGF VJG
YCT #NGZCPFGT FGHGCVGF &CTKWU +++ QH 2GTUKC CPF EQO
RNGVGN[ FGUVTQ[GF VJG #EJCGOGPKF 'ORKTG CPPGZKPI KV
VQ /CEGFQP CPF GCTPKPI JKOUGNH VJG GRKVJGV VJG )TGCV 
9JGP #NGZCPFGT FKGF KP  $% )TGGM RQYGT CPF KPW
GPEG YCU CV KVU \GPKVJ *QYGXGT VJGTG JCF DGGP C HWPFC
OGPVCN UJKHV CYC[ HTQO VJG GTEG KPFGRGPFGPEG CPF ENCU
UKECN EWNVWTG QH VJG QPMFJTCPF KPUVGCF VQYCTFU VJG FGXGN
QRKPI *GNNGPKUVKE EWNVWTG

5FSSJUPSJFT BOE FYQBOTJPO PG UIF *OEP(SFFLT<>

1.3.3 Hellenistic Greece

/CKP CTVKENGU 9CTU QH #NGZCPFGT VJG )TGCV *GNNGPKUVKE &WTKPI VJG *GNNGPKUVKE RGTKQF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH )TGGEG
2GTKQF CPF *GNNGPKUVKE EKXKNK\CVKQP RTQRGT
VJCV KU VJG VGTTKVQT[ QH OQFGTP )TGGEG YKVJKP
6JG *GNNGPKUVKE RGTKQF NCUVGF HTQO  $% YJKEJ VJG )TGGMURGCMKPI YQTNF FGENKPGF UJCTRN[ 6JG ITGCV
EGPVGTU QH *GNNGPKUVKE EWNVWTG YGTG #NGZCPFTKC CPF
#PVKQEJ ECRKVCNU QH 2VQNGOCKE 'I[RV CPF 5GNGWEKF 5[TKC
TGURGEVKXGN[
6JG EQPSWGUVU QH #NGZCPFGT JCF PWOGTQWU EQPUGSWGPEGU
HQT VJG )TGGM EKV[UVCVGU +V ITGCVN[ YKFGPGF VJG JQTK\QPU
QH VJG )TGGMU CPF NGF VQ C UVGCF[ GOKITCVKQP RCTVKEW
NCTN[ QH VJG [QWPI CPF CODKVKQWU VQ VJG PGY )TGGM GO
RKTGU KP VJG GCUV=? /CP[ )TGGMU OKITCVGF VQ #NGZCP
FTKC #PVKQEJ CPF VJG OCP[ QVJGT PGY *GNNGPKUVKE EKVKGU
HQWPFGF KP #NGZCPFGTU YCMG CU HCT CYC[ CU YJCV CTG
5IF NBKPS )FMMFOJTUJD SFBMNT JODMVEFE UIF %JBEPDIJ LJOHEPNT PQY #HIJCPKUVCP CPF 2CMKUVCP YJGTG VJG )TGEQ$CEVTKCP
,JOHEPN PG 1UPMFNZ * 4PUFS -KPIFQO CPF VJG +PFQ)TGGM -KPIFQO UWTXKXGF WPVKN VJG
,JOHEPN PG $BTTBOEFS GPF QH VJG UV EGPVWT[ $%
,JOHEPN PG -ZTJNBDIVT
,JOHEPN PG 4FMFVDVT * /JDBUPS #HVGT VJG FGCVJ QH #NGZCPFGT JKU GORKTG YCU CHVGT SWKVG
&QJSVT UQOG EQPKEV FKXKFGF COQPI JKU IGPGTCNU TGUWNVKPI KP
"MTP TIPXO PO UIF NBQ VJG 2VQNGOCKE -KPIFQO
DCUGF WRQP 'I[RV VJG 5GNGWEKF
(SFFL DPMPOJFT 'ORKTG
DCUGF QP VJG .GXCPV /GUQRQVCOKC CPF 2GTUKC
$BSUIBHF OPO(SFFL
CPF VJG #PVKIQPKF F[PCUV[ DCUGF KP /CEGFQP +P VJG KP
3PNF OPO(SFFL
VGTXGPKPI RGTKQF VJG RQNGKU QH )TGGEG YGTG CDNG VQ YTGUV
5IF PSBOHF BSFBT XFSF PGUFO JO EJTQVUF BGUFS  #$ 5IF
DCEM UQOG QH VJGKT HTGGFQO CNVJQWIJ UVKNN PQOKPCNN[ UWD
LJOHEPN PG 1FSHBNPO PDDVQJFE TPNF PG UIJT BSFB /PU TIPXO
LGEV VQ VJG /CEGFQPKCP -KPIFQO
*OEP(SFFLT
6JG EKV[UVCVGU YKVJKP )TGGEG HQTOGF VJGOUGNXGU KPVQ VYQ
OCTMGF VJG GPF QH VJG 9CTU QH #NGZCPFGT VJG )TGCV VQ NGCIWGU VJG #EJCGCP .GCIWG
KPENWFKPI 6JGDGU %QTKPVJ
VJG CPPGZCVKQP QH )TGGEG D[ VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE KP  CPF #TIQU CPF VJG #GVQNKCP .GCIWG
KPENWFKPI 5RCTVC
$% #NVJQWIJ VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH 4QOCP TWNG FKF PQV CPF #VJGPU (QT OWEJ QH VJG RGTKQF WPVKN VJG 4QOCP
DTGCM VJG EQPVKPWKV[ QH *GNNGPKUVKE UQEKGV[ CPF EWNVWTG EQPSWGUV VJGUG NGCIWGU YGTG WUWCNN[ CV YCT YKVJ GCEJ
YJKEJ TGOCKPGF GUUGPVKCNN[ WPEJCPIGF WPVKN VJG CFXGPV QH QVJGT CPFQT CNNKGF VQ FKGTGPV UKFGU KP VJG EQPKEVU DG
%JTKUVKCPKV[ KV FKF OCTM VJG GPF QH )TGGM RQNKVKECN KPFG VYGGP VJG &KCFQEJK
VJG UWEEGUUQT UVCVGU VQ #NGZCPFGTU
RGPFGPEG GORKTG
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 (3&&$&

6JG #PVKIQPKF -KPIFQO DGECOG KPXQNXGF KP C YCT YKVJ

VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE KP VJG NCVG TF EGPVWT[ #NVJQWIJ
VJG (KTUV /CEGFQPKCP 9CT YCU KPEQPENWUKXG VJG 4QOCPU
KP V[RKECN HCUJKQP EQPVKPWGF VQ OCMG YCT QP /CEGFQP
WPVKN KV YCU EQORNGVGN[ CDUQTDGF KPVQ VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE

D[  $% +P VJG GCUV VJG WPYKGNF[ 5GNGWEKF 'ORKTG

ITCFWCNN[ FKUKPVGITCVGF CNVJQWIJ C TWOR UWTXKXGF WPVKN
 $% YJKNUV VJG 2VQNGOCKE -KPIFQO EQPVKPWGF KP 'I[RV
WPVKN  $% YJGP KV VQQ YCU EQPSWGTGF D[ VJG 4QOCPU
6JG #GVQNKCP NGCIWG ITGY YCT[ QH 4QOCP KPXQNXGOGPV
KP )TGGEG CPF UKFGF YKVJ VJG 5GNGWEKFU KP VJG 4QOCP
5[TKCP 9CT YJGP VJG 4QOCPU YGTG XKEVQTKQWU VJG NGCIWG
YCU GGEVKXGN[ CDUQTDGF KPVQ VJG 4GRWDNKE #NVJQWIJ VJG
#EJCGCP NGCIWG QWVNCUVGF DQVJ VJG #GVQNKCP NGCIWG CPF
/CEGFQP KV YCU CNUQ UQQP FGHGCVGF CPF CDUQTDGF D[ VJG
4QOCPU KP  $% DTKPIKPI CP GPF VQ VJG KPFGRGPFGPEG
QH CNN QH )TGGEG

1.3.4 Roman Greece

/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP )TGGEG
.BQ TIPXJOH UIF NBKPS SFHJPOT PG NBJOMBOE BODJFOU (SFFDF BOE
(WTVJGT KPHQTOCVKQP $[\CPVKPG )TGGEG
BEKBDFOU CBSCBSJBO MBOET

6JG )TGGM RGPKPUWNC ECOG WPFGT 4QOCP TWNG FWTKPI

VJG  $% EQPSWGUV QH )TGGEG CHVGT VJG $CVVNG QH
%QTKPVJ /CEGFQPKC DGECOG C 4QOCP RTQXKPEG YJKNG
UQWVJGTP )TGGEG ECOG WPFGT VJG UWTXGKNNCPEG QH /CEG
FQPKCU RTGHGEV JQYGXGT UQOG )TGGM RQNGKU OCPCIGF VQ
OCKPVCKP C RCTVKCN KPFGRGPFGPEG CPF CXQKF VCZCVKQP 6JG
YGUV #EJCKC
PQTVJ -QTKPVJKC
PQTVJGCUV #T
#GIGCP KUNCPFU YGTG CFFGF VQ VJKU VGTTKVQT[ KP  $%
GCUV CPF #TECFKC
EGPVGT 6JGUG PCOGU UWTXKXG
#VJGPU CPF QVJGT )TGGM EKVKGU TGXQNVGF KP  $% CPF VJG
RGPKPUWNC YCU ETWUJGF D[ VJG 4QOCP IGPGTCN 5WNNC 6JG
4QOCP EKXKN YCTU FGXCUVCVGF VJG NCPF GXGP HWTVJGT WP
VKN #WIWUVWU QTICPK\GF VJG RGPKPUWNC CU VJG RTQXKPEG QH
#EJCGC KP  $%
)TGGEG YCU C MG[ GCUVGTP RTQXKPEG QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG
CU VJG 4QOCP EWNVWTG JCF NQPI DGGP KP HCEV )TGEQ4QOCP
6JG )TGGM NCPIWCIG UGTXGF CU C MJOHVB GSBODB KP VJG 'CUV
CPF KP +VCN[ CPF OCP[ )TGGM KPVGNNGEVWCNU UWEJ CU )CNGP
YQWNF RGTHQTO OQUV QH VJGKT YQTM KP 4QOG
PQTVJ /QNQUUKC
EGPVGT CPF 6JGURTQVKC
UQWVJ +P VJG PQTVJGCUV EQTPGT YCU /CEGFQPKC=? QTKI
1.4 Geography
1.4.1 Regions
/CKP CTVKENG 4GIKQPU QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG
6JG VGTTKVQT[ QH )TGGEG KU OQWPVCKPQWU CPF CU C TGUWNV
CPEKGPV )TGGEG EQPUKUVGF QH OCP[ UOCNNGT TGIKQPU GCEJ
YKVJ KVU QYP FKCNGEV EWNVWTCN RGEWNKCTKVKGU CPF KFGPVKV[
4GIKQPCNKUO CPF TGIKQPCN EQPKEVU YGTG C RTQOKPGPV HGC
VWTG QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG %KVKGU VGPFGF VQ DG NQECVGF KP XCN
NG[U DGVYGGP OQWPVCKPU QT QP EQCUVCN RNCKPU CPF FQOK
PCVGF C EGTVCKP CTGC CTQWPF VJGO
+P VJG UQWVJ NC[ VJG 2GNQRQPPGUG KVUGNH EQPUKUVKPI QH VJG
TGIKQPU QH .CEQPKC
UQWVJGCUV /GUUGPKC
UQWVJYGUV UJQTGU QH VJG #GIGCP KP #PCVQNKC
'NKU
IQNKU
VQ VJG RTGUGPV FC[ CU TGIKQPCN WPKVU QH OQFGTP )TGGEG
VJQWIJ YKVJ UQOGYJCV FKGTGPV DQWPFCTKGU /CKPNCPF
)TGGEG VQ VJG PQTVJ PQYCFC[U MPQYP CU %GPVTCN )TGGEG
EQPUKUVGF QH #GVQNKC CPF #ECTPCPKC KP VJG YGUV .QETKU
&QTKU CPF 2JQEKU KP VJG EGPVGT YJKNG KP VJG GCUV NC[
$QGQVKC #VVKEC CPF /GICTKU 0QTVJGCUV NC[ 6JGUUCN[
YJKNG 'RKTWU NC[ VQ VJG PQTVJYGUV 'RKTWU UVTGVEJGF HTQO
VJG #ODTCEKCP )WNH KP VJG UQWVJ VQ VJG %GTCWPKCP OQWP
VCKPU CPF VJG #QQU TKXGT KP VJG PQTVJ CPF EQPUKUVGF
QH %JCQPKC
KPCNN[ EQPUKUVKPI .QYGT /CEGFQPKC CPF KVU TGIKQPU UWEJ
CU 'NKOGKC 2KGTKC CPF 1TGUVKU #TQWPF VJG VKOG QH
#NGZCPFGT + QH /CEGFQP VJG #TIGCF MKPIU QH /CEGFQP
UVCTVGF VQ GZRCPF KPVQ 7RRGT /CEGFQPKC NCPFU KPJCDKVGF
D[ KPFGRGPFGPV /CEGFQPKCP VTKDGU NKMG VJG .[PEGUVCG CPF
VJG 'NOKQVCG CPF VQ VJG 9GUV DG[QPF VJG #ZKWU TKXGT
KPVQ 'QTFCKC $QVVKCGC /[IFQPKC CPF #NOQRKC TGIKQPU
UGVVNGF D[ 6JTCEKCP VTKDGU=? 6Q VJG PQTVJ QH /CEGFQPKC
NC[ XCTKQWU PQP)TGGM RGQRNGU UWEJ CU VJG 2CGQPKCPU FWG
PQTVJ VJG 6JTCEKCPU VQ VJG PQTVJGCUV CPF VJG +NN[TKCPU
YKVJ YJQO VJG /CEGFQPKCPU YGTG HTGSWGPVN[ KP EQPKEV
VQ VJG PQTVJYGUV %JCNEKFKEG YCU UGVVNGF GCTN[ QP D[
UQWVJGTP )TGGM EQNQPKUVU CPF YCU EQPUKFGTGF RCTV QH VJG
)TGGM YQTNF YJKNG HTQO VJG NCVG PF OKNNGPPKWO $%
UWDUVCPVKCN )TGGM UGVVNGOGPV CNUQ QEEWTTGF QP VJG GCUVGTP
 10-*5*$4 "/% 40$*&5: 

1.4.2 Colonies

5GG CNUQ )TGGMU KP RTG4QOCP )CWN /CIPC )TCGEKC CPF

.KUV QH )TGGM EKVKGU KP 6JTCEG CPF &CEKC
&WTKPI VJG #TEJCKE RGTKQF VJG RQRWNCVKQP QH )TGGEG

(SFFL DJUJFT  DPMPOJFT D  #$

ITGY DG[QPF VJG ECRCEKV[ QH KVU NKOKVGF CTCDNG NCPF

CE
$JUJFT BOE UPXOT PG BODJFOU (SFFDF
EQTFKPI VQ QPG GUVKOCVG VJG RQRWNCVKQP QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG
KPETGCUGF D[ C HCEVQT NCTIGT VJCP VGP FWTKPI VJG RGTKQF
HTQO  $% VQ  $% KPETGCUKPI HTQO C RQRWNCVKQP
QH  VQ C VQVCN GUVKOCVGF RQRWNCVKQP QH  VQ  NKMG VJCV KP OQUV QVJGT EQPVGORQTCT[ UQEKGVKGU YJKEJ
OKNNKQP=? YGTG GKVJGT VTKDCN QT MKPIFQOU TWNKPI QXGT TGNCVKXGN[ NCTIG
VGTTKVQTKGU 7PFQWDVGFN[ VJG IGQITCRJ[ QH )TGGEG
(TQO CDQWV  $% VJG )TGGMU DGICP  [GCTU QH GZ FKXKFGF CPF UWDFKXKFGF D[ JKNNU OQWPVCKPU CPF TKXGTU
RCPUKQP UGVVNKPI EQNQPKGU KP CNN FKTGEVKQPU 6Q VJG GCUV VJG EQPVTKDWVGF VQ VJG HTCIOGPVCT[ PCVWTG QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG
#GIGCP EQCUV QH #UKC /KPQT YCU EQNQPK\GF TUV HQNNQYGF 1P VJG QPG JCPF VJG CPEKGPV )TGGMU JCF PQ FQWDV VJCV
D[ %[RTWU CPF VJG EQCUVU QH 6JTCEG VJG 5GC QH /CTOCTC VJG[ YGTG QPG RGQRNG VJG[ JCF VJG UCOG TGNKIKQP
CPF UQWVJ EQCUV QH VJG $NCEM 5GC UCOG DCUKE EWNVWTG CPF UCOG NCPIWCIG (WTVJGTOQTG VJG
'XGPVWCNN[ )TGGM EQNQPK\CVKQP TGCEJGF CU HCT PQTVJGCUV )TGGMU YGTG XGT[ CYCTG QH VJGKT VTKDCN QTKIKPU *GTQFQVWU
CU RTGUGPV FC[ 7MTCKPG CPF 4WUUKC
6CICPTQI 6Q VJG YCU CDNG VQ GZVGPUKXGN[ ECVGIQTKUG VJG EKV[UVCVGU D[ VTKDG
YGUV VJG EQCUVU QH +NN[TKC 5KEKN[ CPF 5QWVJGTP +VCN[ YGTG ;GV CNVJQWIJ VJGUG JKIJGTNGXGN TGNCVKQPUJKRU GZKUVGF
UGVVNGF HQNNQYGF D[ 5QWVJGTP (TCPEG %QTUKEC CPF GXGP VJG[ UGGO VQ JCXG TCTGN[ JCF C OCLQT TQNG KP )TGGM RQN
PQTVJGCUVGTP 5RCKP )TGGM EQNQPKGU YGTG CNUQ HQWPFGF KP KVKEU 6JG KPFGRGPFGPEG QH VJG QPMFJT YCU GTEGN[ FG
'I[RV CPF .KD[C HGPFGF WPKECVKQP YCU UQOGVJKPI TCTGN[ EQPVGORNCVGF
D[ VJG CPEKGPV )TGGMU 'XGP YJGP FWTKPI VJG UGEQPF
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EKGPV 'I[RVKCPU CPF $CD[NQPKCPU JCU NQPI DGGP C VQRKE QH
 $6-563& 

UVWF[ D[ VJGQTKUVU QH EKXKNK\CVKQP QH YQTMU QP OCP[ UEKGPVKE FKUEKRNKPGU DWV JKU ITGCVGUV
5QOG YGNNMPQYP RJKNQUQRJGTU QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG YGTG EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ NKVGTCVWTG YCU NKMGN[ JKU 1PFUJDT YJKEJ NC[U
2NCVQ 5QETCVGU CPF OCP[ QVJGTU 6JG[ JCXG CKFGF KP KP QWV JKU WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH FTCOC CPF VJGTGD[ GUVCDNKUJGU
HQTOCVKQP CDQWV CPEKGPV )TGGM UQEKGV[ VJTQWIJ YTKVKPIU VJG TUV ETKVGTKC HQT NKVGTCT[ ETKVKEKUO
UWEJ CU 5IF 3FQVCMJD D[ 2NCVQ
1.6.3 Music and dance
1.6.2 Literature and theatre /CKP CTVKENG /WUKE QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG

/CKP CTVKENGU #PEKGPV )TGGM NKVGTCVWTG #PEKGPV )TGGM

EQOGF[ CPF 6JGCVTG QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG /WUKE YCU RTGUGPV CNOQUV WPKXGTUCNN[ KP )TGGM UQEKGV[
#PEKGPV )TGGM UQEKGV[ RNCEGF EQPUKFGTCDNG GORJCUKU HTQO OCTTKCIGU CPF HWPGTCNU VQ TGNKIKQWU EGTGOQPKGU VJG
CVTG HQNM OWUKE CPF VJG DCNNCFNKMG TGEKVKPI QH GRKE RQ
GVT[ 6JGTG CTG UKIPKECPV HTCIOGPVU QH CEVWCN )TGGM
OWUKECN PQVCVKQP CU YGNN CU OCP[ NKVGTCT[ TGHGTGPEGU VQ CP
EKGPV )TGGM OWUKE )TGGM CTV FGRKEVU OWUKECN KPUVTWOGPVU
CPF FCPEG 6JG YQTF NVTJD FGTKXGU HTQO VJG PCOG QH VJG
/WUGU VJG FCWIJVGTU QH <GWU YJQ YGTG RCVTQP IQFFGUUGU
QH VJG CTVU

1.6.4 Science and technology

/CKP CTVKENGU .KUV QH )TCGEQ4QOCP IGQITCRJGTU )TGGM
CUVTQPQO[ )TGGM OCVJGOCVKEU #PEKGPV )TGGM OGFKEKPG
CPF #PEKGPV )TGGM VGEJPQNQI[
#PEKGPV )TGGM OCVJGOCVKEU EQPVTKDWVGF OCP[ KORQTVCPV

5IF UIFBUSF PG &QJEBVSPT UI DFOUVSZ #$

WRQP NKVGTCVWTG /CP[ CWVJQTU EQPUKFGT VJG YGUVGTP NKV

GTCT[ VTCFKVKQP VQ JCXG DGIWP YKVJ VJG GRKE RQGOU 5IF
*MJBE CPF 5IF 0EZTTFZ YJKEJ TGOCKP IKCPVU KP VJG NKVGT
CT[ ECPQP HQT VJGKT UMKNNHWN CPF XKXKF FGRKEVKQPU QH YCT
CPF RGCEG JQPQT CPF FKUITCEG NQXG CPF JCVTGF 0QVCDNG
COQPI NCVGT )TGGM RQGVU YCU 5CRRJQ YJQ FGPGF KP
OCP[ YC[U N[TKE RQGVT[ CU C IGPTG
# RNC[YTKIJV PCOGF #GUEJ[NWU EJCPIGF 9GUVGTP NKVGT
CVWTG HQTGXGT YJGP JG KPVTQFWEGF VJG KFGCU QH FKCNQIWG
CPF KPVGTCEVKPI EJCTCEVGTU VQ RNC[YTKVKPI +P FQKPI UQ
JG GUUGPVKCNN[ KPXGPVGF FTCOC JKU 0SFTUFJB VTKNQI[ QH
RNC[U KU UGGP CU JKU ETQYPKPI CEJKGXGOGPV 1VJGT TGPGTU
QH RNC[YTKVKPI YGTG 5QRJQENGU CPF 'WTKRKFGU 5QRJQENGU
KU ETGFKVGF YKVJ UMKNNHWNN[ FGXGNQRKPI KTQP[ CU C NKVGTCT[
VGEJPKSWG OQUV HCOQWUN[ KP JKU RNC[ 0FEJQVT UIF ,JOH 5IF "OUJLZUIFSB NFDIBOJTN XBT BO BOBMPH DPNQVUFS GSPN 
'WTKRGFGU EQPXGTUGN[ WUGF RNC[U VQ EJCNNGPIG UQEKGVCN  #$ EFTJHOFE UP DBMDVMBUF UIF QPTJUJPOT PG BTUSPOPNJDBM PC
PQTOU CPF OQTGUC JCNNOCTM QH OWEJ QH 9GUVGTP NKVGT KFDUT
CVWTG HQT VJG PGZV  [GCTU CPF DG[QPFCPF JKU YQTMU
UWEJ CU .FEFB 5IF #BDDIBF CPF 5IF 5SPKBO 8PNFO CTG FGXGNQROGPVU VQ VJG GNF QH OCVJGOCVKEU KPENWFKPI VJG
UVKNN PQVCDNG HQT VJGKT CDKNKV[ VQ EJCNNGPIG QWT RGTEGRVKQPUDCUKE TWNGU QH IGQOGVT[ VJG KFGC QH HQTOCN OCVJGOCVKECN
QH RTQRTKGV[ IGPFGT CPF YCT #TKUVQRJCPGU C EQOKE RTQQH CPF FKUEQXGTKGU KP PWODGT VJGQT[ OCVJGOCVKECN
RNC[YTKIJV FGPGU CPF UJCRGU VJG KFGC QH EQOGF[ CN CPCN[UKU CRRNKGF OCVJGOCVKEU CPF CRRTQCEJGF ENQUG VQ
OQUV CU #GUEJ[NWU JCF UJCRGF VTCIGF[ CU CP CTV HQTO GUVCDNKUJKPI KPVGITCN ECNEWNWU 6JG FKUEQXGTKGU QH UGXGTCN
#TKUVQRJCPGU OQUV HCOQWU RNC[U KPENWFG VJG -ZTJTUSBUB )TGGM OCVJGOCVKEKCPU KPENWFKPI 2[VJCIQTCU 'WENKF
CPF 5IF 'SPHT CPF #TEJKOGFGU CTG UVKNN WUGF KP OCVJGOCVKECN VGCEJKPI
2JKNQUQRJ[ GPVGTGF NKVGTCVWTG KP VJG FKCNQIWGU QH 2NCVQ VQFC[
YJQ EQPXGTVGF VJG IKXG CPF VCMG QH 5QETCVKE SWGUVKQPKPI 6JG )TGGMU FGXGNQRGF CUVTQPQO[ YJKEJ VJG[ VTGCVGF
KPVQ YTKVVGP HQTO #TKUVQVNG 2NCVQU UVWFGPV YTQVG FQ\GPU CU C DTCPEJ QH OCVJGOCVKEU VQ C JKIJN[ UQRJKUVKECVGF
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 (3&&$&

NGXGN 6JG TUV IGQOGVTKECN VJTGGFKOGPUKQPCN OQFGNU

VQ GZRNCKP VJG CRRCTGPV OQVKQP QH VJG RNCPGVU YGTG FG
XGNQRGF KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[ $% D[ 'WFQZWU QH %PKFWU
CPF %CNNKRRWU QH %[\KEWU 6JGKT [QWPIGT EQPVGORQ
TCT[ *GTCENKFGU 2QPVKEWU RTQRQUGF VJCV VJG 'CTVJ TQ
VCVGU CTQWPF KVU CZKU +P VJG TF EGPVWT[ $% #TKUVCTEJWU
QH 5COQU YCU VJG TUV VQ UWIIGUV C JGNKQEGPVTKE U[U
VGO #TEJKOGFGU KP JKU VTGCVKUG 6JG 5CPF 4GEMQPGT TG
XKXGU #TKUVCTEJWU J[RQVJGUKU VJCV UIF YFE TUBST BOE UIF
4VO SFNBJO VONPWFE XIJMF UIF &BSUI SFWPMWFT BCPVU UIF
4VO PO UIF DJSDVNGFSFODF PG B DJSDMF 1VJGTYKUG QPN[
HTCIOGPVCT[ FGUETKRVKQPU QH #TKUVCTEJWU KFGC UWTXKXG=?
'TCVQUVJGPGU WUKPI VJG CPINGU QH UJCFQYU ETGCVGF CV
5IF 5FNQMF PG )FSB BU 4FMJOVOUF 4JDJMZ
YKFGN[ UGRCTCVGF TGIKQPU GUVKOCVGF VJG EKTEWOHGTGPEG QH
VJG 'CTVJ YKVJ ITGCV CEEWTCE[=? +P VJG PF EGPVWT[ $%
*KRRCTEJWU QH 0KEGC OCFG C PWODGT QH EQPVTKDWVKQPU KP
ENWFKPI VJG TUV OGCUWTGOGPV QH RTGEGUUKQP CPF VJG EQO UVCPFCTFU QH )TGGM CTV KPURKTGF IGPGTCVKQPU QH 'WTQRGCP
RKNCVKQP QH VJG TUV UVCT ECVCNQI KP YJKEJ JG RTQRQUGF VJGCTVKUVU 9GNN KPVQ VJG VJ EGPVWT[ VJG ENCUUKECN VTCFKVKQP
OQFGTP U[UVGO QH CRRCTGPV OCIPKVWFGU FGTKXGF HTQO )TGGEG FQOKPCVGF VJG CTV QH VJG YGUVGTP
6JG #PVKM[VJGTC OGEJCPKUO C FGXKEG HQT ECNEWNCVKPI VJG YQTNF
OQXGOGPVU QH RNCPGVU FCVGU HTQO CDQWV  $% CPF YCU
VJG TUV CPEGUVQT QH VJG CUVTQPQOKECN EQORWVGT +V YCU
FKUEQXGTGF KP CP CPEKGPV UJKRYTGEM Q VJG )TGGM KUNCPF
QH #PVKM[VJGTC DGVYGGP -[VJGTC CPF %TGVG 6JG FGXKEG
DGECOG HCOQWU HQT KVU WUG QH C FKGTGPVKCN IGCT RTGXK 1.6.6 Religion and mythology
QWUN[ DGNKGXGF VQ JCXG DGGP KPXGPVGF KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[
CPF VJG OKPKCVWTK\CVKQP CPF EQORNGZKV[ QH KVU RCTVU EQO /CKP CTVKENGU 4GNKIKQP KP CPEKGPV )TGGEG *GNNGPKUVKE TG
RCTCDNG VQ C ENQEM OCFG KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[ 6JG QTKIKPCN NKIKQP CPF )TGGM O[VJQNQI[
OGEJCPKUO KU FKURNC[GF KP VJG $TQP\G EQNNGEVKQP QH VJG )TGGM O[VJQNQI[ EQPUKUVU QH UVQTKGU DGNQPIKPI VQ VJG CP
0CVKQPCN #TEJCGQNQIKECN /WUGWO QH #VJGPU CEEQORC
PKGF D[ C TGRNKEC
6JG CPEKGPV )TGGMU CNUQ OCFG KORQTVCPV FKUEQXGTKGU KP
VJG OGFKECN GNF *KRRQETCVGU YCU C RJ[UKEKCP QH VJG
%NCUUKECN RGTKQF CPF KU EQPUKFGTGF QPG QH VJG OQUV QWV
UVCPFKPI IWTGU KP VJG JKUVQT[ QH OGFKEKPG *G KU TGHGTTGF
VQ CU VJG HCVJGT QH OGFKEKPG=?=?=? KP TGEQIPKVKQP QH
JKU NCUVKPI EQPVTKDWVKQPU VQ VJG GNF CU VJG HQWPFGT QH VJG
*KRRQETCVKE UEJQQN QH OGFKEKPG 6JKU KPVGNNGEVWCN UEJQQN
TGXQNWVKQPK\GF OGFKEKPG KP CPEKGPV )TGGEG GUVCDNKUJKPI
KV CU C FKUEKRNKPG FKUVKPEV HTQO QVJGT GNFU VJCV KV JCF
VTCFKVKQPCNN[ DGGP CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ
PQVCDN[ VJGWTI[ CPF
RJKNQUQRJ[ VJWU OCMKPI OGFKEKPG C RTQHGUUKQP=?=?

1.6.5 Art and architecture

IPNF PG UIF 5XFMWF 0MZNQJBOT
/CKP CTVKENGU #PEKGPV )TGGM CTV CPF #PEKGPV )TGGM CT
EJKVGEVWTG
6JG CTV QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG JCU GZGTEKUGF CP GPQTOQWU
KPWGPEG QP VJG EWNVWTG QH OCP[ EQWPVTKGU HTQO CP
EKGPV VKOGU WPVKN VJG RTGUGPV RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP VJG CTGCU QH
UEWNRVWTG CPF CTEJKVGEVWTG +P VJG 9GUV VJG CTV QH VJG
4QOCP 'ORKTG YCU NCTIGN[ FGTKXGF HTQO )TGGM OQFGNU
+P VJG 'CUV #NGZCPFGT VJG )TGCV U EQPSWGUVU KPKVKCVGF UGX
GTCN EGPVWTKGU QH GZEJCPIG DGVYGGP )TGGM %GPVTCN #UKCP
CPF +PFKCP EWNVWTGU TGUWNVKPI KP )TGEQ$WFFJKUV CTV YKVJ
TCOKECVKQPU CU HCT CU ,CRCP (QNNQYKPI VJG 4GPCKUUCPEG
KP 'WTQRG VJG JWOCPKUV CGUVJGVKE CPF VJG JKIJ VGEJPKECN
.PVOU 0MZNQVT
EKGPV )TGGMU EQPEGTPKPI VJGKT IQFU CPF JGTQGU VJG PC
VWTG QH VJG YQTNF CPF VJG QTKIKPU CPF UKIPKECPEG QH
VJGKT TGNKIKQWU RTCEVKEGU 6JG OCKP )TGGM IQFU YGTG
VJG VYGNXG 1N[ORKCPU <GWU JKU YKHG *GTC 2QUGKFQP
#TGU *GTOGU *GRJCGUVWU #RJTQFKVG #VJGPC #RQNNQ
#TVGOKU &GOGVGT CPF &KQP[UWU 1VJGT KORQTVCPV
FGKVKGU KPENWFGF *GDG *CFGU *GNKQU *GUVKC 2GTUGRJQPG
CPF *GTCENGU <GWUU RCTGPVU YGTG %TQPWU CPF 4JGC YJQ
CNUQ YGTG VJG RCTGPVU QH 2QUGKFQP *CFGU *GTC *GUVKC
CPF &GOGVGT
 3&'&3&/$&4
1.7 Legacy
 (SFFDF " 1SJ
(WTVJGT KPHQTOCVKQP %NCUUKEU
 &ODZDMPQFEJB
6JG EKXKNK\CVKQP QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG JCU DGGP KOOGPUGN[
KPWGPVKCN QP NCPIWCIG RQNKVKEU GFWECVKQPCN U[UVGOU RJK
NQUQRJ[ UEKGPEG CPF VJG CTVU +V DGECOG VJG -FJULVMUVS QH
VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG VQ VJG RQKPV QH OCTIKPCNK\KPI PCVKXG
+VCNKE VTCFKVKQPU #U *QTCEG RWV KV
 ,WPG  )JTUPSZ PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
(SBFDJB DBQUB GFSVN WJDUPSFN DFQJU FU BSUFT  JO
UVMJU BHSFTUJ -BUJP
&QJTUVMBF H  2#46 + 24'51%4#6+% 2*+
%CRVKXG )TGGEG VQQM ECRVKXG JGT GTEG EQP
SWGTQT CPF KPUVKNNGF JGT CTVU KP TWUVKE .CVKWO
 "SU BOE )JTUPSZ PG (SFFDF "OE
8KC VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG )TGGM EWNVWTG ECOG VQ DG HQWP
FCVKQPCN VQ 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG KP IGPGTCN 6JG $[\CPVKPG
'ORKTG KPJGTKVGF %NCUUKECN )TGGM EWNVWTG FKTGEVN[ YKVJ
QWV .CVKP KPVGTOGFKCVKQP CPF VJG RTGUGTXCVKQP QH ENCU
 /C[  5IF 1MBTUJD 7FOVTFT
UKECN )TGGM NGCTPKPI KP OGFKGXCN $[\CPVKPG VTCFKVKQP
HWTVJGT GZGTVGF UVTQPI KPWGPEG QP VJG 5NCXU CPF NCVGT
QP VJG +UNCOKE )QNFGP #IG CPF VJG 9GUVGTP 'WTQRGCP
4GPCKUUCPEG # OQFGTP TGXKXCN QH %NCUUKECN )TGGM NGCTP
KPI VQQM RNCEG KP VJG 0GQENCUUKEKUO OQXGOGPV KP VJ
CPF VJEGPVWT[ 'WTQRG CPF VJG #OGTKECU
5GTKGU FKUE 
1.8 See also
 $VSSFOU *TTVFT BOE UIF
1WVNKPG QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG
4GIKQPU QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG
1WVNKPG QH CPEKGPV 4QOG
 ,CPWCT[  &MJUFT " (FOFSBM
1WVNKPG QH CPEKGPV 'I[RV
1WVNKPG QH ENCUUKECN UVWFKGU
6
 4MBWJDB WJUFS
4GIKQPU KP )TGEQ4QOCP CPVKSWKV[
%NCUUKECN FGOQITCRJ[
*KUVQT[ QH UEKGPEG KP ENCUUKECN CPVKSWKV[
%KVK\GPUJKR KP CPEKGPV )TGGEG
CTVKENG UGEVKQP EWNVWTG %JGEM FCVG XCNWGU KP ^FCVG
JGNR
/CEGFQPKC
CPEKGPV MKPIFQO =? -KO %QXGTV
 ,WN[  "ODJFOU (SFFDF #JSUIQMBDF PG
6Q[PDGGU NCY QH EJCNNGPIG CPF TGURQPUG
1.9 References
 (GDTWCT[  5IF 6OJRVFOFTT
Notes
=? %CTQN ) 6JQOCU
 1BUIT GSPN BODJFOU (SFFDF 6JG (QWPFCVKQP QH VJG 9GUVGTP 9QTNF
 CPF $TWEG
$4+.. RR  +5$0  4G
VTKGXGF  ,WPG 


=? /CWTC 'NN[P /CWTC /E)KPPKU
NBSZ 4PVSDF $VMUVSBM (VJEF 6JG 4QUGP 2WDNKUJKPI
)TQWR R  +5$0 
=? ,QJP ' (KPFNKPI -KODGTN[ & 2GNNG
PG UIF .PEFSO 0MZNQJD .PWFNFOU )TGGPYQQF 2WDNKUJKPI
)TQWR R  +5$0 
=? 9C[PG % 6JQORUQP /CTM * /WNNKP 8FTUFSO &VSPQF
 5VT[MGT2QUV 2WDNKECVKQPU R  HQT CPEKGPV
)TGGEG YCU VJG ETCFNG QH 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG 
=? (TGFGTKEM %QRNGUVQP
7PMVNF  (SFFDF BOE 3PNF #% $NCEM R  +5$0
.1512*; %*#26'4 ++ 6*' %4#&.' 1( 9'56
'40 6*17)*6
=? /CTKQ +Q\\Q
.PVOU "UIPT %CUC 'FKVTKEG $QPGEJK R  +5$0 
 6JG ECRKVCN QH )TGGEG QPG QH VJG YQTNFU
OQUV INQTKQWU EKVKGU CPF VJG ETCFNG QH 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG
=? /CTZKCPQ /GNQVVK
"SDIBFPMPHJDBM 5PVSJTN JO 1PTU.PEFSO 4PDJFUZ %CO
DTKFIG 5EJQNCTU 2WDNKUJKPI R  +5$0 
 +P UJQTV )TGGEG FGURKVG JCXKPI DGGP VJG ETCFNG
QH 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG YCU VJGP CP QVJGT URCEG UGRCTCVG
HTQO VJG 9GUV
=? -JCSBSZ +PVSOBM 97 $QYMGT #RTKN  R  #P
EKGPV )TGGEG %TCFNG QH 9GUVGTP %WNVWTG
UVTKRU YKVJ  FKUEU TCPIG  HT  OKP
=? 5VCPNG[ /C[GT $WTUVGKP
4UVEZ PG "ODJFOU )JTUPSZ 4GIKPC $QQMU R  +5$0
 CPF OCMKPI 'I[RV RNC[ VJG UCOG
TQNG KP #HTKECP GFWECVKQP CPF EWNVWTG VJCV #VJGPU CPF
)TGGEG FQ KP 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG
=? /WTTC[ /KNPGT ,T
.PEFM ,QJP 9KNG[  5QPU R  +5$0 
 )TGGEG JCU NQPI DGGP EQPUKFGTGF VJG UGGFDGF QT
ETCFNG QH 9GUVGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP
=? #C8X
CJFOTJB  1FSJPEJDP EJ MFUUFSBUVSF F DVMUVSF TMBWF
EFMMB 'BDPMU EJ -JOHVF F -FUUFSBUVSF 4USBOJFSF .PEFSOF
EFMM6OJWFSTJU EFMMB 5VTDJB )CPIGOK 'FKVQTG URC R
 +5$0  6JG 5RGEKCN %CUG QH
)TGGEG 6JG CPEKGPV )TGGEG YCU C ETCFNG QH VJG 9GUVGTP

%FNPDSBDZ %CRUVQPG R  +5$0 
 #PEKGPV )TGGEG KU QHVGP ECNNGF VJG ETCFNG QH YGUVGTP
EKXKNK\CVKQP  +FGCU HTQO NKVGTCVWTG CPF UEKGPEG CNUQ JCXG
VJGKT TQQVU KP CPEKGPV )TGGEG
=? 4KECTFQ &WEJGUPG
PG 8FTUFSO $JWJMJ[BUJPO $4+.. R  +5$0 
 6JG NKUV QH DQQMU YJKEJ JCXG EGNGDTCVGF )TGGEG
CU VJG ETCFNG QH VJG 9GUV KU GPFNGUU VYQ OQTG GZ
CORNGU CTG %JCTNGU (TGGOCPU 6JG )TGGM #EJKGXGOGPV
6JQTPVQPU )TGGM 9C[U *QY VJG )TGGMU %TGCVGF 9GUV
GTP %KXKNK\CVKQP
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 (3&&$&

=? $TWEG 6JQTPVQP (SFFL 8BZT )PX UIF (SFFLT $SFBUFE
8FTUFSO $JWJMJ[BUJPO 'PEQWPVGT $QQMU 
=? 4KEJCTF 6CTPCU 5IF 1BTTJPO PG UIF 8FTUFSO .JOE
0GY %[TKN ,QJP )CFF 0KEJQNCU )GQTG[ .GORTKTG *CO
;QTM $CNNCPVKPG $QQMU 
=? 5IF $BNCSJEHF "ODJFOU )JTUPSZ 5IF GPVSUI DFOUVSZ #$
GFKVGF D[ &/ .GYKU GV CN + ' 5 'FYCTFU %CO
DTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU & / .GYKU ,QJP $QCTFOCP
OQPF  +5$0  RR 

=? %QNKP *[PUQP "ODJFOU (SFFDF

/KNYCWMGG 9QTNF #N =? 2QRWNCVKQP QH VJG )TGGM EKV[UVCVGU
OCPCE .KDTCT[  
=? *QNNCPF 6 2GTUKCP (KTG #DCEWU +5$0 
=? %CTQN ) 6JQOCU 1BUIT GSPN "ODJFOU (SFFDF
.GKFGP 
0GVJGTNCPFU ' , $TKNN 
=? *QNNCPF 6 2GTUKCP (KTG R +5$0 
=? 5JQTV ,QJP 4
 "O *OUSPEVDUJPO UP 6SCBO (FPHSB =? 5NCXGT[ KP #PEKGPV )TGGEG #SJUBOOJDB 4UVEFOU &ODZDMPQ
QIZ 4QWVNGFIG R  EJB
=? 2QOGTQ[ 5CTCJ $
 "ODJFOU (SFFDF B QPMJUJDBM TP =? #PIWU -QPUVCO *KUVQTKECN #VNCU QH #PEKGPV )TGGEG
DJBM BOE DVMUVSBM IJTUPSZ 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 RR  6JCNCOWU RWDNKUJKPI 7-  +5$0 
 :

=? *CFCU /QUGU

 " )JTUPSZ PG (SFFL -JUFSBUVSF =? 9 5EJKGFGT 4GCN UNCXG RTKEGU CPF VJG TGNCVKXG EQUV QH
%QNWODKC 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU R  +5$0  UNCXG NCDQT KP VJG )TGEQ4QOCP YQTNF "ODJFOU 4PDJFUZ
 XQN  

=? )TCPV /KEJCGN

 (SFFL BOE 3PNBO IJTUPSJBOT JO =? 2GFGTUGP &BSMZ 1IZTJDT BOE "TUSPOPNZ RR 
GPSNBUJPO BOE NJTJOGPSNBUJPO 4QWVNGFIG  R  =? 2GFGTUGP &BSMZ 1IZTJDT BOE "TUSPOPNZ RR 
+5$0 
=? )TCOOCVKEQU 2 % &KCOCPVKU #
 7UGHWN
=? *CNN ,QPCVJCP /
 " )JTUPSZ PG UIF "SDIBJD (SFFL MPQYP CPF WPMPQYP XKGYU QH VJG HCVJGT QH OQFGTP
8PSME 9KNG[$NCEMYGNN +5$0  OGFKEKPG *KRRQETCVGU CPF JKU VGCEJGT &GOQETKVWU )FM
MFOJD KPVSOBM PG OVDMFBS NFEJDJOF 11
  2/+&
=? 5GCNG[ 4CRJCGN
 " IJTUPSZ PG UIF (SFFL DJUZ TUBUFT 
DB  #$ 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU RR 
 +5$0  =? *KRRQETCVGU /KETQUQHV 'PECTVC 1PNKPG 'PE[ENQRGFKC
 /KETQUQHV %QTRQTCVKQP #TEJKXGF 
=? 5NCXQL KGM
 #RTKN  -JWJOH JO UIF &OE 5JNFT
8GTUQ R  +5$0  4GVTKGXGF  =? 5VTQPI 9( %QQM ,QJP #
,WN[  4GXKXKPI VJG
,WPG  &GCF )TGGM )W[U (MPCBM .FEJB +PVSOBM *OEJBO &EJUJPO
+550 
=? 1PNKPG 'V[OQNQI[ &KEVKQPCT[ 'V[OQPNKPGEQO 4G
VTKGXGF  =? )CTTKUQP (KGNFKPI *
 )JTUPSZ PG .FEJDJOF
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)TGGEG KVU EQNQPKGU CPF EQPSWGUVU HTQO VJG GCTNK
EQPVKPWQWU NKPG #- 0CTCKP 6JG EQKPU QH VJG
GUV CEEQWPVU VKNN FKXKUKQP QH VJG /CEGFQPKCP 'ORKTG
+PFQ)TGGM MKPIU
FCTM DNWG FQVVGF NKPG UGG
(KNG+PFQ)TGGM9GUVGTOCPU0CTCKPLRI HQT TGHGTGPEG KP VJG 'CUV
9GUVGTOCPU #VNCU \WT 9GNVIGUEJKEJVG

=? #NGZCPFGTU )WNH QWVRQUV WPEQXGTGF $$% 0GYU #WIWUV 1.10 Further reading
 

=? /CEGFQPKC &ODZDMPQEJB #SJUBOOJDB 'PE[ENQRFKC )QQFTKEJ 5 )

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$TKVCPPKEC 1PNKPG  #TEJKXGF HTQO VJG QTKIKPCN QP  )TGGEG #PEKGPV CPF OQFGTP 0GY ;QTM *WPV
&GEGODGT  4GVTKGXGF  KPIVQP  5CXCIG
 &95&3/"- -*/,4 

1.11 External links

6JG %CPCFKCP /WUGWO QH %KXKNK\CVKQP)TGGEG 5G
ETGVU QH VJG 2CUV
#PEKGPV )TGGEG YGDUKVG HTQO VJG $TKVKUJ /WUGWO

'EQPQOKE JKUVQT[ QH CPEKGPV )TGGEG

6JG )TGGM EWTTGPE[ JKUVQT[

.KOGPQUEQRG CP CPEKGPV )TGGM RQTVU FCVCDCUG

6JG #PEKGPV 6JGCVTG #TEJKXG )TGGM CPF 4QOCP

VJGCVTG CTEJKVGEVWTG

+NNWUVTCVGF )TGGM *KUVQT[ &T ,CPKEG 5KGIGN &G

RCTVOGPV QH %NCUUKEU *CORFGP5[FPG[ %QNNGIG
8KTIKPKC
Chapter 2

Ancient Rome

(QT VJG OQFGTPFC[ EKV[ UGG 4QOG (QT QVJGT WUGU UGG RKTG TGCEJGF KVU VGTTKVQTKCN RGCM 4GRWDNKECP OQTGU CPF
#PEKGPV 4QOG
FKUCODKIWCVKQP VTCFKVKQPU UVCTVGF VQ FGENKPG FWTKPI VJG KORGTKCN RGTKQF
YKVJ EKXKN YCTU DGEQOKPI C EQOOQP TKVWCN HQT C PGY GO
=?=?=?
Ancient Rome YCU CP +VCNKE EKXKNK\CVKQP VJCV DGICP QP RGTQTU TKUG 5VCVGU UWEJ CU 2CNO[TC VGORQTCT
VJG +VCNKCP 2GPKPUWNC CU GCTN[ CU VJG VJ EGPVWT[ $% .Q KN[ FKXKFGF VJG 'ORKTG KP C TFEGPVWT[ ETKUKU 5QNFKGT
ECVGF CNQPI VJG /GFKVGTTCPGCP 5GC CPF EGPVGTGF QP VJG GORGTQTU TGWPKGF KV D[ FKXKFKPI VJG GORKTG DGVYGGP
EKV[ QH 4QOG KV GZRCPFGF VQ DGEQOG QPG QH VJG NCTIGUV 9GUVGTP CPF 'CUVGTP JCNXGU
GORKTGU KP VJG CPEKGPV YQTNF=? YKVJ CP GUVKOCVGF  2NCIWGF D[ KPVGTPCN KPUVCDKNKV[ CPF CVVCEMGF D[ XCTKQWU OK
VQ  OKNNKQP KPJCDKVCPVU
TQWIJN[  QH VJG YQTNFU ITCVKPI RGQRNGU VJG YGUVGTP RCTV QH VJG GORKTG DTQMG WR
RQRWNCVKQP=?=?=?  CPF EQXGTKPI  OKNNKQP USWCTG MKNQ KPVQ KPFGRGPFGPV MKPIFQOU KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[ 6JKU URNKP
OGVGTU
 OKNNKQP US OK FWTKPI KVU JGKIJV DGVYGGP VJG VGTKPI KU C NCPFOCTM JKUVQTKCPU WUG VQ FKXKFG VJG CPEKGPV
TUV CPF UGEQPF EGPVWTKGU #&=?=?=? RGTKQF QH WPKXGTUCN JKUVQT[ HTQO VJG RTGOGFKCGXCN &CTM
+P KVU CRRTQZKOCVGN[  EGPVWTKGU QH GZKUVGPEG 4Q #IGU QH 'WTQRG
OCP EKXKNK\CVKQP UJKHVGF HTQO C OQPCTEJ[ VQ C ENCUUKECN
TGRWDNKE CPF VJGP VQ CP KPETGCUKPIN[ CWVQETCVKE GORKTG
6JTQWIJ EQPSWGUV CPF CUUKOKNCVKQP KV ECOG VQ FQOKPCVG 2.1 Founding myth
5QWVJGTP CPF 9GUVGTP 'WTQRG #UKC /KPQT 0QTVJ #HTKEC
CPF RCTVU QH 0QTVJGTP CPF 'CUVGTP 'WTQRG 4QOG YCU
/CKP CTVKENG (QWPFKPI QH 4QOG
RTGRQPFGTCPV VJTQWIJQWV VJG /GFKVGTTCPGCP TGIKQP CPF
#EEQTFKPI VQ VJG HQWPFKPI O[VJ QH 4QOG VJG EKV[ YCU
YCU QPG QH VJG OQUV RQYGTHWN GPVKVKGU QH VJG CPEKGPV
YQTNF +V KU QHVGP ITQWRGF KPVQ ENCUUKECN CPVKSWKV[ VQIGVJGT
YKVJ CPEKGPV )TGGEG CPF VJGKT UKOKNCT EWNVWTGU CPF UQEK
GVKGU CTG MPQYP CU VJG )TGEQ4QOCP YQTNF
#PEKGPV 4QOCP UQEKGV[ JCU EQPVTKDWVGF VQ OQFGTP IQX
GTPOGPV NCY RQNKVKEU GPIKPGGTKPI CTV NKVGTCVWTG CTEJK
VGEVWTG VGEJPQNQI[ YCTHCTG TGNKIKQP NCPIWCIG CPF UQEK
GV[ # EKXKNK\CVKQP JKIJN[ FGXGNQRGF HQT KVU VKOG 4QOG
RTQHGUUKQPCNK\GF CPF GZRCPFGF KVU OKNKVCT[ CPF ETGCVGF C
U[UVGO QH IQXGTPOGPV ECNNGF SFT QVCMJDB VJG KPURKTCVKQP
HQT OQFGTP TGRWDNKEU=?=?=? UWEJ CU VJG 7PKVGF 5VCVGU
CPF (TCPEG +V CEJKGXGF KORTGUUKXG VGEJPQNQIKECN CPF
CTEJKVGEVWTCN HGCVU UWEJ CU VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH CP GZVGP
UKXG U[UVGO QH CSWGFWEVU CPF TQCFU CU YGNN CU NCTIG OQP
WOGPVU RCNCEGU CPF RWDNKE HCEKNKVKGU
$[ VJG GPF QH VJG 4GRWDNKE 4QOG JCF EQPSWGTGF VJG "DDPSEJOH UP MFHFOE 3PNF XBT GPVOEFE JO  #$ CZ 3PNVMVT
NCPFU CTQWPF VJG /GFKVGTTCPGCP CPF DG[QPF KVU FQ BOE 3FNVT XIP XFSF SBJTFE CZ B TIFXPMG
OCKP GZVGPFGF HTQO VJG #VNCPVKE VQ #TCDKC CPF HTQO VJG
OQWVJ QH VJG 4JKPG VQ 0QTVJ #HTKEC 6JG 4QOCP 'ORKTG HQWPFGF QP  #RTKN  $% D[ VYKP DTQVJGTU 4QOWNWU
GOGTIGF WPFGT VJG NGCFGTUJKR QH #WIWUVWU %CGUCT  CPF 4GOWU YJQ FGUEGPFGF HTQO VJG 6TQLCP RTKPEG
[GCTU QH 4QOCP2GTUKCP 9CTU UVCTVGF KP  $% YKVJ VJGKT #GPGCU=? CPF YJQ YGTG ITCPFUQPU QH VJG .CVKP -KPI
TUV YCT CICKPUV 2CTVJKC +V YQWNF DGEQOG VJG NQPIGUV EQP 0WOKVQT QH #NDC .QPIC -KPI 0WOKVQT YCU FGRQUGF
KEV KP JWOCP JKUVQT[ CPF JCXG OCLQT NCUVKPI GGEVU CPF HTQO JKU VJTQPG D[ JKU DTQVJGT #OWNKWU YJKNG 0WOKVQTU
EQPUGSWGPEGU HQT DQVJ GORKTGU 7PFGT 6TCLCP VJG 'O FCWIJVGT 4JGC 5KNXKC ICXG DKTVJ VQ VJG VYKPU=?=? $G
ECWUG 4JGC 5KNXKC YCU TCRGF CPF KORTGIPCVGF D[ /CTU


 3&16#-*$ 

VJG 4QOCP IQF QH YCT VJG VYKPU YGTG EQPUKFGTGF JCNH OGODGTU QH VJG .CVKP VTKDG QH +VCN[ QP VJG VQR QH VJG
FKXKPG 2CNCVKPG *KNN=?=?
6JG PGY MKPI HGCTGF 4QOWNWU CPF 4GOWU YQWNF VCMG 6JG 'VTWUECPU YJQ JCF RTGXKQWUN[ UGVVNGF VQ VJG PQTVJ KP
DCEM VJG VJTQPG UQ JG QTFGTGF VJGO VQ DG FTQYPGF=? 'VTWTKC UGGO VQ JCXG GUVCDNKUJGF RQNKVKECN EQPVTQN KP VJG
# UJGYQNH
QT C UJGRJGTFU YKHG KP UQOG CEEQWPVU UCXGF TGIKQP D[ VJG NCVG VJ EGPVWT[ $% HQTOKPI VJG CTKUVQETCVKE
CPF TCKUGF VJGO CPF YJGP VJG[ YGTG QNF GPQWIJ VJG[ CPF OQPCTEJKECN GNKVG 6JG 'VTWUECPU CRRCTGPVN[ NQUV
TGVWTPGF VJG VJTQPG QH #NDC .QPIC VQ 0WOKVQT=?=? RQYGT KP VJG CTGC D[ VJG NCVG VJ EGPVWT[ $% CPF CV VJKU
6JG VYKPU VJGP HQWPFGF VJGKT QYP EKV[ DWV 4QOW RQKPV VJG QTKIKPCN .CVKP CPF 5CDKPG VTKDGU TGKPXGPVGF VJGKT
NWU MKNNGF 4GOWU KP C SWCTTGN QXGT VJG NQECVKQP QH VJG IQXGTPOGPV D[ ETGCVKPI C TGRWDNKE YKVJ OWEJ ITGCVGT =?
TG
4QOCP -KPIFQO VJQWIJ UQOG UQWTEGU UVCVG VJG SWCT UVTCKPVU QP VJG CDKNKV[ QH TWNGTU VQ GZGTEKUG RQYGT
TGN YCU CDQWV YJQ YCU IQKPI VQ TWNG QT IKXG JKU PCOG 4QOCP VTCFKVKQP CPF CTEJCGQNQIKECN GXKFGPEG RQKPV VQ C
VQ VJG EKV[=? 4QOWNWU DGECOG VJG UQWTEG QH VJG EKV[U EQORNGZ YKVJKP VJG (QTWO 4QOCPWO CU VJG UGCV QH RQYGT
PCOG=? +P QTFGT VQ CVVTCEV RGQRNG VQ VJG EKV[ 4QOG DG HQT VJG MKPI CPF VJG DGIKPPKPIU QH VJG TGNKIKQWU EGPVGT
ECOG C UCPEVWCT[ HQT VJG KPFKIGPV GZKNGF CPF WPYCPVGF VJGTG CU YGNN 0WOC 2QORKNKWU YCU VJG UGEQPF MKPI QH
6JKU ECWUGF C RTQDNGO HQT 4QOG YJKEJ JCF C NCTIG YQTM 4QOG UWEEGGFKPI 4QOWNWU *G DGICP 4QOGU DWKNFKPI
HQTEG DWV YCU DGTGHV QH YQOGP 4QOWNWU VTCXGNGF VQ RTQLGEVU YKVJ JKU TQ[CN RCNCEG VJG 4GIKC CPF VJG EQORNGZ
VJG PGKIJDQTKPI VQYPU CPF VTKDGU CPF CVVGORVGF VQ UG QH VJG 8GUVCN XKTIKPU
EWTG OCTTKCIG TKIJVU DWV CU 4QOG YCU UQ HWNN QH WPFG
UKTCDNGU VJG[ CNN TGHWUGF .GIGPF UC[U VJCV VJG .CVKPU KP
XKVGF VJG 5CDKPGU VQ C HGUVKXCN CPF UVQNG VJGKT WPOCTTKGF 2.3 Republic
OCKFGPU NGCFKPI VQ VJG KPVGITCVKQP QH VJG .CVKPU CPF VJG
5CDKPGU=?
/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE
#PQVJGT NGIGPF TGEQTFGF D[ )TGGM JKUVQTKCP &KQP[UKWU #EEQTFKPI VQ VTCFKVKQP CPF NCVGT YTKVGTU UWEJ CU .KX[
QH *CNKECTPCUUWU UC[U VJCV 2TKPEG #GPGCU NGF C ITQWR QH
6TQLCPU QP C UGC XQ[CIG VQ HQWPF C PGY 6TQ[ UKPEG VJG
QTKIKPCN YCU FGUVTQ[GF KP VJG QWVEQOG QH VJG 6TQLCP 9CT
#HVGT C NQPI VKOG KP TQWIJ UGCU VJG[ NCPFGF CV VJG DCPMU
QH VJG 6KDGT 4KXGT 0QV NQPI CHVGT VJG[ NCPFGF VJG OGP
YCPVGF VQ VCMG VQ VJG UGC CICKP DWV VJG YQOGP YJQ YGTG
VTCXGNKPI YKVJ VJGO FKF PQV YCPV VQ NGCXG 1PG YQOCP
PCOGF 4QOC UWIIGUVGF VJCV VJG YQOGP DWTP VJG UJKRU
QWV CV UGC VQ RTGXGPV VJGO HTQO NGCXKPI #V TUV VJG OGP
YGTG CPIT[ YKVJ 4QOC DWV VJG[ UQQP TGCNK\GF VJCV VJG[
YGTG KP VJG KFGCN RNCEG VQ UGVVNG 6JG[ PCOGF VJG UGVVNG
OGPV CHVGT VJG YQOCP YJQ VQTEJGF VJGKT UJKRU=?
6JG 4QOCP RQGV 8KTIKN TGEQWPVGF VJKU NGIGPF KP JKU ENCU
UKECN GRKE RQGO VJG "FOFJE +P VJG "FOFJE VJG 6TQLCP
RTKPEG #GPGCU KU FGUVKPGF D[ VJG IQFU KP JKU GPVGTRTKUG
QH HQWPFKPI C PGY 6TQ[ +P VJG GRKE VJG YQOGP CNUQ TG
HWUGF VQ IQ DCEM VQ VJG UGC DWV VJG[ YGTG PQV NGHV QP VJG
6KDGT #HVGT TGCEJKPI +VCN[ #GPGCU YJQ YCPVGF VQ OCTT[
.CXKPKC YCU HQTEGF VQ YCIG YCT YKVJ JGT HQTOGT UWKVQT
6WTPWU #EEQTFKPI VQ VJG RQGO VJG #NDCP MKPIU YGTG
FGUEGPFGF HTQO #GPGCU CPF VJWU 4QOWNWU VJG HQWPFGT
QH 4QOG YCU JKU FGUEGPFCPV

2.2 Kingdom
/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP -KPIFQO
6JG EKV[ QH 4QOG ITGY HTQO UGVVNGOGPVU CTQWPF C HQTF QP
VJG TKXGT 6KDGT C ETQUUTQCFU QH VTCE CPF VTCFG=? #E
EQTFKPI VQ CTEJCGQNQIKECN GXKFGPEG VJG XKNNCIG QH 4QOG
YCU RTQDCDN[ HQWPFGF UQOG VKOG KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[ $%
VJQWIJ KV OC[ IQ DCEM CU HCT CU VJG VJ EGPVWT[ $% D[
5IJT CVTU GSPN UIF $BQJUPMJOF .VTFVNT JT USBEJUJPOBMMZ JEFOUJFE
BT B QPSUSBJU PG -VDJVT +VOJVT #SVUVT
VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE YCU GUVCDNKUJGF CTQWPF  $%=?
YJGP VJG NCUV QH VJG UGXGP MKPIU QH 4QOG 6CTSWKP VJG
2TQWF YCU FGRQUGF D[ .WEKWU ,WPKWU $TWVWU CPF C U[UVGO
DCUGF QP CPPWCNN[ GNGEVGF OCIKUVTCVGU CPF XCTKQWU TGR
TGUGPVCVKXG CUUGODNKGU YCU GUVCDNKUJGF=? # EQPUVKVWVKQP
UGV C UGTKGU QH EJGEMU CPF DCNCPEGU CPF C UGRCTCVKQP QH
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

RQYGTU 6JG OQUV KORQTVCPV OCIKUVTCVGU YGTG VJG VYQ 6JG 4QOCPU ITCFWCNN[ UWDFWGF VJG QVJGT RGQRNGU QP VJG
EQPUWNU YJQ VQIGVJGT GZGTEKUGF GZGEWVKXG CWVJQTKV[ CU +VCNKCP RGPKPUWNC KPENWFKPI VJG 'VTWUECPU=? 6JG NCUV
JNQFSJVN QT OKNKVCT[ EQOOCPF=? 6JG EQPUWNU JCF VQ VJTGCV VQ 4QOCP JGIGOQP[ KP +VCN[ ECOG YJGP 6CTGPVWO
YQTM YKVJ VJG UGPCVG YJKEJ YCU KPKVKCNN[ CP CFXKUQT[ C OCLQT )TGGM EQNQP[ GPNKUVGF VJG CKF QH 2[TTJWU QH
EQWPEKN QH VJG TCPMKPI PQDKNKV[ QT RCVTKEKCPU DWV ITGY 'RKTWU KP  $% DWV VJKU GQTV HCKNGF CU YGNN=?=?
KP UK\G CPF RQYGT=? 6JG 4QOCPU UGEWTGF VJGKT EQPSWGUVU D[ HQWPFKPI 4QOCP
1VJGT OCIKUVTCEKGU KP VJG 4GRWDNKE KPENWFG VTKDWPGU EQNQPKGU KP UVTCVGIKE CTGCU VJGTGD[ =?
GUVCDNKUJKPI UVCDNG
SWCGUVQTU CGFKNGU RTCGVQTU CPF EGPUQTU =?
6JG OCIKU EQPVTQN QXGT VJG TGIKQP QH +VCN[
VTCEKGU YGTG QTKIKPCNN[ TGUVTKEVGF VQ RCVTKEKCPU DWV YGTG
NCVGT QRGPGF VQ EQOOQP RGQRNG QT RNGDGKCPU=? 4GRWD
NKECP XQVKPI CUUGODNKGU KPENWFGF VJG DPNJUJB DFOUVSJBUB 2.3.1 Punic Wars

EGPVWTKCVG CUUGODN[ YJKEJ XQVGF QP OCVVGTU QH YCT CPF

RGCEG CPF GNGEVGF OGP VQ VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV QEGU CPF /CKP CTVKENG 2WPKE 9CTU
VJG DPNJUJB USJCVUB
VTKDCN CUUGODN[ YJKEJ GNGEVGF NGUU
KORQTVCPV QEGU=?
+P VJG TF EGPVWT[ $% 4QOG JCF VQ HCEG C PGY CPF
HQTOKFCDNG QRRQPGPV %CTVJCIG %CTVJCIG YCU C TKEJ
QWTKUJKPI 2JQGPKEKCP EKV[UVCVG VJCV KPVGPFGF VQ FQOK
CELTS PCVG VJG /GFKVGTTCPGCP CTGC 6JG VYQ EKVKGU YGTG CNNKGU KP
VJG VKOGU QH 2[TTJWU YJQ YCU C OGPCEG VQ DQVJ DWV YKVJ
4QOGU JGIGOQP[ KP OCKPNCPF +VCN[ CPF VJG %CTVJCIKPKCP
ETRUSCANS VJCNCUUQETCE[ VJGUG EKVKGU DGECOG VJG VYQ OCLQT RQYGTU
KP VJG 9GUVGTP /GFKVGTTCPGCP C UKIPCN QH VJG KOOKPGPV
UMBRIANS YCT

Rome
6JG (KTUV 2WPKE 9CT DGICP KP  $% YJGP VJG EKV[ QH
SAMNITES /GUUCPC CUMGF HQT %CTVJCIGU JGNR KP FGCNKPI YKVJ *KGTQ
ROMANS MESSAPIANS AND ++ QH 5[TCEWUG #HVGT VJG %CTVJCIKPKCP KPVGTEGUUKQP /GU
APULIANS
UCPC CUMGF 4QOG VQ GZRGN VJG %CTVJCIKPKCPU 4QOG GP
SARDI
NIANS VGTGF VJKU YCT DGECWUG 5[TCEWUG CPF /GUUCPC YGTG VQQ
ENQUG VQ VJG PGYN[ EQPSWGTGF )TGGM EKVKGU QH 5QWVJGTP
+VCN[ CPF %CTVJCIG YCU PQY CDNG VQ OCMG CP QGPUKXG
ITALIOTES VJTQWIJ 4QOCP VGTTKVQT[ CNQPI YKVJ VJKU 4QOG EQWNF GZ
VGPF KVU FQOCKP QXGT 5KEKN[=?
CARTHA-
GINIANS GREEKS #NVJQWIJ VJG 4QOCPU JCF GZRGTKGPEG KP NCPF DCVVNGU
VQ FGHGCV VJKU PGY GPGO[ PCXCN DCVVNGU YGTG PGEGUUCT[
%CTVJCIG YCU C OCTKVKOG RQYGT CPF VJG 4QOCP NCEM QH
UJKRU CPF PCXCN GZRGTKGPEG YQWNF OCMG VJG RCVJ VQ VJG
XKEVQT[ C NQPI CPF FKEWNV QPG HQT VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE
*UBMZ JO  #$ &GURKVG VJKU CHVGT OQTG VJCP  [GCTU QH YCT 4QOG FG
HGCVGF %CTVJCIG CPF C RGCEG VTGCV[ YCU UKIPGF #OQPI
+P VJG VJ EGPVWT[ $% 4QOG JCF EQOG WPFGT CVVCEM D[ VJG VJG TGCUQPU HQT VJG 5GEQPF 2WPKE 9CT=? YCU VJG UWDUG
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DG[QPF VJG 2Q 8CNNG[ CPF VJTQWIJ 'VTWTKC 1P  ,WN[  QH VJG (KTUV 2WPKE 9CT=?
$% C )CNNKE CTO[ WPFGT VJG NGCFGTUJKR QH C VTKDCN EJKGH
VCKP PCOGF $TGPPWU OGV VJG 4QOCPU QP VJG DCPMU QH VJG 6JG 5GEQPF 2WPKE 9CT KU HCOQWU HQT KVU DTKNNKCPV IGPGTCNU
UOCNN #NNKC 4KXGT LWUV VGP OKNGU PQTVJ QH 4QOG $TGPPWU QP VJG 2WPKE UKFG *CPPKDCN CPF *CUFTWDCN QP VJG 4Q
FGHGCVGF VJG 4QOCPU CPF VJG )CWNU OCTEJGF FKTGEVN[ VQ OCP /CTEWU %NCWFKWU /CTEGNNWU 3WKPVWU (CDKWU /CZ
4QOG /QUV 4QOCPU JCF GF VJG EKV[ DWV UQOG DCTTK KOWU CPF 2WDNKWU %QTPGNKWU 5EKRKQ 4QOG HQWIJV VJKU YCT
ECFGF VJGOUGNXGU WRQP VJG %CRKVQNKPG *KNN HQT C NCUV UVCPF UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ YKVJ VJG (KTUV /CEGFQPKCP 9CT
6JG )CWNU NQQVGF CPF DWTPGF VJG EKV[ VJGP NCKF UKGIG VQ 6JG QWVDTGCM QH VJG YCT YCU VJG CWFCEKQWU KPXCUKQP
VJG %CRKVQNKPG *KNN 6JG UKGIG NCUVGF UGXGP OQPVJU VJG QH +VCN[ NGF D[ *CPPKDCN UQP QH *COKNECT $CTEC VJG
)CWNU VJGP CITGGF VQ IKXG VJG 4QOCPU RGCEG KP GZEJCPIG %CTVJCIKPKCP IGPGTCN YJQ YCU KP EJCTIG QH 5KEKN[ KP VJG
HQT  RQWPFU
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#EEQTFKPI VQ NCVGT (KTUV 2WPKE 9CT *CPPKDCN TCRKFN[ OCTEJGF VJTQWIJ
NGIGPF VJG 4QOCP UWRGTXKUKPI VJG YGKIJKPI PQVKEGF VJCV *KURCPKC CPF VJG #NRU ECWUKPI RCPKE COQPI 4QOGU +VCN
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2.4.2 Caesar and the First Triumvirate

+P VJG OKFUV EGPVWT[ $% 4QOCP RQNKVKEU YGTG TGUV

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2.4.3 Octavian and the Second Triumvi-

rate

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6JG 6TKWOXKTCVG FKXKFGF VJG 'ORKTG COQPI VJG VTKWOXKTU VQ TGGUVCDNKUJ 4GRWDNKE
.GRKFWU YCU NGHV KP EJCTIG QH #HTKEC #PVQP[ VJG GCUVGTP
RTQXKPEGU CPF 1EVCXKCP TGOCKPGF KP +VCNKC CPF EQPVTQNNGF
*KURCPKC CPF )CWN Augustus
6JG 5GEQPF 6TKWOXKTCVG GZRKTGF KP  $% DWV YCU TG
PGYGF HQT XG OQTG [GCTU *QYGXGT VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DG #WIWUVWU ICVJGTGF CNOQUV CNN VJG TGRWDNKECP RQYGTU WP
VYGGP 1EVCXKCP CPF #PVQP[ JCF FGVGTKQTCVGF CPF .GR FGT JKU QEKCN VKVNG QSJODFQT JG JCF RQYGTU QH EQPUWN
KFWU YCU HQTEGF VQ TGVKTG KP  $% CHVGT DGVTC[KPI 1EVC QSJODFQT TFOBUVT CGFKNG EGPUQT CPF VTKDWPG KPENWFKPI
XKCP KP 5KEKN[ $[ VJG GPF QH VJG 6TKWOXKTCVG #PVQP[ YCU VTKDWPKEKCP UCETQUCPEVKV[=? 6JKU YCU VJG DCUG QH CP GO
NKXKPI KP 'I[RV CP KPFGRGPFGPV CPF TKEJ MKPIFQO TWNGF RGTQTU RQYGT #WIWUVWU CNUQ UV[NGF JKOUGNH CU *NQFSBUPS
D[ #PVQP[U NQXGT %NGQRCVTC 8++ #PVQP[U CCKT YKVJ (BJVT +VMJVT $BFTBS EJWJ MJVT %QOOCPFGT )CKWU ,WNKWU
%NGQRCVTC YCU UGGP CU CP CEV QH VTGCUQP UKPEG UJG YCU %CGUCT UQP QH VJG FGKGF QPG 9KVJ VJKU VKVNG JG PQV QPN[
SWGGP QH CPQVJGT EQWPVT[ #FFKVKQPCNN[ #PVQP[ CFQRVGF DQCUVGF JKU HCOKNKCN NKPM VQ FGKGF ,WNKWU %CGUCT DWV VJG
NKHGUV[NG EQPUKFGTGF VQQ GZVTCXCICPV CPF *GNNGPKUVKE HQT C WUG QH *NQFSBUPS UKIPKGF C RGTOCPGPV NKPM VQ VJG 4QOCP
4QOCP UVCVGUOCP=? VTCFKVKQP QH XKEVQT[

(QNNQYKPI #PVQP[U &QPCVKQPU QH #NGZCPFTKC YJKEJ ICXG
VQ %NGQRCVTC VJG VKVNG QH 3WGGP QH -KPIU CPF VQ
#PVQP[U CPF %NGQRCVTCU EJKNFTGP VJG TGICN VKVNGU VQ VJG
PGYN[ EQPSWGTGF 'CUVGTP VGTTKVQTKGU VJG YCT DGVYGGP 1E
VCXKCP CPF #PVQP[ DTQMG QWV 1EVCXKCP CPPKJKNCVGF 'I[R
VKCP HQTEGU KP VJG $CVVNG QH #EVKWO KP  $% #PVQP[ CPF
%NGQRCVTC EQOOKVVGF UWKEKFG 0QY 'I[RV YCU EQPSWGTGF
D[ VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG CPF HQT VJG 4QOCPU C PGY GTC JCF
DGIWP
VJCV YCU ITCPVGF D[ VJG CITCTKCP RTQXKPEG QH
*G CNUQ FKOKPKUJGF VJG 5GPCVQTKCN ENCUU KPWGPEG KP RQN
KVKEU D[ DQQUVKPI VJG GSWGUVTKCP ENCUU 6JG UGPCVQTU NQUV
VJGKT TKIJV VQ TWNG EGTVCKP RTQXKPEGU NKMG 'I[RV UKPEG VJG
IQXGTPQT QH VJCV RTQXKPEG YCU FKTGEVN[ PQOKPCVGF D[ VJG
GORGTQT 6JG ETGCVKQP QH VJG 2TCGVQTKCP )WCTF CPF JKU
TGHQTOU KP OKNKVCT[ UGVVKPI VJG PWODGT QH NGIKQPU KP 
GPUWTGF JKU VQVCN EQPVTQN QXGT VJG CTO[=?
%QORCTGF YKVJ 5GEQPF 6TKWOXKTCVGU GRQEJ #WIWUVWU
TGKIP CU QSJODFQT YCU XGT[ RGCEGHWN 6JKU RGCEG CPF
TKEJPGUU
'I[RV=? NGF RGQRNG CPF PQDNGU QH 4QOG VQ UWRRQTV #W
IWUVWU CPF KPETGCUGF JKU UVTGPIVJ KP RQNKVKECN CCKTU=?

2.5 Empire - the Principate +P OKNKVCT[ CEVKXKV[ #WIWUVWU YCU CDUGPV CV DCVVNGU *KU
IGPGTCNU YGTG TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG GNF EQOOCPF ICKP
KPI OWEJ TGURGEV HTQO VJG RQRWNCEG CPF VJG NGIKQPU UWEJ
/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP 'ORKTG CU /CTEWU 8KRUCPKWU #ITKRRC 0GTQ %NCWFKWU &TWUWU CPF
)GTOCPKEWU #WIWUVWU KPVGPFGF VQ GZVGPF VJG 4QOCP
+P  $% 1EVCXKCP YCU VJG UQNG 4QOCP NGCFGT *KU NGCF 'ORKTG VQ VJG YJQNG MPQYP YQTNF CPF KP JKU TGKIP 4QOG
GTUJKR DTQWIJV VJG \GPKVJ QH VJG 4QOCP EKXKNK\CVKQP VJCV JCF EQPSWGTGF %CPVCDTKC =?
#SWKVCPKC 4CGVKC &CNOCVKC
NCUVGF HQT VYQ EGPVWTKGU +P VJCV [GCT JG VQQM VJG PCOG +NN[TKEWO CPF 2CPPQPKC
"VHVTUVT 6JCV GXGPV KU WUWCNN[ VCMGP D[ JKUVQTKCPU CU 7PFGT #WIWUVWUU TGKIP 4QOCP NKVGTCVWTG ITGY UVGCFKN[
VJG DGIKPPKPI QH 4QOCP 'ORKTG CNVJQWIJ 4QOG YCU KP VJG )QNFGP #IG QH .CVKP .KVGTCVWTG 2QGVU NKMG 8KTIKN
CP KORGTKCN UVCVG UKPEG  $% YJGP %CTVJCIG YCU *QTCEG 1XKF CPF 4WHWU FGXGNQRGF C TKEJ NKVGTCVWTG CPF
TC\GF D[ 5EKRKQ #GOKNKCPWU CPF )TGGEG YCU EQPSWGTGF YGTG ENQUG HTKGPFU QH #WIWUVWU #NQPI YKVJ /CGEGPCU JG
D[ .WEKWU /WOOKWU 1EKCNN[ VJG IQXGTPOGPV YCU TG UVKOWNCVGF RCVTKQVKE RQGOU CU 8KTIKNU GRKE "FOFJE CPF
RWDNKECP DWV #WIWUVWU CUUWOGF CDUQNWVG RQYGTU=?=? CNUQ JKUVQTKQITCRJKECN YQTMU NKMG VJQUG QH .KX[ 6JG
 &.1*3&  5)& 13*/$*1"5&
UIF TIBEFT PG
BOE QJOL BSFBT PO UIF NBQ SFQSFTFOU DMJFOU TUBUFT
BSFBT VOEFS 3PNBO DPOUSPM TIPXO IFSF XFSF TVCKFDU UP
FTQFDJBMMZ JO (FSNBOJB
HTQO  VQ  #& 6KDGTKWU YCU
4UBUVF PG "VHVTUVT
UIF STU 3PNBO FNQFSPS %CGUCT KP  #&=?
QT YCU MKNNGF=? KP  #& 6JG OCNG NKPG
YQTMU QH VJKU NKVGTCT[ CIG NCUVGF VJTQWIJ 4QOCP VKOGU
CPF CTG ENCUUKEU
#WIWUVWU CNUQ EQPVKPWGF VJG UJKHVU QP VJG ECNGPFCT RTQ
OQVGF D[ %CGUCT CPF VJG OQPVJ QH #WIWUV KU PCOGF CH
VGT JKO=? #WIWUVWU DTQWIJV C RGCEGHWN CPF VJTKXKPI GTC
VQ 4QOG VJCV KU MPQYP CU 1BY "VHVTUB QT 1BY 3PNBOB
#WIWUVWU FKGF KP  #& DWV VJG GORKTGU INQT[ EQPVKPWGF
CHVGT JKU GTC
From Tiberius to Nero
6JG ,WNKQ%NCWFKCPU EQPVKPWGF VQ TWNG 4QOG CHVGT #W
IWUVWU FGCVJ CPF VJG[ TGOCKPGF KP RQYGT WPVKN VJG FGCVJ
QH 0GTQ KP  #&=? #WIWUVWU HCXQTKVGU HQT UWEEGGF
KPI JKO YGTG CNTGCF[ FGCF KP JKU UGPGUEGPEG JKU PGRJGY
/CTEGNNWU FKGF KP  $% JKU HTKGPF CPF OKNKVCT[ EQOOCP
FGT #ITKRRC KP  $% CPF JKU ITCPFUQP )CKWU %CGUCT KP 
#& +PWGPEGF D[ JKU YKHG .KXKC &TWUKNNC #WIWUVWU CR
RQKPVGF 6KDGTKWU JGT UQP HTQO CPQVJGT OCTTKCIG CU JKU
JGKT=?
6JG 5GPCVG CITGGF YKVJ VJG UWEEGUUKQP CPF ITCPVGF VQ
6KDGTKWU VJG UCOG VKVNGU CPF JQPQTU QPEG ITCPVGF VQ #W
IWUVWU VJG VKVNG QH QSJODFQT CPF 1BUFS QBUSJBF CPF VJG
%KXKE %TQYP *QYGXGT 6KDGTKWU YCU PQV CP GPVJWUKCUV
QH RQNKVKECN CCKTU CHVGT CITGGOGPV YKVJ VJG 5GPCVG JG
TGVKTGF VQ %CRTK KP  #&=? CPF NGHV EQPVTQN QH VJG EKV[ QH
4QOG KP VJG JCPFU QH VJG RTCGVQTKCP RTGHGEV 5GLCPWU
WP 0GTQ C RWDNKE GPGO[ CPF JG EQOOKVVGF UWKEKFG=?

&YUFOU PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF VOEFS "VHVTUVT 5IF ZFMMPX MFH
FOE SFQSFTFOUT UIF FYUFOU PG UIF 3FQVCMJD JO  #$
HSFFO SFQSFTFOU HSBEVBMMZ DPORVFSFE UFSSJUPSJFT VOEFS UIF SFJHO
PG "VHVTUVT
IPXFWFS
DIBOHF FWFO EVSJOH "VHVTUVT SFJHO
VKN  #& CPF /CETQ
TGICTFGF CU CP GXKN CPF OGNCPEJQNKE OCP YJQ OC[ JCXG
QTFGTGF VJG OWTFGT QH JKU TGNCVKXGU VJG RQRWNCT IGPGTCN
)GTOCPKEWU KP  #&=? CPF JKU QYP UQP &TWUWU ,WNKWU
6KDGTKWU FKGF
QH VJG ,WNKQ%NCWFKCPU YCU NKOKVGF VQ 6KDGTKWU PGRJGY
%NCWFKWU JKU ITCPFUQP 6KDGTKWU )GOGNNWU CPF JKU ITCPF
PGRJGY %CNKIWNC #U )GOGNNWU YCU UVKNN C EJKNF %CNKIWNC
YCU EJQUGP VQ TWNG VJG 'ORKTG $GKPI C RQRWNCT NGCFGT
KP VJG TUV JCNH QH JKU TGKIP %CNKIWNC DGECOG C ETWFG CPF
KPUCPG V[TCPV KP JKU [GCTU EQPVTQNNKPI IQXGTPOGPV=?=?
5WGVQPKWU UVCVGU VJCV JG EQOOKVVGF KPEGUV YKVJ JKU UKU
VGTU MKNNGF UQOG OGP LWUV HQT COWUGOGPV CPF PQOKPCVGF
C JQTUG HQT C EQPUWNUJKR=?
6JG 2TCGVQTKCP )WCTF OWTFGTGF %CNKIWNC HQWT [GCTU CHVGT
VJG FGCVJ QH 6KDGTKWU=? CPF YKVJ DGNCVGF UWRRQTV HTQO
VJG UGPCVQTU RTQENCKOGF JKU WPENG %NCWFKWU CU VJG PGY
GORGTQT=? %NCWFKWU YCU PQV CU CWVJQTKVCTKCP CU 6KDGTKWU
CPF %CNKIWNC %NCWFKWU EQPSWGTGF .[EKC CPF 6JTCEG JKU
OQUV KORQTVCPV FGGF YCU VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJG EQPSWGUV
QH $TKVCKP=?
%NCWFKWU YCU RQKUQPGF D[ JKU YKHG #ITKRRKPC VJG
;QWPIGT KP  #&=? *KU JGKT YCU 0GTQ UQP QH
#ITKRRKPC CPF JGT HQTOGT JWUDCPF UKPEG %NCWFKWU UQP
$TKVCPPKEWU JCF PQV TGCEJGF OCPJQQF WRQP JKU HCVJGTU
FGCVJ 0GTQ KU YKFGN[ MPQYP CU VJG TUV RGTUGEWVQT QH
%JTKUVKCPU CPF HQT VJG )TGCV (KTG QH 4QOG TWOQWTGF VQ
JCXG DGGP UVCTVGF D[ VJG GORGTQT JKOUGNH=?=? 0GTQ
HCEGF OCP[ TGXQNVU FWTKPI JKU TGKIP NKMG VJG 2KUQPKCP EQP
URKTCE[ CPF VJG (KTUV ,GYKUJ4QOCP 9CT #NVJQWIJ 0GTQ
FGHGCVGF VJGUG TGDGNU JG EQWNF PQV QXGTVJTQY VJG TGXQNV
NGF D[ 5GTXKWU 5WNRKEKWU )CNDC 6JG 5GPCVG UQQP FGENCTGF
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

2.5.2 Flavian dynasty
6JG (NCXKCPU YGTG VJG UGEQPF F[PCUV[ VQ TWNG 4QOG=?
+P  #& [GCT QH 0GTQU FGCVJ VJGTG YCU PQ EJCPEG QH
TGVWTP VQ VJG QNF CPF VTCFKVKQPCN 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE VJWU C
PGY GORGTQT JCF VQ TKUG #HVGT VJG VWTOQKN KP VJG ;GCT QH
VJG (QWT 'ORGTQTU 6KVWU (NCXKWU 8GURCUKCPWU
CPINKEK\GF
CU 8GURCUKCP VQQM EQPVTQN QH VJG 'ORKTG CPF GUVCDNKUJGF
C PGY F[PCUV[ 7PFGT VJG (NCXKCPU 4QOG EQPVKPWGF KVU
GZRCPUKQP CPF VJG UVCVG TGOCKPGF UGEWTG=?=?
Vespasian
/CUVGT CPF )QF=? 6JG
8GURCUKCP UGPV NGIKQPU VQ FGHGPF VJG GCUVGTP HTQPVKGT KP
%CRRCFQEKC GZVGPFGF VJG QEEWRCVKQP KP $TKVCKP CPF TG
PGYGF VJG VCZ U[UVGO *G FKGF KP  #&
Titus and Domitian
6KVWU JCF C UJQTVNKXGF TWNG JG YCU GORGTQT HTQO 
#& *G PKUJGF VJG (NCXKCP #ORJKVJGCVGT YJKEJ YCU
EQPUVTWEVGF YKVJ YCT URQKNU HTQO VJG (KTUV ,GYKUJ4QOCP
9CT CPF RTQOQVGF ICOGU VJCV NCUVGF HQT C JWPFTGF FC[U
6JGUG ICOGU YGTG HQT EGNGDTCVKPI VJG XKEVQT[ QXGT VJG
,GYU CPF KPENWFGF INCFKCVQTKCN EQODCVU EJCTKQV TCEGU CPF
C UGPUCVKQPCN OQEM PCXCN DCVVNG VJCV QQFGF VJG ITQWPFU
QH VJG %QNQUUGWO=?=?
6KVWU EQPUVTWEVGF C NKPG QH TQCFU CPF HQTVKECVKQPU QP VJG
DQTFGTU QH OQFGTPFC[ )GTOCP[ CPF JKU IGPGTCN )PCGWU
,WNKWU #ITKEQNC EQPSWGTGF OWEJ QH $TKVCKP NGCFKPI VJG
4QOCP YQTNF UQ HCT CU 5EQVNCPF 1P VJG QVJGT JCPF JKU
HCKNGF YCT CICKPUV &CEKC YCU C JWOKNKCVKPI FGHGCV=?
6KVWU FKGF QH HGXGT KP  #& DGKPI UWEEGGFGF D[
JKU DTQVJGT &QOKVKCP #U GORGTQT &QOKVKCP CUUWOGF
VQVCNKVCTKCP EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU=? CPF VJQWIJV JG EQWNF DG C
PGY #WIWUVWU CPF VTKGF VQ OCMG C RGTUQPCN EWNV QH JKO
UGNH
&QOKVKCP TWNGF HQT HVGGP [GCTU CPF JKU TGKIP YCU OCTMGF
D[ JKU CVVGORVU VQ EQORCTG JKOUGNH VQ VJG IQFU *G EQP
UVTWEVGF CV NGCUV VYQ VGORNGU KP JQPQWT QH ,WRKVGT VJG
UWRTGOG FGKV[ KP 4QOCP TGNKIKQP *G CNUQ NKMGF VQ DG
ECNNGF %PNJOVT FU %FVT
PQDNGU FKUNKMGF JKU TWNG CPF JG YCU OWTFGTGF D[ C EQP
URKTCE[ KP  #&

2.5.3 NervaAntonine dynasty

#VTU PG 7FTQBTJBO GPVOEFS PG UIF 'MBWJBO EZOBTUZ

8GURCUKCP YCU C IGPGTCN WPFGT %NCWFKWU CPF 0GTQ *G

HQWIJV CU C EQOOCPFGT KP VJG (KTUV ,GYKUJ4QOCP 9CT
CNQPI YKVJ JKU UQP 6KVWU (QNNQYKPI VJG VWTOQKN QH VJG
;GCT QH VJG (QWT 'ORGTQTU KP  #& HQWT GORGT
QTU YGTG GPVJTQPGF )CNDC 1VJQ 8KVGNNKWU CPF NCUVN[
8GURCUKCP YJQ ETWUJGF 8KVGNNKWU HQTEGU CPF DGECOG
GORGTQT=?
*G TGEQPUVTWEVGF OCP[ DWKNFKPIU YJKEJ YGTG WPEQO
RNGVGF NKMG C UVCVWG QH #RQNNQ CPF VJG VGORNG QH %JWVT
$MBVEJVT
VJG FGKGF %NCWFKWU DQVJ KPKVKCVGF D[ 0GTQ
$WKNFKPIU QPEG FGUVTQ[GF D[ VJG )TGCV (KTG QH 4QOG 5IF 3PNBO &NQJSF BU JUT HSFBUFTU FYUFOU VOEFS 5SBKBO JO "% 
YGTG TGDWKNV CPF JG TGXKVCNK\GF VJG %CRKVQN 8GURCUKCP
CNUQ UVCTVGF VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH VJG (NCXKCP #ORJKVJGCVGT &WTKPI VJG TWNG QH VJG 0GTXC#PVQPKPG 4QOG TGCEJGF
OQTG EQOOQPN[ MPQYP CU VJG %QNQUUGWO=? KVU VGTTKVQTKCN CPF GEQPQOKECN CRQIGG=? 6JKU VKOG YCU C
6JG JKUVQTKCPU ,QUGRJWU CPF 2NKP[ VJG 'NFGT YTQVG VJGKT RGCEGHWN QPG HQT 4QOG VJG ETKVGTKC HQT EJQQUKPI CP GO
YQTMU FWTKPI 8GURCUKCPU TGKIP 8GURCUKCP YCU ,QUGRJWU RGTQT YGTG VJG SWCNKVKGU QH VJG ECPFKFCVG CPF PQ NQPIGT
URQPUQT CPF 2NKP[ FGFKECVGF JKU /BUVSBMJT )JTUPSJB VQ 6K VKGU QH MKPUJKR CFFKVKQPCNN[ VJGTG YGTG PQ EKXKN YCTU QT
VWU UQP QH 8GURCUKCP OKNKVCT[ FGHGCVU KP VJCV VKOG
 &.1*3&  5)& 13*/$*1"5& 

(QNNQYKPI &QOKVKCPU OWTFGT VJG 5GPCVG TCRKFN[ CR
RQKPVGF 0GTXC VQ JQNF KORGTKCN FKIPKV[ VJKU YCU VJG TUV
VKOG VJCV UGPCVQTU EJQUG VJG GORGTQT UKPEG 1EVCXKCP YCU
JQPQTGF YKVJ VJG VKVNGU QH QSJODFQT CPF "VHVTUVT 0GTXC
JCF C PQDNG CPEGUVT[ CPF JG UGTXGF CU CP CFXKUQT VQ 0GTQ
CPF VJG (NCXKCPU *KU TWNG TGUVQTGF OCP[ QH VJG NKDGTVKGU
QPEG VCMGP D[ &QOKVKCP=? CPF UVCTVGF VJG NCUV IQNFGP
GTC QH 4QOG
Trajan
2CTVJKC CPF 4QOG UJCTGF FQOKPCPEG QXGT #TOGPKC VQ
 USWCTG MKNQOGVTGU=?
QH #TCDKC 2GVTCGC YJKEJ KPENWFGF VJG NCPFU QH UQWVJGTP
5[TKC CPF PQTVJYGUVGTP #TCDKC=?
*G GTGEVGF OCP[ DWKNFKPIU VJCV UVKNN UWTXKXG VQ VJKU FC[
UWEJ CU 6TCLCPU (QTWO 6TCLCPU /CTMGV CPF 6TCLCPU
%QNWOP *KU OCKP CTEJKVGEV YCU #RQNNQFQTWU QH &CO
CUEWU #RQNNQFQTWU OCFG VJG RTQLGEV QH VJG (QTWO CPF
QH VJG %QNWOP CPF CNUQ TGHQTOGF VJG 2CPVJGQP 6TC
LCPU VTKWORJCN CTEJGU KP #PEQPC CPF $GPGXGPVWO CTG
QVJGT EQPUVTWEVKQPU RTQLGEVGF D[ JKO +P &CEKCP 9CT
#RQNNQFQTWU OCFG C ITGCV DTKFIG QXGT VJG &CPWDG HQT
6TCLCP=?
6TCLCPU PCN YCT YCU CICKPUV 2CTVJKC 9JGP 2CTVJKC
CRRQKPVGF C MKPI HQT #TOGPKC YJQ YCU WPCEEGRVCDNG
4QOG JG FGENCTGF YCT *G RTQDCDN[ YCPVGF VQ DG VJG
TUV 4QOCP NGCFGT VQ EQPSWGT 2CTVJKC CPF TGRGCV VJG
INQT[ QH #NGZCPFGT VJG )TGCV EQPSWGTQT QH #UKC YJQO
6TCLCP PGZV HQNNQYGF KP VJG ENCUJ QH )TGGM4QOCPU CPF
VJG 2GTUKCP EWNVWTGU=? +P  JG OCTEJGF VQ #TOGPKC
CPF FGRQUGF VJG NQECN MKPI +P  6TCLCP VWTPGF UQWVJ
KPVQ VJG EQTG QH 2CTVJKCP JGIGOQP[ VCMKPI VJG 0QTVJ
GTP /GUQRQVCOKCP EKVKGU QH 0KUKDKU CPF $CVPCG CPF QT
ICPK\KPI C RTQXKPEG QH /GUQRQVCOKC KP VJG DGIKPPKPI QH
 YJGP EQKPU YGTG KUUWGF CPPQWPEKPI VJCV #TOGPKC
CPF /GUQRQVCOKC JCF DGGP RWV WPFGT VJG CWVJQTKV[ QH VJG
4QOCP RGQRNG=?
+P VJCV UCOG [GCT JG ECRVWTGF 5GNGWEKC CPF VJG 2CTVJKCP
ECRKVCN %VGUKRJQP #HVGT FGHGCVKPI C 2CTVJKCP TGXQNV CPF
C ,GYKUJ TGXQNV JG YKVJFTGY FWG VQ JGCNVJ KUUWGU +P 
JKU KNNPGUU ITGY CPF JG FKGF QH GFGOC *G PQOKPCVGF
*CFTKCP CU JKU JGKT 7PFGT 6TCLCPU NGCFGTUJKR VJG 4Q
OCP 'ORKTG TGCEJGF VJG RGCM QH KVU VGTTKVQTKCN GZRCPUKQP
4QOGU FQOKPKQP PQY URCPPGF  USWCTG OKNGU

&VHOF %FMBDSPJY 6JG ,WUVKEG QH 6TCLCP GSBHNFOU

 From Hadrian to Commodus

0GTXC FKGF KP  #& CPF VJG UWEEGUUQT YCU JKU JGKT VJG 6JG RTQURGTKV[ DTQWIJV D[ 0GTXC CPF 6TCLCP EQPVKPWGF
IGPGTCN 6TCLCP 6TCLCP YCU DQTP KP C PQPRCVTKEKCP HCOKN[ KP VJG TGKIPU QH UWDUGSWGPV GORGTQTU HTQO *CFTKCP VQ
HTQO *KURCPKC CPF JKU RTGGOKPGPEG GOGTIGF KP VJG CTO[ /CTEWU #WTGNKWU *CFTKCP YKVJFTGY CNN VJG VTQQRU UVC
WPFGT &QOKVKCP *G KU VJG UGEQPF QH VJG (KXG )QQF 'O VKQPGF KP 2CTVJKC CPF /GUQRQVCOKC CDCPFQPKPI 6TC
RGTQTU VJG TUV DGKPI 0GTXC LCPU EQPSWGUVU *CFTKCPU IQXGTPOGPV YCU XGT[ RGCEGHWN
6TCLCP YCU ITGGVGF D[ VJG RGQRNG QH 4QOG YKVJ GPVJWUK UKPEG JG CXQKFGF YCTU JG EQPUVTWEVGF HQTVKECVKQPU CPF
CUO YJKEJ JG LWUVKGF D[ IQXGTPKPI YGNN CPF YKVJQWV VJG YCNNU NKMG VJG HCOQWU *CFTKCPU 9CNN DGVYGGP 4QOCP
DNQQFKPGUU VJCV JCF OCTMGF &QOKVKCPU TGKIP *G HTGGF $TKVCKP CPF VJG DCTDCTKCPU QH OQFGTPFC[ 5EQVNCPF
OCP[ RGQRNG YJQ JCF DGGP WPLWUVN[ KORTKUQPGF D[ &QOK # HCOQWU RJKNJGNNGPKUV JG RTQOQVGF EWNVWTG URGEKCNN[ VJG
VKCP CPF TGVWTPGF RTKXCVG RTQRGTV[ VJCV &QOKVKCP JCF EQP )TGGM EWNVWTG *G CNUQ HQTDCFG VQTVWTG CPF JWOCPK\GF
UECVGF C RTQEGUU DGIWP D[ 0GTXC DGHQTG JKU FGCVJ=? VJG NCYU *CFTKCP DWKNV OCP[ CSWGFWEVU DCVJU NKDTCTKGU
6TCLCP EQPSWGTGF &CEKC CPF FGHGCVGF VJG MKPI CPF VJGCVGTU CFFKVKQPCNN[ JG VTCXGNGF PGCTN[ GXGT[ UKPING
&GEGDCNWU YJQ JCF FGHGCVGF &QOKVKCPU HQTEGU +P RTQXKPEG KP VJG 'ORKTG =?
VQ EJGEM VJG OKNKVCT[ CPF KPHTCU
VJG (KTUV &CEKCP 9CT
 VJG FGHGCVGF &CEKC VTWEVWTCN EQPFKVKQPU
DGECOG C ENKGPV MKPIFQO KP VJG 5GEQPF &CEKCP 9CT #HVGT *CFTKCPU FGCVJ CV  JKU UWEEGUUQT #PVQPKPWU

 6TCLCP EQORNGVGN[ FGXCUVCVGF VJG GPGO[U 2KWU DWKNV VGORNGU VJGCVGTU CPF OCWUQNGWOU RTQOQVGF
TGUKUVCPEG CPF CPPGZGF &CEKC VQ VJG 'ORKTG 6TCLCP CNUQ VJG CTVU CPF UEKGPEGU CPF DGUVQYGF JQPQWTU CPF PCP
CPPGZGF VJG ENKGPV UVCVG QH 0CDCVGC VQ HQTO VJG RTQXKPEG EKCN TGYCTFU WRQP VJG VGCEJGTU QH TJGVQTKE CPF RJKNQUQRJ[
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

#PVQPKPWU OCFG HGY KPKVKCN EJCPIGU YJGP JG DGECOG GO

RGTQT NGCXKPI KPVCEV CU HCT CU RQUUKDNG VJG CTTCPIGOGPVU
KPUVKVWVGF D[ *CFTKCP #PVQPKPWU GZRCPFGF VJG 4QOCP
$TKVCKP D[ KPXCFKPI UQWVJGTP 5EQVNCPF CPF DWKNFKPI VJG
#PVQPKPG 9CNN=? *G CNUQ EQPVKPWGF *CFTKCPU RQNKE[
QH JWOCPK\KPI VJG NCYU *G FKGF KP  #&
/CTEWU #WTGNKWU MPQYP CU VJG 2JKNQUQRJGT YCU VJG NCUV
QH VJG (KXG )QQF 'ORGTQTU *G YCU C UVQKE RJKNQUQRJGT
CPF YTQVG C DQQM ECNNGF .FEJUBUJPOT *G FGHGCVGF DCT
DCTKCP VTKDGU KP VJG /CTEQOCPPKE 9CTU CU YGNN CU VJG
2CTVJKCP 'ORKTG=? *KU EQGORGTQT .WEKWU 8GTWU FKGF
KP  #& RTQDCDN[ XKEVKO QH VJG #PVQPKPG 2NCIWG C
RCPFGOKE VJCV UYGRV PGCTN[ XG OKNNKQP RGQRNG VJTQWIJ
VJG 'ORKTG KP  #&=?
(TQO 0GTXC VQ /CTEWU #WTGNKWU VJG GORKTG CEJKGXGF CP
WPRTGEGFGPVGF JCRR[ CPF INQTKQWU UVCVWU 6JG RQYGTHWN
KPWGPEG QH NCYU CPF OCPPGTU JCF ITCFWCNN[ EGOGPVGF
VJG WPKQP QH VJG RTQXKPEGU #NN VJG EKVK\GPU GPLQ[GF CPF
CDWUGF VJG CFXCPVCIGU QH YGCNVJ 6JG KOCIG QH C HTGG EQP
UVKVWVKQP YCU RTGUGTXGF YKVJ FGEGPV TGXGTGPEG 6JG 4Q
OCP UGPCVG CRRGCTGF VQ RQUUGUU VJG UQXGTGKIP CWVJQTKV[
CPF FGXQNXGF QP VJG GORGTQTU CNN VJG GZGEWVKXG RQYGTU QH
IQXGTPOGPV 6JG (KXG )QQF 'ORGTQTU TWNG KU EQPUKFGTGF
VJG IQNFGP GTC QH VJG 'ORKTG=? 4FQUJNJVT 4FWFSVT BU (MZQUPUIFL .VOJDI
%QOOQFWU UQP QH /CTEWU #WTGNKWU DGECOG GORGTQT
CHVGT JKU HCVJGTU FGCVJ *G KU PQV EQWPVGF CU QPG QH VJG
(KXG )QQF 'ORGTQTU (KTUVN[ VJKU YCU FWG VQ JKU FKTGEV RTQOKUGF VQ #NDKPWU VJG =? VKVNG QH %CGUCT
YJKEJ OGCPV JG
MKPUJKR YKVJ VJG NCVVGT GORGTQT KP CFFKVKQP JG YCU RCU YQWNF DG C EQGORGTQT *QYGXGT 5GXGTWU DGVTC[GF
UKXG KP EQORCTKUQP YKVJ JKU RTGFGEGUUQTU YJQ YGTG HTG #NDKPWU D[ DNCOKPI JKO HQT C RNQV CICKPUV JKU NKHG 5GXGTWU
SWGPVN[ NGCFKPI VJGKT CTOKGU KP RGTUQP %QOOQFWU WUW OCTEJGF VQ )CWN CPF FGHGCVGF #NDKPWU (QT VJGUG CEVU
CNN[ VQQM RCTV QP INCFKCVQTKCN EQODCVU YJKEJ QHVGP U[O /CEJKCXGNNK UCKF VJCV 5GXGTWU YCU C HGTQEKQWU NKQP CPF C
=?
DQNK\GF DTWVCNKV[ CPF TQWIJPGUU *G MKNNGF OCP[ EKVK\GPU ENGXGT HQZ
CPF JKU TGKIP YCU VJG DGIKPPKPI QH 4QOCP FGECFGPEG 5GXGTWU CVVGORVGF VQ TGXKXG VQVCNKVCTKCPKUO CPF KP CP CF
CU UVCVGF %CUUKWU &KQ 
4QOG JCU VTCPUHQTOGF HTQO C FTGUU VQ RGQRNG CPF VJG 5GPCVG JG RTCKUGF VJG UGXGT
MKPIFQO QH IQNF VQ QPG QH KTQP CPF TWUV=? KV[ CPF ETWGNV[ QH /CTKWU CPF 5WNNC YJKEJ YQTTKGF VJG
UGPCVQTU=? 9JGP 2CTVJKC KPXCFGF 4QOCP VGTTKVQT[
5GXGTWU YCIGF YCT CICKPUV VJCV EQWPVT[ *G UGK\GF
2.5.4 Severan dynasty VJG EKVKGU QH 0KUKDKU $CD[NQP CPF 5GNGWEKC 4GCEJKPI
%VGUKRJQP VJG 2CTVJKCP ECRKVCN JG QTFGTGF RNWPFGTKPI
%QOOQFWU YCU MKNNGF D[ C EQPURKTCE[ KPXQNXKPI 3WKPVWU CPF JKU CTO[ UNGY CPF ECRVWTGF OCP[ RGQRNG #NDGKV VJKU
#GOKNKWU .CGVWU CPF JKU YKHG /CTEKC KP NCVG  #& 6JG OKNKVCT[ UWEEGUU JG HCKNGF KP KPXCFKPI *CVTC C TKEJ #TC
HQNNQYKPI [GCT KU MPQYP CU VJG ;GCT QH VJG (KXG 'ORGT DKCP EKV[ 5GXGTWU MKNNGF JKU NGICVG HQT VJG NCVVGT YCU ICKP
QTU 2GTVKPCZ &KFKWU ,WNKCPWU 2GUEGPPKWU 0KIGT %NQFKWU KPI TGURGEV HTQO VJG NGIKQPU CPF JKU UQNFKGTU YGTG JKV D[
#NDKPWU CPF 5GRVKOKWU 5GXGTWU HQWIJV HQT VJG KORGTKCN HCOKPG #HVGT VJKU FKUCUVTQWU ECORCKIP JG YKVJFTGY=?
FKIPKV[ #HVGT OCP[ DCVVNGU CICKPUV VJG QVJGT IGPGTCNU
5GXGTWU GUVCDNKUJGF JKOUGNH CU VJG PGY GORGTQT *G CPF 5GXGTWU CNUQ KPVGPFGF VQ XCPSWKUJ VJG YJQNG QH $TKVCKP
JKU UWEEGUUQTU IQXGTPGF YKVJ VJG NGIKQPU UWRRQTV CPF +P QTFGT VQ CEJKGXG VJKU JG YCIGF YCT CICKPUV VJG
VJG[ RCKF OQPG[ HQT VJKU UWRRQTV 6JG EJCPIGU QP EQKPCIG %CNGFQPKCPU #HVGT OCP[ ECUWCNVKGU KP VJG CTO[ FWG VQ
CPF OKNKVCT[ GZRGPFKVWTGU YGTG VJG TQQV QH VJG PCPEKCN VJG VGTTCKP CPF VJG DCTDCTKCPU CODWUJGU 5GXGTWU YGPV
ETKUKU VJCV OCTMGF VJG %TKUKU QH VJG 6JKTF %GPVWT[ JKOUGNH VQ VJG GNF *QYGXGT JG DGECOG KNN CPF FKGF KP
 #&

Septimius Severus
From Caracalla to Alexander Severus
5GXGTWU YCU GPVJTQPGF CHVGT KPXCFKPI 4QOG CPF JCXKPI
&KFKWU ,WNKCPWU MKNNGF *KU VYQ QVJGT TKXCNU 2GUEGPPKWU 7RQP VJG FGCVJ QH 5GXGTWU JKU UQPU %CTCECNNC CPF )GVC
0KIGT CPF %NQFKWU #NDKPWU YGTG DQVJ YGTG JCKNGF CU *N YGTG OCFG GORGTQTU %CTCECNNC IQV TKF QH JKU DTQVJGT KP
QFSBUPS 5GXGTWU SWKEMN[ UWDFWGF 0KIGT KP $[\CPVKWO CPF VJCV UCOG [GCT .KMG JKU HCVJGT %CTCECNNC YCU C YCTNKMG
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OCP *G EQPVKPWGF 5GXGTWU RQNKE[ CPF ICKPGF TGURGEV RTQOKPGPEG VJTQWIJ OKNKVCT[ TCPMU CPF DGECOG GORGT
HTQO VJG NGIKQPU %CTCECNNC YCU C ETWGN OCP CPF QTFGTGF QTU VJTQWIJ EKXKN YCTU
UGXGTCN UNC[KPIU FWTKPI JKU TGKIP *G QTFGTGF VJG FGCVJ QH 6JGTG YGTG  GORGTQTU KP C [GCT RGTKQF C UKIPCN QH
RGQRNG QH JKU QYP EKTENG NKMG JKU VWVQT %KNQ CPF C HTKGPF RQNKVKECN KPUVCDKNKV[ /CZKOKPWU 6JTCZ YCU VJG TUV TWNGT
QH JKU HCVJGT 2CRKPKCP QH VJCV VKOG IQXGTPKPI HQT LWUV VJTGG [GCTU 1VJGTU TWNGF
-PQYKPI VJCV VJG EKVK\GPU QH #NGZCPFTKC FKUNKMGF JKO CPF LWUV HQT C HGY OQPVJU NKMG )QTFKCP + )QTFKCP ++ $CNDKPWU
YGTG URGCMKPI KNN QH JKU EJCTCEVGT JG UNGY CNOQUV VJG GP CPF *QUVKNKCP 6JG RQRWNCVKQP CPF VJG HTQPVKGTU YGTG
VKTG RQRWNCVKQP QH VJG EKV[ #TTKXKPI VJGTG JG UGTXGF C CDCPFQPGF UKPEG VJG GORGTQTU YGTG OQUVN[ EQPEGTPGF
DCPSWGV HQT VJG PQVCDNG EKVK\GPU #HVGT VJCV JKU UQNFKGTU YKVJ FGHGCVKPI TKXCNU CPF GUVCDNKUJKPI VJGKT RQYGT
MKNNGF CNN VJG IWGUVU CPF JG OCTEJGF KPVQ VJG EKV[ YKVJ 6JG GEQPQO[ CNUQ UWGTGF FWTKPI VJCV GRQEJ 6JG OCU
VJG CTO[ UNC[KPI OQUV QH #NGZCPFTKCU RGQRNG=?=? +P UKXG OKNKVCT[ GZRGPFKVWTGU HTQO VJG 5GXGTK ECWUGF C FG
 JG KUUWGF VJG 'FKEV QH %CTCECNNC IKXKPI HWNN 4QOCP XCNWCVKQP QH 4QOCP EQKPU *[RGTKPCVKQP ECOG CV VJKU
EKVK\GPUJKR VQ CNN HTGG OGP NKXKPI KP VJG 'ORKTG %CTCECNNC VKOG CU YGNN 6JG 2NCIWG QH %[RTKCP DTQMG QWV KP 
YCU OWTFGTGF D[ QPG QH JKU UQNFKGTU FWTKPI C ECORCKIP CPF MKNNGF C JWIG RQTVKQP QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP=?
KP 2CTVJKC KP  #&
+P  #& VJG RTQXKPEGU QH 5[TKC 2CNCGUVKPC #UKC /KPQT
6JG 2TCGVQTKCP RTGHGEV /CETKPWU YJQ QTFGTGF %CTC CPF 'I[RV UGRCTCVGF HTQO VJG TGUV QH VJG 4QOCP UVCVG VQ
ECNNCU OWTFGT CUUWOGF RQYGT *KU DTKGH TGKIP GPFGF KP HQTO VJG 2CNO[TGPG 'ORKTG TWNGF D[ 3WGGP <GPQDKC CPF
 YJGP VJG [QWPIUVGT 'NCICDCNWU C TGNCVKXG QH VJG 5GX
EGPVGTGF QP 2CNO[TC +P VJCV UCOG [GCT VJG )CNNKE 'ORKTG
GTK ICKPGF UWRRQTV HTQO VJG NGIKQPCTKGU CPF HQWIJV CICKPUV
YCU ETGCVGF D[ 2QUVWOWU TGVCKPKPI $TKVCKP CPF )CWN=?
/CETKPWU 'NCICDCNWU YCU CP KPEQORGVGPV CPF NCUEKXK 6JGUG EQWPVTKGU UGRCTCVGF HTQO 4QOG CHVGT VJG ECRVWTG
QWU TWNGT=? YJQ YCU YGNN MPQYP HQT GZVTGOG GZVTCXC QH GORGTQT 8CNGTKCP YJQ YCU VJG TUV 4QOCP TWNGT VQ
ICPEG %CUUKWU &KQ *GTQFKCP CPF VJG *KUVQTKC #WIWUVC
DG ECRVWTGF D[ GPGOKGU 8CNGTKCP YCU ECRVWTGF CPF GZG
JCXG OCP[ CEEQWPVU CDQWV JKU GZVTCXCICPEG EWVGF D[ VJG 5CUUCPKFU QH 2GTUKC C JWOKNKCVKPI HCEV HQT
'NCICDCNWU YCU UWEEGGFGF D[ JKU EQWUKP #NGZCPFGT VJG 4QOCPU=?
5GXGTWU #NGZCPFGT YCIGF YCT CICKPUV OCP[ HQGU NKMG 6JG ETKUKU DGICP VQ TGEGFG FWTKPI VJG TGKIPU QH %NCWFKWU
VJG TGXKVCNK\GF 2GTUKC CPF )GTOCP RGQRNGU YJQ KPXCFGF )QVJKEWU
 YJQ FGHGCVGF VJG )QVJKE KPXCFGTU
)CWN *KU NQUUGU OCFG VJG UQNFKGTU FKUUCVKUGF YKVJ VJG CPF #WTGNKCP
 YJQ TGEQPSWGTGF DQVJ VJG )CN
GORGTQT CPF UQOG QH VJGO MKNNGF JKO FWTKPI JKU )GT NKE CPF 2CNO[TGPG 'ORKTGU=?=? &WTKPI VJG TGKIP QH
OCP ECORCKIP KP  #&=? &KQENGVKCP C OQTG EQORGVGPV TWNGT VJG ETKUKU YCU QXGT
EQOG
2.5.5 Crisis of the Third Century

/CKP CTVKENG %TKUKU QH VJG 6JKTF %GPVWT[ 2.6 Empire - the Dominate
# FKUCUVTQWU UEGPCTKQ GOGTIGF CHVGT VJG FGCVJ QH
/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP 'ORKTG

2.6.1 Diocletian
+P  #& &KQENGVKCP YCU JCKNGF CU +ORGTCVQT D[ VJG
GCUVGTP CTO[ &KQENGVKCP JGCNGF VJG GORKTG HTQO VJG ETK
UKU D[ RQNKVKECN CPF GEQPQOKE UJKHVU # PGY HQTO QH IQX
GTPOGPV YCU GUVCDNKUJGF VJG 6GVTCTEJ[ 6JG 'ORKTG YCU
Gallic Empire
Roman Empire
Palmyrene Empire
FKXKFGF COQPI HQWT GORGTQTU VYQ KP VJG 9GUV CPF VYQ
KP VJG 'CUV 6JG TUV VGVTCTEJU YGTG &KQENGVKCP
KP VJG
'CUV /CZKOKCP
KP VJG 9GUV CPF VYQ LWPKQT GORGT
5IF 3PNBO &NQJSF TVFSFE JOUFSOBM TDIJTNT GPSNJOH UIF
1BMNZSFOF &NQJSF BOE UIF (BMMJD &NQJSF
QTU )CNGTKWU
KP VJG 'CUV CPF (NCXKWU %QPUVCPVKWU
KP VJG
9GUV 6Q CFLWUV VJG GEQPQO[ &KQENGVKCP OCFG UGXGTCN
=?
#NGZCPFGT 5GXGTWU VJG 4QOCP UVCVG YCU RNCIWGF D[ VCZ TGHQTOU
EKXKN YCTU GZVGTPCN KPXCUKQPU RQNKVKECN EJCQU RCPFGOKEU &KQENGVKCP GZRGNNGF VJG 2GTUKCPU YJQ RNWPFGTGF 5[TKC CPF
CPF GEQPQOKE FGRTGUUKQP=?=? 6JG QNF 4QOCP XCNWGU EQPSWGTGF UQOG DCTDCTKCP VTKDGU YKVJ /CZKOKCP *G
JCF HCNNGP CPF /KVJTCKUO CPF %JTKUVKCPKV[ JCF DGIWP VQ CFQRVGF OCP[ DGJCXKQTU QH 'CUVGTP OQPCTEJU NKMG YGCT
URTGCF VJTQWIJ VJG RQRWNCEG 'ORGTQTU YGTG PQ NQPIGT KPI RGCTNU CPF IQNFGP UCPFCNU CPF TQDGU #P[QPG KP RTGU
OGP NKPMGF YKVJ PQDKNKV[ VJG[ WUWCNN[ YGTG DQTP KP NQYGT GPEG QH VJG GORGTQT JCF PQY VQ RTQUVTCVG JKOUGNH=? C
ENCUUGU QH FKUVCPV RCTVU QH VJG 'ORKTG 6JGUG OGP TQUG VQ EQOOQP CEV KP VJG 'CUV DWV PGXGT RTCEVKEGF KP 4QOG DG
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

HQTG &KQENGVKCP FKF PQV WUG C FKUIWKUGF HQTO QH 4GRWDNKE

CU VJG QVJGT GORGTQTU UKPEG #WIWUVWU JCF FQPG=?
&KQENGVKCP YCU CNUQ TGURQPUKDNG HQT C UKIPKECPV %JTKU
VKCP RGTUGEWVKQP +P  JG CPF )CNGTKWU UVCTVGF VJG RGT
UGEWVKQP CPF QTFGTGF VJG FGUVTWEVKQP QH CNN VJG %JTKUVKCP
EJWTEJGU CPF UETKRVU CPF HQTDCFG %JTKUVKCP YQTUJKR=?
&KQENGVKCP CDFKECVGF KP  #& VQIGVJGT YKVJ /CZKOKCP
VJWU JG YCU VJG TUV 4QOCP GORGTQT VQ TGUKIP *KU TGKIP
GPFGF VJG VTCFKVKQPCN HQTO QH KORGTKCN TWNG VJG 2TKPEKRCVG

HTQO RTKPEGRU CPF UVCTVGF VJG &QOKPCVG

HTQO &QOK
PWU /CUVGT

(FSNBOJD BOE )VOOJD JOWBTJPOT PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF 

2.6.2 Constantine and Christianity "%

%QPUVCPVKPG CUUWOGF VJG GORKTG CU C VGVTCTEJ KP  *G

EQPFWEVGF OCP[ YCTU CICKPUV VJG QVJGT VGVTCTEJU (KTUVN[ UVCPVKPKCPU CPF VJG 8CNGPVKPKCP F[PCUV[ 4QOG NQUV FG
JG FGHGCVGF /CZGPVKWU KP  +P  JG KUUWGF VJG 'FKEV EKUKXG DCVVNGU CICKPUV VJG 2GTUKCPU CPF )GTOCPKE DCTDCT
QH /KNCP YJKEJ ITCPVGF NKDGTV[ HQT %JTKUVKCPU VQ RTQHGUU KCPU KP  GORGTQT ,WNKCP VJG #RQUVCVG YCU MKNNGF KP
VJGKT TGNKIKQP=? %QPUVCPVKPG YCU EQPXGTVGF VQ %JTKU VJG $CVVNG QH 5COCTTC CICKPUV VJG 2GTUKCPU CPF VJG $CVVNG
VKCPKV[ GPHQTEKPI VJG %JTKUVKCP HCKVJ 6JGTGHQTG JG DG QH #FTKCPQRNG EQUV VJG NKHG QH GORGTQT 8CNGPU

ICP VJG %JTKUVKCPK\CVKQP QH VJG 'ORKTG CPF QH 'WTQRG C  VJG XKEVQTKQWU )QVJU YGTG PGXGT GZRGNNGF HTQO VJG
RTQEGUU EQPENWFGF D[ VJG %CVJQNKE %JWTEJ KP VJG /KFFNG 'ORKTG PQT CUUKOKNCVGF=? 6JGQFQUKWU
 ICXG
#IGU GXGP OQTG HQTEG VQ VJG %JTKUVKCP HCKVJ CHVGT JKU FGCVJ
6JG (TCPMU CPF VJG #NCOCPPK YGTG FGHGCVGF D[ JKO VJG 'ORKTG YCU FKXKFGF KPVQ VJG 'CUVGTP 4QOCP 'ORKTG
FWTKPI  +P  JG FGHGCVGF CPQVJGT VGVTCTEJ TWNGF D[ #TECFKWU CPF VJG 9GUVGTP 4QOCP 'ORKTG EQO
.KEKPKWU CPF EQPVTQNNGF CNN VJG GORKTG CU KV YCU DG OCPFGF D[ *QPQTKWU DQVJ YGTG 6JGQFQUKWU UQPU
HQTG &KQENGVKCP 6Q EGNGDTCVG JKU XKEVQTKGU CPF %JTKU 6JG UKVWCVKQP DGECOG OQTG ETKVKECN KP  CHVGT VJG
VKCPKV[U TGNGXCPEG JG TGDWKNV $[\CPVKWO CPF TGPCOGF FGCVJ QH 5VKNKEJQ C IGPGTCN YJQ VTKGF VQ TGWPKVG VJG 'O
KV 0QXC 4QOC
0GY 4QOG DWV VJG EKV[ UQQP RKTG CPF TGRGN DCTDCTKCP KPXCUKQP KP VJG GCTN[ [GCTU QH
ICKPGF VJG KPHQTOCN PCOG QH %QPUVCPVKPQRNG
%KV[ QH VJG VJ EGPVWT[ 6JG RTQHGUUKQPCN GNF CTO[ EQNNCRUGF
%QPUVCPVKPG=?=? 6JG EKV[ UGTXGF CU C PGY ECRKVCN +P  VJG 6JGQFQUKCP F[PCUV[ UCY VJG 8KUKIQVJU UCEM
HQT VJG 'ORKTG +P HCEV 4QOG JCF NQUV KVU EGPVTCN KORQT 4QOG=? &WTKPI VJG VJ EGPVWT[ VJG 9GUVGTP 'O
VCPEG UKPEG VJG %TKUKU QH VJG 6JKTF %GPVWT[/GFKQNCPWO RKTG UCY C UKIPKECPV TGFWEVKQP QH KVU VGTTKVQT[ 6JG
YCU VJG ECRKVCN HTQO  VQ  CPF EQPVKPWGF VQ JQNF 8CPFCNU EQPSWGTGF 0QTVJ #HTKEC VJG 8KUKIQVJU ENCKOGF
VJG KORGTKCN EQWTV QH 9GUV WPVKN VJG TGKIP QH *QPQTKWU )CWN *KURCPKC YCU VCMGP D[ VJG 5WGDK $TKVCKP YCU CDCP
YJGP 4CXGPPC YCU OCFG ECRKVCN KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[=? FQPGF D[ VJG EGPVTCN IQXGTPOGPV CPF VJG 'ORKTG UWH
$GVYGGP  CPF  JCNH C FQ\GP PGY ECRKVCNU JCF DGGP HGTGF HWTVJGT HTQO VJG KPXCUKQPU QH #VVKNC EJKGH QH VJG
GUVCDNKUJGF D[ VJG OGODGTU QH VJG 6GVTCTEJ[ QEKCNN[ QT *WPU=?=?=?=?=?=?
PQV #PVKQEJ 0KEQOGFKC 6JGUUCNQPKMG 5KTOKWO /K
NCP CPF 6TKGT=? )GPGTCN 1TGUVGU TGHWUGF VQ OGGV VJG FGOCPFU QH VJG DCT
DCTKCP CNNKGU YJQ PQY HQTOGF VJG CTO[ CPF VTKGF VQ
%QPUVCPVKPGU CFOKPKUVTCVKXG CPF OQPGVCT[ TGHQTOU TG GZRGN VJGO HTQO +VCN[ 7PJCRR[ YKVJ VJKU VJGKT EJKGHVCKP
WPKVKPI VJG 'ORKTG WPFGT QPG GORGTQT CPF TGDWKNFKPI VJG 1FQCEGT FGHGCVGF CPF MKNNGF 1TGUVGU KPXCFGF 4CXGPPC
EKV[ QH $[\CPVKWO EJCPIGF VJG JKIJ RGTKQF QH VJG CPEKGPV CPF FGVJTQPGF 4QOWNWU #WIWUVWU UQP QH 1TGUVGU 6JKU
YQTNF GXGPV JCRRGPGF KP  CPF JKUVQTKCPU WUWCNN[ VCMG KV CU
VJG OCTM QH VJG GPF QH %NCUUKECN #PVKSWKV[ CPF DGIKPPKPI
QH VJG /KFFNG #IGU=?=?
2.7 Fall of the Western Roman #HVGT UQOG  [GCTU QH KPFGRGPFGPEG CPF PGCTN[ 
Empire [GCTU CU C ITGCV RQYGT VJG TWNG QH 4QOG KP VJG 9GUV
GPFGF=? 8CTKQWU TGCUQPU YJ[ KV GPFGF JCXG DGGP RTQ
RQUGF GXGT UKPEG KPENWFKPI NQUU QH 4GRWDNKECPKUO OQTCN
/CKP CTVKENG (CNN QH VJG 9GUVGTP 4QOCP 'ORKTG FGEC[ OKNKVCT[ V[TCPP[ ENCUU YCT UNCXGT[ GEQPQOKE
UVCIPCVKQP GPXKTQPOGPVCN EJCPIG FKUGCUG VJG FGENKPG QH
+P VJG NCVG VJ CPF VJ EGPVWTKGU VJG 9GUVGTP 'ORKTG GP VJG 4QOCP TCEG CU YGNN CU VJG KPGXKVCDNG GDD CPF QY VJCV
VGTGF C ETKVKECN UVCIG YJKEJ VGTOKPCVGF YKVJ VJG HCNN QH VJG CNN EKXKNK\CVKQPU GZRGTKGPEG #V VJG VKOG OCP[ RCICPU CT
9GUVGTP 4QOCP 'ORKTG=? 7PFGT VJG NCUV QH VJG %QP IWGF %JTKUVKCPKV[ CPF VJG FGENKPG QH VTCFKVKQPCN 4QOCP TG
 40$*&5: 

NKIKQP YGTG TGURQPUKDNG CU FKF UQOG TCVKQPCNKUV VJKPMGTU QH

VJG OQFGTP GTC FWG VQ C EJCPIG HTQO C OCTVKCN VQ C OQTG
RCEKUV TGNKIKQP VJCV NGUUGPGF VJG UK\G QH CXCKNCDNG UQNFKGTU
YJKNG %JTKUVKCPU UWEJ CU 5CKPV #WIWUVKPG CTIWGF VJG UKPHWN
PCVWTG QH 4QOCP UQEKGV[ KVUGNH YCU VQ DNCOG=?
6JG 'CUVGTP 'ORKTG JCF C FKGTGPV HCVG +V UWTXKXGF HQT
CNOQUV  [GCTU CHVGT VJG HCNN QH KVU 9GUVGTP EQWPVGTRCTV
CPF DGECOG VJG OQUV UVCDNG %JTKUVKCP TGCNO FWTKPI VJG
/KFFNG #IGU &WTKPI VJG VJ EGPVWT[ ,WUVKPKCP DTKG[ TG
EQPSWGTGF 0QTVJGTP #HTKEC CPF +VCN[ DWV $[\CPVKPG RQU
UGUUKQPU KP VJG 9GUV YGTG TGFWEGF VQ UQWVJGTP +VCN[ CPF 5IF 3PNBO 'PSVN UIF QPMJUJDBM FDPOPNJD DVMUVSBM BOE SFMJ
5KEKN[ YKVJKP C HGY [GCTU CHVGT ,WUVKPKCPU FGCVJ=? +P HJPVT DFOUFS PG UIF DJUZ EVSJOH UIF 3FQVCMJD BOE MBUFS &NQJSF
VJG GCUV RCTVKCNN[ TGUWNVKPI HTQO VJG FGUVTWEVKXG 2NCIWG
QH ,WUVKPKCP VJG $[\CPVKPGU YGTG VJTGCVGPGF D[ VJG TKUG
QH +UNCO YJQUG HQNNQYGTU TCRKFN[ EQPSWGTGF VJG VGTTKVQ WPFGT LWTKUFKEVKQP QH CPEKGPV 4QOG
 FGRGPFKPI
TKGU QH 5[TKC #TOGPKC CPF 'I[RV FWTKPI VJG $[\CPVKPG QP VJG UVCPFCTFU WUGF KP 4QOCP +VCN[=? NKXGF KP KP
#TCD 9CTU CPF UQQP RTGUGPVGF C FKTGEV VJTGCV VQ %QP PWOGTCDNG WTDCP EGPVGTU YKVJ RQRWNCVKQP QH  CPF
UVCPVKPQRNG=?=? +P VJG HQNNQYKPI EGPVWT[ VJG #TCDUOQTG CPF UGXGTCN OKNKVCT[ UGVVNGOGPVU C XGT[ JKIJ TCVG QH
CNUQ ECRVWTGF UQWVJGTP +VCN[ CPF 5KEKN[=? 5NCXKE RQRWWTDCPK\CVKQP D[ RTGKPFWUVTKCN UVCPFCTFU /QUV QH VJGUG
NCVKQPU YGTG CNUQ CDNG VQ RGPGVTCVG FGGR KPVQ VJG $CNMCPUEGPVGTU JCF C HQTWO VGORNGU CPF QVJGT DWKNFKPIU UKOKNCT
6JG $[\CPVKPGU JQYGXGT OCPCIGF VQ UVQR HWTVJGT +U VQ VJQUG KP 4QOG
NCOKE GZRCPUKQP KPVQ VJGKT NCPFU FWTKPI VJG VJ EGPVWT[
CPF DGIKPPKPI KP VJG VJ EGPVWT[ TGENCKOGF RCTVU QH VJG
EQPSWGTGF NCPFU=?=? +P  #& VJG 'CUVGTP 'O 2.8.1 Class structure
RKTG YCU CV KVU JGKIJV $CUKNGKQU ++ TGEQPSWGTGF $WNICTKC
CPF #TOGPKC EWNVWTG CPF VTCFG QWTKUJGF=? *QYGXGT /CKP CTVKENGU 5QEKCN ENCUU KP CPEKGPV 4QOG CPF 5VCVWU KP
UQQP CHVGT VJG GZRCPUKQP YCU CDTWRVN[ UVQRRGF KP  4QOCP NGICN U[UVGO
YKVJ VJGKT FGHGCV KP VJG $CVVNG QH /CP\KMGTV 6JG CHVGT
OCVJ QH VJKU KORQTVCPV DCVVNG UGPV VJG GORKTG KPVQ C RTQ 4QOCP UQEKGV[ KU NCTIGN[ XKGYGF CU JKGTCTEJKECN YKVJ
VTCEVGF RGTKQF QH FGENKPG 6YQ FGECFGU QH KPVGTPCN UVTKHG UNCXGU
TFSWJ CV VJG DQVVQO HTGGFOGP
MJCFSUJ CDQXG
CPF 6WTMKE KPXCUKQPU WNVKOCVGN[ RCXGF VJG YC[ HQT 'O VJGO CPF HTGGDQTP EKVK\GPU
DJWFT CV VJG VQR (TGG EKVK
RGTQT #NGZKWU + %QOPGPWU VQ UGPF C ECNN HQT JGNR VQ VJG \GPU YGTG CNUQ FKXKFGF D[ ENCUU 6JG DTQCFGUV CPF GCTNK
9GUVGTP 'WTQRGCP MKPIFQOU KP =? GUV FKXKUKQP YCU DGVYGGP VJG RCVTKEKCPU YJQ EQWNF VTCEG
6JG 9GUV TGURQPFGF YKVJ VJG %TWUCFGU GXGPVWCNN[ TGUWNV VJGKT CPEGUVT[ VQ QPG QH VJG  2CVTKCTEJU CV VJG HQWPF
KPI KP VJG 5CEM QH %QPUVCPVKPQRNG D[ RCTVKEKRCPVU KP VJG KPI QH VJG EKV[ CPF VJG RNGDGKCPU YJQ EQWNF PQV 6JKU
(QWTVJ %TWUCFG 6JG EQPSWGUV QH %QPUVCPVKPQRNG KP  DGECOG NGUU KORQTVCPV KP VJG NCVGT 4GRWDNKE CU UQOG RNG
HTCIOGPVGF YJCV TGOCKPGF QH VJG 'ORKTG KPVQ UWEEGUUQT DGKCP HCOKNKGU DGECOG YGCNVJ[ CPF GPVGTGF RQNKVKEU CPF
UVCVGU VJG WNVKOCVG XKEVQT DGKPI VJCV QH 0KECGC=? #H UQOG RCVTKEKCP HCOKNKGU HGNN QP JCTF VKOGU #P[QPG RCVTK
VGT VJG TGECRVWTG QH %QPUVCPVKPQRNG D[ +ORGTKCN HQTEGU EKCP QT RNGDGKCP YJQ EQWNF EQWPV C EQPUWN CU JKU CPEGU
VJG 'ORKTG YCU NKVVNG OQTG VJCP C )TGGM UVCVG EQPPGF VQT YCU C PQDNG
OPCJMJT C OCP YJQ YCU VJG TUV QH JKU
VQ VJG #GIGCP EQCUV 6JG $[\CPVKPG 'ORKTG EQNNCRUGF HCOKN[ VQ JQNF VJG EQPUWNUJKR UWEJ CU /CTKWU QT %KEGTQ
YJGP /GJOGF ++ EQPSWGTGF %QPUVCPVKPQRNG QP  /C[ YCU MPQYP CU C OPWVT IPNP
PGY OCP CPF GPPQDNGF
=? JKU FGUEGPFCPVU 2CVTKEKCP CPEGUVT[ JQYGXGT UVKNN EQP
HGTTGF EQPUKFGTCDNG RTGUVKIG CPF OCP[ TGNKIKQWU QEGU
TGOCKPGF TGUVTKEVGF VQ RCVTKEKCPU
# ENCUU FKXKUKQP QTKIKPCNN[ DCUGF QP OKNKVCT[ UGTXKEG DG
2.8 Society ECOG OQTG KORQTVCPV /GODGTUJKR QH VJGUG ENCUUGU YCU
FGVGTOKPGF RGTKQFKECNN[ D[ VJG %GPUQTU CEEQTFKPI VQ
6JG KORGTKCN EKV[ QH 4QOG YCU VJG NCTIGUV WTDCP EGPVGT RTQRGTV[ 6JG YGCNVJKGUV YGTG VJG 5GPCVQTKCN ENCUU YJQ
QH KVU VKOG YKVJ C RQRWNCVKQP QH CDQWV QPG OKNNKQP RGQRNG FQOKPCVGF RQNKVKEU CPF EQOOCPF QH VJG CTO[ 0GZV ECOG

CDQWV VJG UK\G QH .QPFQP KP VJG GCTN[ VJ EGPVWT[ YJGP
FRVJUFT UQOGVKOGU VTCPUNCVGF MPKIJVU
.QPFQP YCU VJG NCTIGUV EKV[ KP VJG YQTNF YKVJ C NQY
GPF GUVKOCVG QH =?=?=? 6JG RWDNKE URCEGU
KP 4QOG TGUQWPFGF YKVJ UWEJ C FKP QH JQQXGU CPF ENCVVGT
QH KTQP EJCTKQV YJGGNU VJCV ,WNKWU %CGUCT JCF QPEG RTQ
RQUGF C DCP QP EJCTKQV VTCE FWTKPI VJG FC[ *KUVQTKECN
GUVKOCVGU UJQY VJCV CTQWPF  RGTEGPV QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP
VJG GSWGUVTKCPU
QTKIKPCNN[ VJQUG YJQ EQWNF CQTF C YCTJQTUG YJQ HQTOGF
C RQYGTHWN OGTECPVKNG ENCUU 5GXGTCN HWTVJGT ENCUUGU QTKI
KPCNN[ DCUGF QP YJCV OKNKVCT[ GSWKROGPV VJGKT OGODGTU
EQWNF CQTF HQNNQYGF YKVJ VJG QSPMFUBSJJ EKVK\GPU YJQ
JCF PQ RTQRGTV[ CV CNN CV VJG DQVVQO $GHQTG VJG TGHQTOU
QH /CTKWU VJG[ YGTG KPGNKIKDNG HQT OKNKVCT[ UGTXKEG CPF CTG
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

QHVGP FGUETKDGF CU DGKPI LWUV CDQXG HTGGF UNCXGU KP YGCNVJ JQWUGJQNF=? 6JG RQYGT QH VJG JGCF QH VJG JQWUGJQNF
CPF RTGUVKIG YCU UWRTGOG
QBUSJB QPUFTUBT HCVJGTU RQYGT QXGT VJQUG
8QVKPI RQYGT KP VJG 4GRWDNKE YCU FGRGPFGPV QP ENCUU NKXKPI YKVJ JKO *G EQWNF HQTEG OCTTKCIG
WUWCNN[ HQT
%KVK\GPU YGTG GPTQNNGF KP XQVKPI VTKDGU DWV VJG VTKDGU OQPG[ CPF FKXQTEG UGNN JKU EJKNFTGP KPVQ UNCXGT[ ENCKO
QH VJG TKEJGT ENCUUGU JCF HGYGT OGODGTU VJCP VJG RQQTGT JKU FGRGPFGPVU RTQRGTV[ CU JKU QYP CPF GXGP JCF VJG
QPGU CNN VJG QSPMFUBSJJ DGKPI GPTQNNGF KP C UKPING VTKDG TKIJV VQ RWPKUJ QT MKNN HCOKN[ OGODGTU
VJQWIJ VJKU NCUV
8QVKPI YCU FQPG KP ENCUU QTFGT CPF UVQRRGF CU UQQP CU TKIJV CRRCTGPVN[
=?
EGCUGF VQ DG GZGTEKUGF CHVGT VJG UV EGP
OQUV QH VJG VTKDGU JCF DGGP TGCEJGF UQ VJG RQQTGT ENCUUGU VWT[ $%
YGTG QHVGP WPCDNG GXGP VQ ECUV VJGKT XQVGU 1BUSJB QPUFTUBT GXGP GZVGPFGF QXGT CFWNV UQPU YKVJ VJGKT
9QOGP UJCTGF UQOG DCUKE TKIJVU YKVJ VJGKT OCNG EQWP QYP JQWUGJQNFU # OCP YCU PQV EQPUKFGTGF C QBUFSGB
VGTRCTVU DWV YGTG PQV HWNN[ TGICTFGF CU EKVK\GPU CPF YGTG NJMJBT PQT EQWNF JG VTWN[ JQNF RTQRGTV[ YJKNG JKU QYP
VJWU PQV CNNQYGF VQ XQVG QT VCMG RCTV KP RQNKVKEU #V VJG HCVJGT NKXGF=?=? &WTKPI VJG GCTN[ RGTKQF QH 4QOGU
UCOG VKOG VJG NKOKVGF TKIJVU QH YQOGP ITCFWCNN[ YGTG JKUVQT[ C FCWIJVGT YJGP UJG OCTTKGF HGNN WPFGT VJG EQP
GZRCPFGF
FWG VQ GOCPEKRCVKQP CPF YQOGP TGCEJGF VTQN
NBOVT QH VJG QBUFSGBNJMJBT QH JGT JWUDCPFU JQWUG
HTGGFQO HTQO QBUFSGBNJMJBT ICKPGF RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU CPF JQNF CNVJQWIJ D[ VJG NCVG 4GRWDNKE VJKU HGNN QWV QH HCUJKQP
GXGP JCF OQTG LWTKFKECN TKIJVU VJCP VJGKT JWUDCPFU DWV CU C YQOCP EQWNF EJQQUG VQ EQPVKPWG TGEQIPK\KPI JGT HC
UVKNN VJG[ JCF PQ XQVKPI TKIJVU CPF YGTG CDUGPV HTQO VJGTU HCOKN[ CU JGT VTWG HCOKN[=? *QYGXGT CU 4QOCPU
RQNKVKEU=? TGEMQPGF FGUEGPV VJTQWIJ VJG OCNG NKPG CP[ EJKNFTGP UJG
JCF DGNQPIGF VQ JGT JWUDCPFU HCOKN[=?
#NNKGF HQTGKIP EKVKGU YGTG QHVGP IKXGP VJG .CVKP 4KIJV
CP KPVGTOGFKCT[ NGXGN DGVYGGP HWNN EKVK\GPU CPF HQTGKIPGTU .KVVNG CGEVKQP YCU UJQYP HQT VJG EJKNFTGP QH 4QOG 6JG

QFSFHSJOJ YJKEJ ICXG VJGKT EKVK\GPU TKIJVU WPFGT 4QOCP OQVJGT QT CP GNFGTN[ TGNCVKXG QHVGP TCKUGF DQVJ DQ[U CPF
IKTNU 7PYCPVGF EJKNFTGP YGTG QHVGP UQNF CU UNCXGU %JKN
NCY CPF CNNQYGF VJGKT NGCFKPI OCIKUVTCVGU VQ DGEQOG HWNN
4QOCP EKVK\GPU 9JKNG VJGTG YGTG XCT[KPI FGITGGU QH FTGP OKIJV JCXG YCKVGF QP VCDNGU HQT VJG HCOKN[ DWV VJG[
EQWNF PQV JCXG RCTVKEKRCVGF KP VJG EQPXGTUCVKQP
.CVKP TKIJVU VJG OCKP FKXKUKQP YCU DGVYGGP VJQUG DVN
TVSBHJP
YKVJ XQVG GPTQNNGF KP C 4QOCP VTKDG CPF +P PQDNG HCOKNKGU C )TGGM PWTUG WUWCNN[ VCWIJV VJG EJKN
CDNG VQ VCMG RCTV KP VJG DPNJUJB USJCVUB CPF TJOF TVSBHJP FTGP .CVKP CPF )TGGM 6JGKT HCVJGT VCWIJV VJG DQ[U JQY

YKVJQWV XQVG EQWNF PQV VCMG RCTV KP 4QOCP RQNKVKEU VQ UYKO CPF TKFG CNVJQWIJ JG UQOGVKOGU JKTGF C UNCXG VQ
5QOG QH 4QOGU +VCNKCP CNNKGU YGTG IKXGP HWNN EKVK\GPUJKR VGCEJ VJGO KPUVGCF #V UGXGP C DQ[ DGICP JKU GFWECVKQP
CHVGT VJG 5QEKCN 9CT QH  $% CPF HWNN 4QOCP EKVK *CXKPI PQ UEJQQN DWKNFKPI ENCUUGU YGTG JGNF QP C TQQHVQR
\GPUJKR YCU GZVGPFGF VQ CNN HTGGDQTP OGP KP VJG 'ORKTG
KH FCTM VJG DQ[ JCF VQ ECTT[ C NCPVGTP VQ UEJQQN 9CZ
D[ %CTCECNNC KP  EQXGTGF DQCTFU YGTG WUGF DGECWUG RCRGT RCR[TWU CPF
RCTEJOGPV YGTG VQQ GZRGPUKXGQT JG EQWNF LWUV YTKVG KP
VJG UCPF # NQCH QH DTGCF VQ DG GCVGP YCU CNUQ ECTTKGF=?
2.8.2 Family )TQWRU QH TGNCVGF JQWUGJQNFU HQTOGF C HCOKN[
HFOT
(COKNKGU YGTG DCUGF QP DNQQF VKGU QT CFQRVKQP DWV YGTG
CNUQ RQNKVKECN CPF GEQPQOKE CNNKCPEGU 'URGEKCNN[ FWTKPI
VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE UQOG RQYGTHWN HCOKNKGU QT (FOUFT
.BJPSFT ECOG VQ FQOKPCVG RQNKVKECN NKHG
+P CPEKGPV 4QOG OCTTKCIG YCU QHVGP TGICTFGF OQTG CU
C PCPEKCN CPF RQNKVKECN CNNKCPEG VJCP CU C TQOCPVKE CUUQ
EKCVKQP GURGEKCNN[ KP VJG WRRGT ENCUUGU
UGG OCTTKCIG KP
CPEKGPV 4QOG (CVJGTU WUWCNN[ DGICP UGGMKPI JWUDCPFU
HQT VJGKT FCWIJVGTU YJGP VJGUG TGCEJGF CP CIG DGVYGGP
VYGNXG CPF HQWTVGGP 6JG JWUDCPF YCU WUWCNN[ QNFGT VJCP
VJG DTKFG 9JKNG WRRGT ENCUU IKTNU OCTTKGF XGT[ [QWPI
VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV NQYGT ENCUU YQOGP QHVGP OCTTKGF
KP VJGKT NCVG VGGPU QT GCTN[ U
" HSPVQ QPSUSBJU EFQJDUFE PO HMBTT EBUJOH GSPN D  "% TIPX
JOH B NPUIFS TPO BOE EBVHIUFS *U XBT PODF DPOTJEFSFE B EFQJD
UJPO PG UIF GBNJMZ PG 7BMFOUJOJBO ***
2.8.3 Education

6JG DCUKE WPKVU QH 4QOCP UQEKGV[ YGTG JQWUGJQNFU CPF /CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP UEJQQN
HCOKNKGU=? *QWUGJQNFU KPENWFGF VJG JGCF
WUWCNN[ VJG
HCVJGT QH VJG JQWUGJQNF QBUFS GBNJMJBT
HCVJGT QH VJG +P VJG GCTN[ 4GRWDNKE VJGTG YGTG PQ RWDNKE UEJQQNU UQ
HCOKN[ JKU YKHG EJKNFTGP CPF QVJGT TGNCVKXGU +P VJG DQ[U YGTG VCWIJV VQ TGCF CPF YTKVG D[ VJGKT RCTGPVU QT
WRRGT ENCUUGU UNCXGU CPF UGTXCPVU YGTG CNUQ RCTV QH VJG D[ GFWECVGF UNCXGU ECNNGF QBFEBHPHJ WUWCNN[ QH )TGGM
 40$*&5: 

QTKIKP=?=?=? 6JG RTKOCT[ CKO QH GFWECVKQP FWTKPI

VJKU RGTKQF YCU VQ VTCKP [QWPI OGP KP CITKEWNVWTG YCT
HCTG 4QOCP VTCFKVKQPU CPF RWDNKE CCKTU=? ;QWPI DQ[U
NGCTPGF OWEJ CDQWV EKXKE NKHG D[ CEEQORCP[KPI VJGKT HC
VJGTU VQ TGNKIKQWU CPF RQNKVKECN HWPEVKQPU KPENWFKPI VJG
5GPCVG HQT VJG UQPU QH PQDNGU=? 6JG UQPU QH PQDNGU YGTG
CRRTGPVKEGF VQ C RTQOKPGPV RQNKVKECN IWTG CV VJG CIG QH
 CPF ECORCKIPGF YKVJ VJG CTO[ HTQO VJG CIG QH 

VJKU U[UVGO YCU UVKNN KP WUG COQPI UQOG PQDNG HCOKNKGU

KPVQ VJG KORGTKCN GTC=?
'FWECVKQPCN RTCEVKEGU YGTG OQFKGF CHVGT VJG EQPSWGUV
QH VJG *GNNGPKUVKE MKPIFQOU KP VJG TF EGPVWT[ $% CPF
3FQSFTFOUBUJPO PG B TJUUJOH PG UIF 3PNBO 4FOBUF $JDFSP BUUBDLT
VJG TGUWNVKPI )TGGM KPWGPEG CNVJQWIJ KV UJQWNF DG PQVGF $BUJMJOB GSPN B UIDFOUVSZ GSFTDP
VJCV 4QOCP GFWECVKQPCN RTCEVKEGU YGTG UVKNN OWEJ FKGT
GPV HTQO )TGGM QPGU=?=? +H VJGKT RCTGPVU EQWNF CQTF
KV DQ[U CPF UQOG IKTNU CV VJG CIG QH  YGTG UGPV VQ C RTKXCVG
UEJQQN QWVUKFG VJG JQOG ECNNGF C MVEVT YJGTG C VGCEJGT UKVKQPU JCF VQ TWP HQT GNGEVKQP D[ VJG RGQRNG *QYGXGT

ECNNGF C MJUUFSBUPS QT C NBHJTUFS MVEJ CPF QHVGP QH )TGGM VJG 4QOCP 5GPCVG TGRTGUGPVGF CP QNKICTEJKE KPUVKVWVKQP
QTKIKP VCWIJV VJGO DCUKE TGCFKPI YTKVKPI CTKVJOGVKE CPF YJKEJ CEVGF CU CP CFXKUQT[ DQF[
UQOGVKOGU )TGGM WPVKN VJG CIG QH =?=?=? +P VJG 4GRWDNKE VJG 5GPCVG JGNF CEVWCN CWVJQTKV[
BVDUPSJ
$GIKPPKPI CV CIG  UVWFGPVU YGPV VQ UGEQPFCT[ UEJQQNU UBT DWV PQ TGCN NGIKUNCVKXG RQYGT KV YCU VGEJPKECNN[ QPN[
YJGTG VJG VGCEJGT
PQY ECNNGF C HSBNNBUJDVT VCWIJV VJGO CP CFXKUQT[ EQWPEKN *QYGXGT CU VJG 5GPCVQTU YGTG KP
CDQWV )TGGM CPF 4QOCP NKVGTCVWTG=?=? #V VJG CIG QH FKXKFWCNN[ XGT[ KPWGPVKCN KV YCU FKEWNV VQ CEEQORNKUJ
 UQOG UVWFGPVU YGPV QP VQ TJGVQTKE UEJQQN
YJGTG VJG CP[VJKPI CICKPUV VJG EQNNGEVKXG YKNN QH VJG 5GPCVG 0GY
VGCEJGT WUWCNN[ )TGGM YCU ECNNGF C SIFUPS=?=? 'FW 5GPCVQTU YGTG EJQUGP HTQO COQPI VJG OQUV CEEQORNKUJGF
ECVKQP CV VJKU NGXGN RTGRCTGF UVWFGPVU HQT NGICN ECTGGTU CPF RCVTKEKCPU D[ %GPUQTU
$FOTVSB YJQ EQWNF CNUQ TGOQXG C
TGSWKTGF VJCV VJG UVWFGPVU OGOQTK\G VJG NCYU QH 4QOG=? 5GPCVQT HTQO JKU QEG KH JG YCU HQWPF OQTCNN[ EQTTWRV
2WRKNU YGPV VQ UEJQQN GXGT[ FC[ GZEGRV TGNKIKQWU HGUVKXCNU C EJCTIG VJCV EQWNF KPENWFG DTKDGT[ QT CU WPFGT %CVQ VJG
CPF OCTMGV FC[U 6JGTG YGTG CNUQ UWOOGT JQNKFC[U 'NFGT GODTCEKPI QPGU YKHG KP RWDNKE .CVGT WPFGT VJG
TGHQTOU QH VJG FKEVCVQT 5WNNC 3WCGUVQTU YGTG OCFG CWVQ
OCVKE OGODGTU QH VJG 5GPCVG VJQWIJ OQUV QH JKU TGHQTOU
2.8.4 Government FKF PQV UWTXKXG
6JG 4GRWDNKE JCF PQ ZGF DWTGCWETCE[ CPF EQNNGEVGF
/CKP CTVKENGU 4QOCP %QPUVKVWVKQP CPF *KUVQT[ QH VJG VCZGU VJTQWIJ VJG RTCEVKEG QH VCZ HCTOKPI )QXGTPOGPV
4QOCP %QPUVKVWVKQP RQUKVKQPU UWEJ CU SWCGUVQT CGFKNG QT RTCGHGEV YGTG HWPFGF
HTQO VJG QEGJQNFGTU RTKXCVG PCPEGU 6Q RTGXGPV CP[
+PKVKCNN[ 4QOG YCU TWNGF D[ MKPIU YJQ YGTG GNGEVGF HTQO EKVK\GP HTQO ICKPKPI VQQ OWEJ RQYGT PGY OCIKUVTCVGU
GCEJ QH 4QOGU OCLQT VTKDGU KP VWTP=? 6JG GZCEV PCVWTG YGTG GNGEVGF CPPWCNN[ CPF JCF VQ UJCTG RQYGT YKVJ C EQN
QH VJG MKPIU RQYGT KU WPEGTVCKP *G OC[ JCXG JGNF PGCT NGCIWG (QT GZCORNG WPFGT PQTOCN EQPFKVKQPU VJG JKIJ
CDUQNWVG RQYGT QT OC[ CNUQ JCXG OGTGN[ DGGP VJG EJKGH GUV CWVJQTKV[ YCU JGNF D[ VYQ EQPUWNU +P CP GOGTIGPE[
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GSWKRRGF D[ VJG 'ORKTG NGF D[ C 4QOCP VTKDWPG CPF HTQO CNNKGU 6JKU TGNKCPEG QP CNNKGU EQPVKPWGF VQ VJG GPF
WUGF LWUV CU 4QOCP WPKVU YGTG WUGF +P CFFKVKQP VQ VJG QH VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE 6JG SWKPSWGTGOG YCU VJG OCKP
GPFEFSBUJ VJG 'ORKTG CNUQ WUGF ITQWRU QH DCTDCTKCPU VQ YCTUJKR QP DQVJ UKFGU QH VJG 2WPKE 9CTU CPF TGOCKPGF
IJV CNQPI YKVJ VJG NGIKQPU CU CNNKGU YKVJQWV KPVGITCVKQP VJG OCKPUVC[ QH 4QOCP PCXCN HQTEGU WPVKN TGRNCEGF D[ VJG
KPVQ VJG GNF CTOKGU 7PFGT VJG EQOOCPF QH VJG UGPKQT VKOG QH %CGUCT #WIWUVWU D[ NKIJVGT CPF OQTG OCPGWXGT
4QOCP IGPGTCN RTGUGPV VJG[ YGTG NGF CV NQYGT NGXGNU D[ CDNG XGUUGNU=?
VJGKT QYP QEGTU=? #U EQORCTGF YKVJ C VTKTGOG VJG SWKPSWGTGOG RGTOKVVGF
/KNKVCT[ NGCFGTUJKR GXQNXGF QXGT VJG EQWTUG QH VJG JKU VJG WUG QH C OKZ QH GZRGTKGPEGF CPF KPGZRGTKGPEGF ETGY
VQT[ QH 4QOG 7PFGT VJG OQPCTEJ[ VJG JQRNKVG CTOKGU OGP
CP CFXCPVCIG HQT C RTKOCTKN[ NCPFDCUGF RQYGT CPF
YGTG NGF D[ VJG MKPIU QH 4QOG &WTKPI VJG GCTN[ CPF KVU NGUUGT OCPGWXGTCDKNKV[ RGTOKVVGF VJG 4QOCPU VQ CFQRV
OKFFNG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE OKNKVCT[ HQTEGU YGTG WPFGT VJG CPF RGTHGEV DQCTFKPI VCEVKEU WUKPI C VTQQR QH CDQWV 
EQOOCPF QH QPG QH VJG VYQ GNGEVGF EQPUWNU HQT VJG [GCT OCTKPGU KP NKGW QH VJG TCO 5JKRU YGTG EQOOCPFGF D[
&WTKPI VJG NCVGT 4GRWDNKE OGODGTU QH VJG 4QOCP 5GP C OBWBSDI C TCPM GSWCN VQ C EGPVWTKQP YJQ YCU WUWCNN[
CVQTKCN GNKVG CU RCTV QH VJG PQTOCN UGSWGPEG QH GNGEVGF PQV C EKVK\GP 2QVVGT UWIIGUVU VJCV DGECWUG VJG GGV YCU
RWDNKE QEGU MPQYP CU VJG DVSTVT IPOPSVN YQWNF JCXG FQOKPCVGF D[ PQP4QOCPU VJG PCX[ YCU EQPUKFGTGF PQP
UGTXGF TUV CU RVBFTUPS
QHVGP RQUVGF CU FGRWVKGU VQ GNF 4QOCP CPF CNNQYGF VQ CVTQRJ[ KP VKOGU QH RGCEG=?
EQOOCPFGTU VJGP CU QSBFUPS=?
+PHQTOCVKQP UWIIGUVU VJCV D[ VJG VKOG QH VJG NCVG 'ORKTG
(QNNQYKPI VJG GPF QH C VGTO CU RTCGVQT QT EQPUWN C 5GP
 #& VJG 4QOCP PCX[ EQORTKUGF UGXGTCN GGVU KP
CVQT OKIJV DG CRRQKPVGF D[ VJG 5GPCVG CU C QSPQSBFUPS ENWFKPI YCTUJKRU CPF OGTEJCPV XGUUGNU HQT VTCPURQTVCVKQP
QT QSPDPOTVM
FGRGPFKPI QP VJG JKIJGUV QEG JGNF DG CPF UWRRN[ 9CTUJKRU YGTG QCTGF UCKNKPI ICNNG[U YKVJ
HQTG VQ IQXGTP C HQTGKIP RTQXKPEG /QTG LWPKQT QEGTU VJTGG VQ XG DCPMU QH QCTUOGP (NGGV DCUGU KPENWFGF

FQYP VQ DWV PQV KPENWFKPI VJG NGXGN QH EGPVWTKQP YGTG UWEJ RQTVU CU 4CXGPPC #TNGU #SWKNGC /KUGPWO CPF VJG
UGNGEVGF D[ VJGKT EQOOCPFGTU HTQO VJGKT QYP DMJFOUFMBF OQWVJ QH VJG 5QOOG 4KXGT KP VJG 9GUV CPF #NGZCPFTKC
QT VJQUG TGEQOOGPFGF D[ RQNKVKECN CNNKGU COQPI VJG 5GP CPF 4JQFGU KP VJG 'CUV (NQVKNNCU QH UOCNN TKXGT ETCHV
CVQTKCN GNKVG=?
DMBTTFT YGTG RCTV QH VJG MJNJUBOFJ
DQTFGT VTQQRU FWT
7PFGT #WIWUVWU YJQUG OQUV KORQTVCPV RQNKVKECN RTKQT KPI VJKU RGTKQF DCUGF CV HQTVKGF TKXGT JCTDQTU CNQPI VJG
KV[ YCU VQ RNCEG VJG OKNKVCT[ WPFGT C RGTOCPGPV CPF WPK 4JKPG CPF VJG &CPWDG 6JCV RTQOKPGPV IGPGTCNU EQO
VCT[ EQOOCPF VJG 'ORGTQT YCU VJG NGICN EQOOCPFGT OCPFGF DQVJ CTOKGU CPF GGVU UWIIGUVU VJCV PCXCN HQTEGU
 $6-563& 

YGTG VTGCVGF CU CWZKNKCTKGU VQ VJG CTO[ CPF PQV CU CP KPFG

6JG PCVKXG NCPIWCIG QH VJG 4QOCPU YCU .CVKP CP +VCNKE
RGPFGPV UGTXKEG 6JG FGVCKNU QH EQOOCPF UVTWEVWTG CPF
NCPIWCIG VJG ITCOOCT QH YJKEJ TGNKGU NKVVNG QP YQTF QT
GGV UVTGPIVJU FWTKPI VJKU RGTKQF CTG PQV YGNN MPQYP CN
FGT EQPXG[KPI OGCPKPI VJTQWIJ C U[UVGO QH CZGU CV
VJQWIJ GGVU YGTG EQOOCPFGF D[ RTGHGEVU=? VCEJGF VQ YQTF UVGOU=? +VU CNRJCDGV YCU DCUGF QP VJG
'VTWUECP CNRJCDGV YJKEJ YCU KP VWTP DCUGF QP VJG )TGGM
CNRJCDGV=? #NVJQWIJ UWTXKXKPI .CVKP NKVGTCVWTG EQPUKUVU
2.9 Culture CNOQUV GPVKTGN[ QH %NCUUKECN .CVKP CP CTVKEKCN CPF JKIJN[
UV[NK\GF CPF RQNKUJGF NKVGTCT[ NCPIWCIG HTQO VJG UV EGP
VWT[ $% VJG URQMGP NCPIWCIG QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG YCU
/CKP CTVKENG %WNVWTG QH CPEKGPV 4QOG
8WNICT .CVKP YJKEJ UKIPKECPVN[ FKGTGF HTQO %NCUUK
.KHG KP CPEKGPV 4QOG TGXQNXGF CTQWPF VJG EKV[ QH
ECN .CVKP KP ITCOOCT CPF XQECDWNCT[ CPF GXGPVWCNN[ KP
Tiber River
RTQPWPEKCVKQP=?
(Tiberis)
Vatican 9JKNG .CVKP TGOCKPGF VJG OCKP YTKVVGP NCPIWCIG QH VJG
4QOCP 'ORKTG )TGGM ECOG VQ DG VJG NCPIWCIG URQMGP
Quirinal Hill D[ VJG YGNNGFWECVGF GNKVG CU OQUV QH VJG NKVGTCVWTG UVWF
(Collis Quirinalis)
KGF D[ 4QOCPU YCU YTKVVGP KP )TGGM +P VJG GCUVGTP JCNH
Field of Mars
(Campus Martius)
Viminal Hill
(Collis Viminalis)
QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG YJKEJ NCVGT DGECOG VJG $[\CPVKPG
'ORKTG .CVKP YCU PGXGT CDNG VQ TGRNCEG )TGGM CPF CH
VGT VJG FGCVJ QH ,WUVKPKCP )TGGM DGECOG VJG QEKCN NCP
Esquiline Hill
IWCIG QH VJG $[\CPVKPG IQXGTPOGPV=? 6JG GZRCPUKQP
Capitoline Hill
(Collis Capitolinus) (Collis Esquilinus)

Tiber Island
QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG URTGCF .CVKP VJTQWIJQWV 'WTQRG
(Insula Tiberina) Palatine Hill
(Collis Palatinus)
CPF 8WNICT .CVKP GXQNXGF KPVQ FKCNGEVU KP FKGTGPV NQEC
Caelian Hill
(Collis Caelius) VKQPU ITCFWCNN[ UJKHVKPI KPVQ OCP[ FKUVKPEV 4QOCPEG NCP
Aventine Hill
IWCIGU
(Collis Aventinus) Servian Wall
(Murus Servii Tullii)

2.9.2 Religion

/CKP CTVKENGU 4GNKIKQP KP CPEKGPV 4QOG CPF 4QOCP

5IF TFWFO IJMMT PG 3PNF
4QOG NQECVGF QP UGXGP JKNNU 6JG EKV[ JCF C XCUV PWO
DGT QH OQPWOGPVCN UVTWEVWTGU NKMG VJG %QNQUUGWO VJG
(QTWO QH 6TCLCP CPF VJG 2CPVJGQP +V JCF VJGCVTGU
I[OPCUKWOU OCTMGVRNCEGU HWPEVKQPCN UGYGTU DCVJ EQO
RNGZGU EQORNGVG YKVJ NKDTCTKGU CPF UJQRU CPF HQWPVCKPU
YKVJ HTGUJ FTKPMKPI YCVGT UWRRNKGF D[ JWPFTGFU QH OKNGU
QH CSWGFWEVU 6JTQWIJQWV VJG VGTTKVQT[ WPFGT VJG EQPVTQN
QH CPEKGPV 4QOG TGUKFGPVKCN CTEJKVGEVWTG TCPIGF HTQO
OQFGUV JQWUGU VQ EQWPVT[ XKNNCU
+P VJG ECRKVCN EKV[ QH 4QOG VJGTG YGTG KORGTKCN
TGUKFGPEGU QP VJG GNGICPV 2CNCVKPG *KNN HTQO YJKEJ VJG
YQTF QBMBDF FGTKXGU 6JG NQY 2NGDGKCP CPF OKFFNG
'SWGUVTKCP ENCUUGU NKXGF KP VJG EKV[ EGPVGT RCEMGF KPVQ
CRCTVOGPVU QT +PUWNCG YJKEJ YGTG CNOQUV NKMG OQFGTP
IJGVVQU 6JGUG CTGCU QHVGP DWKNV D[ WRRGT ENCUU RTQR
GTV[ QYPGTU VQ TGPV YGTG QHVGP EGPVTGF WRQP EQNNGIKC QT
VCDGTPC 6JGUG RGQRNG RTQXKFGF YKVJ C HTGG UWRRN[ QH
ITCKP CPF GPVGTVCKPGF D[ INCFCVQTKCN ICOGU YGTG GPTQNNGF
CU ENKGPVU QH RCVTQPU COQPI VJG WRRGT ENCUU 2CVTKEKCPU #U EQPVCEV YKVJ VJG )TGGMU KPETGCUGF VJG QNF 4QOCP
YJQUG CUUKUVCPEG VJG[ UQWIJV CPF YJQUG KPVGTGUVU VJG[ WR IQFU DGECOG KPETGCUKPIN[ CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ )TGGM
JGNF
2.9.1 Language
/CKP CTVKENG .CVKP
O[VJQNQI[
#TEJCKE 4QOCP TGNKIKQP CV NGCUV EQPEGTPKPI VJG IQFU YCU
OCFG WR PQV QH YTKVVGP PCTTCVKXGU DWV TCVJGT QH EQO
RNGZ KPVGTTGNCVKQPU DGVYGGP IQFU CPF JWOCPU=? 7PNKMG
KP )TGGM O[VJQNQI[ VJG IQFU YGTG PQV RGTUQPKGF DWV
YGTG XCIWGN[ FGPGF UCETGF URKTKVU ECNNGF OVNJOB 4Q
OCPU CNUQ DGNKGXGF VJCV GXGT[ RGTUQP RNCEG QT VJKPI JCF
KVU QYP HFOJVT QT FKXKPG UQWN &WTKPI VJG 4QOCP 4GRWD
NKE 4QOCP TGNKIKQP YCU QTICPK\GF WPFGT C UVTKEV U[UVGO
QH RTKGUVN[ QEGU YJKEJ YGTG JGNF D[ OGP QH UGPCVQTKCN
TCPM 6JG %QNNGIG QH 2QPVKEGU YCU WRRGTOQUV DQF[ KP
VJKU JKGTCTEJ[ CPF KVU EJKGH RTKGUV VJG 1POUJGFY .BYJNVT
YCU VJG JGCF QH VJG UVCVG TGNKIKQP (NCOGPU VQQM ECTG QH
VJG EWNVU QH XCTKQWU IQFU YJKNG CWIWTU YGTG VTWUVGF YKVJ
VCMKPI VJG CWURKEGU 6JG UCETGF MKPI VQQM QP VJG TGNKIKQWU
TGURQPUKDKNKVKGU QH VJG FGRQUGF MKPIU +P VJG 4QOCP 'O
RKTG GORGTQTU YGTG FGKGF=?=? CPF VJG HQTOCNK\GF
KORGTKCN EWNV DGECOG KPETGCUKPIN[ RTQOKPGPV
IQFU=? 6JWU ,WRKVGT YCU RGTEGKXGF VQ DG VJG UCOG
FGKV[ CU <GWU /CTU DGECOG CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ #TGU CPF
0GRVWPG YKVJ 2QUGKFQP 6JG 4QOCP IQFU CNUQ CUUWOGF
VJG CVVTKDWVGU CPF O[VJQNQIKGU QH VJGUG )TGGM IQFU 7P
FGT VJG 'ORKTG VJG 4QOCPU CDUQTDGF VJG O[VJQNQIKGU
QH VJGKT EQPSWGTGF UWDLGEVU QHVGP NGCFKPI VQ UKVWCVKQPU KP
YJKEJ VJG VGORNGU CPF RTKGUVU QH VTCFKVKQPCN +VCNKCP FGKVKGU
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

GZKUVGF UKFG D[ UKFG YKVJ VJQUG QH HQTGKIP IQFU=? UEGPG NCPFUECRG QT CDUVTCEV FGUKIP YCU RNCEGF KP VJG EGP
$GIKPPKPI YKVJ 'ORGTQT 0GTQ KP VJG UV EGPVWT[ #& VGT YKVJ C OQPQEJTQOG DCEMITQWPF 6JG HQWTVJ UV[NG
4QOCP QEKCN RQNKE[ VQYCTFU %JTKUVKCPKV[ YCU PGICVKXG YJKEJ DGICP KP VJG UV EGPVWT[ #& FGRKEVGF UEGPGU HTQO
CPF CV UQOG RQKPVU UKORN[ DGKPI C %JTKUVKCP EQWNF DG O[VJQNQI[ YJKNG TGVCKPKPI CTEJKVGEVWTCN FGVCKNU CPF CD
=?=?
RWPKUJCDNG D[ FGCVJ 7PFGT 'ORGTQT &KQENGVKCP VJG UVTCEV RCVVGTPU
RGTUGEWVKQP QH %JTKUVKCPU TGCEJGF KVU RGCM *QYGXGT 2QTVTCKV UEWNRVWTG FWTKPI VJG RGTKQF WVKNK\GF [QWVJHWN CPF
KV DGECOG CP QEKCNN[ UWRRQTVGF TGNKIKQP KP VJG 4QOCP ENCUUKECN RTQRQTVKQPU GXQNXKPI NCVGT KPVQ C OKZVWTG QH TG
UVCVG WPFGT &KQENGVKCPU UWEEGUUQT %QPUVCPVKPG + YKVJ VJG CNKUO CPF KFGCNKUO &WTKPI VJG #PVQPKPG CPF 5GXGTCP
UKIPKPI QH VJG 'FKEV QH /KNCP KP  CPF SWKEMN[ DGECOG RGTKQFU QTPCVG JCKT CPF DGCTFKPI YKVJ FGGR EWVVKPI CPF
FQOKPCPV #NN TGNKIKQPU GZEGRV %JTKUVKCPKV[ YGTG RTQJKD FTKNNKPI DGECOG RQRWNCT #FXCPEGOGPVU YGTG CNUQ OCFG
KVGF KP  #& D[ CP GFKEV QH 'ORGTQT 6JGQFQUKWU +=? KP TGNKGH UEWNRVWTGU WUWCNN[ FGRKEVKPI 4QOCP XKEVQTKGU
.CVKP NKVGTCVWTG YCU HTQO KVU UVCTV KPWGPEGF JGCXKN[ D[
)TGGM CWVJQTU 5QOG QH VJG GCTNKGUV GZVCPV YQTMU CTG QH
2.9.3 Art, music and literature JKUVQTKECN GRKEU VGNNKPI VJG GCTN[ OKNKVCT[ JKUVQT[ QH 4QOG
#U VJG 4GRWDNKE GZRCPFGF CWVJQTU DGICP VQ RTQFWEG RQ
/CKP CTVKENGU 4QOCP CTV .CVKP NKVGTCVWTG /WUKE QH CP GVT[ EQOGF[ JKUVQT[ CPF VTCIGF[
EKGPV 4QOG 4QOCP UEWNRVWTG CPF 6JGCVTG QH CPEKGPV
4QOG 4QOCP OWUKE YCU NCTIGN[ DCUGF QP )TGGM OWUKE CPF
4QOCP RCKPVKPI UV[NGU UJQY )TGGM KPWGPEGU CPF UWT RNC[GF CP KORQTVCPV RCTV KP OCP[ CURGEVU QH 4QOCP
NKHG=? +P VJG 4QOCP OKNKVCT[ OWUKECN KPUVTWOGPVU UWEJ
CU VJG UVCB
C NQPI VTWORGV QT VJG DPSOV
UKOKNCT VQ
C (TGPEJ JQTP YGTG WUGF VQ IKXG XCTKQWU EQOOCPFU
YJKNG VJG CVDJOB
RQUUKDN[ C VTWORGV QT JQTP CPF VJG
MJUVVT
RTQDCDN[ CP GNQPICVGF ,UJCRGF KPUVTWOGPV YGTG
WUGF KP EGTGOQPKCN ECRCEKVKGU=? /WUKE YCU WUGF KP VJG
CORJKVJGCVGTU DGVYGGP IJVU CPF KP VJG PEFB CPF KP
VJGUG UGVVKPIU KU MPQYP VQ JCXG HGCVWTGF VJG DPSOV CPF
VJG IZESBVMJT
C V[RG QH YCVGT QTICP=?
/QUV TGNKIKQWU TKVWCNU HGCVWTGF OWUKECN RGTHQTOCPEGU
YKVJ UJCJBF
FQWDNG RKRGU CV UCETKEGU E[ODCNU CPF
6CODQWTKPGU CV QTIKCUVKE EWNVU CPF TCVVNGU CPF J[OPU
CETQUU VJG URGEVTWO=? 5QOG OWUKE JKUVQTKCPU DGNKGXG
VJCV OWUKE YCU WUGF CV CNOQUV CNN RWDNKE EGTGOQPKGU=?
/WUKE JKUVQTKCPU CTG PQV EGTVCKP KH 4QOCP OWUKEKCPU
OCFG C UKIPKECPV EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ VJG VJGQT[ QT RTCEVKEG
QH OWUKE=?
6JG ITCVK DTQVJGNU RCKPVKPIU CPF UEWNRVWTGU HQWPF KP
2QORGKK CPF *GTEWNCPGWO UWIIGUV VJCV VJG 4QOCPU JCF
8PNBO QMBZJOH B MKVJCTC C UGZUCVWTCVGF EWNVWTG=?

XKXKPI GZCORNGU CTG RTKOCTKN[ HTGUEQGU WUGF VQ CFQTP VJG

YCNNU CPF EGKNKPIU QH EQWPVT[ XKNNCU VJQWIJ 4QOCP NKV
GTCVWTG KPENWFGU OGPVKQPU QH RCKPVKPIU QP YQQF KXQT[
CPF QVJGT OCVGTKCNU=?=? 5GXGTCN GZCORNGU QH 4QOCP
RCKPVKPI JCXG DGGP HQWPF CV 2QORGKK CPF HTQO VJGUG CTV 2.9.4 Cuisine
JKUVQTKCPU FKXKFG VJG JKUVQT[ QH 4QOCP RCKPVKPI KPVQ HQWT
RGTKQFU 6JG TUV UV[NG QH 4QOCP RCKPVKPI YCU RTCEVKEGF
HTQO VJG GCTN[ PF EGPVWT[ $% VQ VJG GCTN[ QT OKFUV /CKP CTVKENG #PEKGPV 4QOCP EWKUKPG
EGPVWT[ $% +V YCU OCKPN[ EQORQUGF QH KOKVCVKQPU QH
OCTDNG CPF OCUQPT[ VJQWIJ UQOGVKOGU KPENWFKPI FGRKE #PEKGPV 4QOCP EWKUKPG EJCPIGF QXGT VJG NQPI FWTCVKQP QH
VKQPU QH O[VJQNQIKECN EJCTCEVGTU=?=? VJKU CPEKGPV EKXKNK\CVKQP &KGVCT[ JCDKVU YGTG CGEVGF D[
6JG UGEQPF UV[NG QH 4QOCP RCKPVKPI DGICP FWTKPI VJG VJG KPWGPEG QH )TGGM EWNVWTG VJG RQNKVKECN EJCPIGU HTQO
GCTN[ UV EGPVWT[ $% CPF CVVGORVGF VQ FGRKEV TGCNKUVKECNN[ MKPIFQO VQ TGRWDNKE VQ GORKTG CPF GORKTGU GPQTOQWU
VJTGGFKOGPUKQPCN CTEJKVGEVWTCN HGCVWTGU CPF NCPFUECRGU GZRCPUKQP YJKEJ GZRQUGF 4QOCPU VQ OCP[ PGY RTQXKP
6JG VJKTF UV[NG QEEWTTGF FWTKPI VJG TGKIP QH #WIWUVWU
 EKCN EWNKPCT[ JCDKVU CPF EQQMKPI VGEJPKSWGU +P VJG DGIKP
$%  #& CPF TGLGEVGF VJG TGCNKUO QH VJG UGEQPF UV[NG PKPI VJG FKGTGPEGU DGVYGGP UQEKCN ENCUUGU YGTG TGNCVKXGN[
KP HCXQT QH UKORNG QTPCOGPVCVKQP # UOCNN CTEJKVGEVWTCN UOCNN DWV FKURCTKVKGU GXQNXGF YKVJ VJG GORKTGU ITQYVJ
 5&$)/0-0(:
2.9.5 Games and recreation
6JG [QWVJ QH 4QOG JCF UGXGTCN HQTOU QH CVJNGVKE RNC[
CPF GZGTEKUG UWEJ CU LWORKPI YTGUVNKPI DQZKPI CPF
TCEKPI=? +P VJG EQWPVT[UKFG RCUVKOGU HQT VJG YGCNVJ[
CNUQ KPENWFGF UJKPI CPF JWPVKPI=? 6JG 4QOCPU CNUQ
JCF UGXGTCN HQTOU QH DCNN RNC[KPI KPENWFKPI QPG TGUGO
DNKPI JCPFDCNN=? &KEG ICOGU DQCTF ICOGU CPF ICODNG
ICOGU YGTG RQRWNCT RCUVKOGU=? 9QOGP FKF PQV VCMG
RCTV KP VJGUG CEVKXKVKGU (QT VJG YGCNVJ[ FKPPGT RCT
VKGU RTGUGPVGF CP QRRQTVWPKV[ HQT GPVGTVCKPOGPV UQOG
VKOGU HGCVWTKPI OWUKE FCPEKPI CPF RQGVT[ TGCFKPIU=?
2NGDGKCPU UQOGVKOGU GPLQ[GF UKOKNCT RCTVKGU VJTQWIJ
ENWDU QT CUUQEKCVKQPU DWV HQT OQUV 4QOCPU TGETGCVKQPCN
FKPKPI WUWCNN[ OGCPV RCVTQPK\KPI VCXGTPU=? %JKNFTGP
GPVGTVCKPGF VJGOUGNXGU YKVJ VQ[U CPF UWEJ ICOGU CU
NGCRHTQI=?=?
2WDNKE ICOGU YGTG URQPUQTGF D[ NGCFKPI 4QOCPU YJQ
YKUJGF VQ CFXGTVKUG VJGKT IGPGTQUKV[ CPF EQWTV RQRWNCT CR
RTQXCN KP VJG +ORGTKCN GTC VJKU WUWCNN[ OGCPV VJG GO
RGTQT 5GXGTCN XGPWGU YGTG FGXGNQRGF URGEKECNN[ HQT
RWDNKE ICOGU 6JG %QNKUUGWO YCU DWKNV KP VJG +ORGTKCN
GTC VQ JQUV COQPI QVJGT GXGPVU INCFKCVQTKCN EQODCVU
6JGUG EQODCVU JCF DGIWP CU HWPGTCN ICOGU CTQWPF VJG
VJ EGPVWT[ $% CPF DGECOG RQRWNCT URGEVCVQT GXGPVU KP
VJG NCVG 4GRWDNKE CPF 'ORKTG )NCFKCVQTU JCF CP GZQVKE
CPF KPXGPVKXG XCTKGV[ QH CTOU CPF CTOQWT 6JG[ UQOG
VKOGU HQWIJV VQ VJG FGCVJ DWV OQTG QHVGP VQ CP CFLW
FKECVGF XKEVQT[ FGRGPFGPV QP C TGHGTGGU FGEKUKQP 6JG
QWVEQOG YCU WUWCNN[ KP MGGRKPI YKVJ VJG OQQF QH VJG
YCVEJKPI ETQYF 5JQYU QH GZQVKE CPKOCNU YGTG RQRW
NCT KP VJGKT QYP TKIJV DWV UQOGVKOGU CPKOCNU YGTG RKV
VGF CICKPUV JWOCP DGKPIU GKVJGT CTOGF RTQHGUUKQPCNU QT
WPCTOGF ETKOKPCNU YJQ JCF DGGP EQPFGOPGF VQ C URGE
VCEWNCT CPF VJGCVTKECN RWDNKE FGCVJ KP VJG CTGPC 5QOG QH
VJGUG GPEQWPVGTU YGTG DCUGF QP GRKUQFGU HTQO 4QOCP QT
)TGGM O[VJQNQI[
%JCTKQV TCEKPI YCU GZVTGOGN[ RQRWNCT COQPI CNN ENCUUGU
+P 4QOG VJGUG TCEGU YGTG WUWCNN[ JGNF CV VJG %KTEWU
/CZKOWU YJKEJ JCF DGGP RWTRQUGDWKNV HQT EJCTKQV CPF
JQTUGTCEKPI CPF CU 4QOGU NCTIGUV RWDNKE RNCEG YCU
CNUQ WUGF HQT HGUVKXCNU CPF CPKOCN UJQYU=? +V EQWNF
UGCV CTQWPF  RGQRNG=? 6JG EJCTKQVGGTU TCEGF
KP VGCOU KFGPVKGF D[ VJGKT EQNQWTU 6JG VTCEM YCU FK
XKFGF NGPIVJYKUG D[ C DCTTKGT VJCV EQPVCKPGF QDGNKUMU
VGORNGU UVCVWGU CPF NCREQWPVGTU 6JG DGUV UGCVU YGTG
CV VJG VTCEMUKFG ENQUG VQ VJG CEVKQP VJG[ YGTG TGUGTXGF
HQT 5GPCVQTU $GJKPF VJGO UCV VJG GSWKVGU
MPKIJVU CPF UQQP UWRRNCPVGF OCTDNG CU VJG EJKGH 4QOCP DWKNFKPI OC
DGJKPF VJG MPKIJVU YGTG VJG RNGDU
EQOOQPGTU CPF PQP VGTKCN CPF CNNQYGF OCP[ FCTKPI CTEJKVGEVWTCN HQTOU=?
EKVK\GPU 6JG FQPQT QH VJG ICOGU UCV QP C JKIJ RNCVHQTO
KP VJG UVCPFU CNQPIUKFG KOCIGU QH VJG IQFU XKUKDNG VQ CNN
.CTIG UWOU YGTG DGV QP VJG QWVEQOGU QH TCEGU 5QOG
4QOCPU QGTGF RTC[GTU CPF UCETKEGU QP DGJCNH QH VJGKT
HCXQWTKVGU QT NCKF EWTUGU QP VJG QRRQUKPI VGCOU CPF UQOG
CEKQPCFQU YGTG OGODGTU QH GZVTGOGN[ GXGP XKQNGPVN[
RCTVKUCP EKTEWU HCEVKQPU

2.10 Technology
/CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP VGEJPQNQI[
#PEKGPV 4QOG DQCUVGF KORTGUUKXG VGEJPQNQIKECN HGCVU
1POU EV (BSE JO 'SBODF JT B 3PNBO BRVFEVDU CVJMU JO D  #$
*U JT B 8PSME )FSJUBHF 4JUF
WUKPI OCP[ CFXCPEGOGPVU VJCV YGTG NQUV KP VJG /KFFNG
#IGU CPF PQV TKXCNGF CICKP WPVKN VJG VJ CPF VJ EGP
VWTKGU #P GZCORNG QH VJKU KU +PUWNCVGF INC\KPI YJKEJ
YCU PQV KPXGPVGF CICKP WPVKN VJG U /CP[ RTCEVKECN
4QOCP KPPQXCVKQPU YGTG CFQRVGF HTQO GCTNKGT )TGGM FG
UKIPU #FXCPEGOGPVU YGTG QHVGP FKXKFGF CPF DCUGF QP
ETCHV #TVKUCPU IWCTFGF VGEJPQNQIKGU CU VTCFG UGETGVU=?
4QOCP EKXKN GPIKPGGTKPI CPF OKNKVCT[ GPIKPGGTKPI EQPUVK
VWVGF C NCTIG RCTV QH 4QOGU VGEJPQNQIKECN UWRGTKQTKV[ CPF
NGICE[ CPF EQPVTKDWVGF VQ VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH JWPFTGFU
QH TQCFU DTKFIGU CSWGFWEVU DCVJU VJGCVGTU CPF CTGPCU
/CP[ OQPWOGPVU UWEJ CU VJG %QNQUUGWO 2QPV FW )CTF
CPF 2CPVJGQP TGOCKP CU VGUVCOGPVU VQ 4QOCP GPIKPGGT
KPI CPF EWNVWTG
6JG 4QOCPU YGTG TGPQYPGF HQT VJGKT CTEJKVGEVWTG YJKEJ
KU ITQWRGF YKVJ )TGGM VTCFKVKQPU KPVQ %NCUUKECN CTEJKVGE
VWTG #NVJQWIJ VJGTG YGTG OCP[ FKGTGPEGU HTQO )TGGM
CTEJKVGEVWTG 4QOG DQTTQYGF JGCXKN[ HTQO )TGGEG KP CF
JGTKPI VQ UVTKEV HQTOWNCKE DWKNFKPI FGUKIPU CPF RTQRQT
VKQPU #UKFG HTQO VYQ PGY QTFGTU QH EQNWOPU EQORQUKVG
CPF 6WUECP CPF HTQO VJG FQOG YJKEJ YCU FGTKXGF HTQO
VJG 'VTWUECP CTEJ 4QOG JCF TGNCVKXGN[ HGY CTEJKVGEVWTCN
KPPQXCVKQPU WPVKN VJG GPF QH VJG 4GRWDNKE
+P VJG UV EGPVWT[ $% 4QOCPU UVCTVGF VQ WUG EQPETGVG
YKFGN[ %QPETGVG YCU KPXGPVGF KP VJG NCVG TF EGPVWT[ $%
+V YCU C RQYGTHWN EGOGPV FGTKXGF HTQO RQ\\QNCPC CPF
#NUQ KP VJG UV EGPVWT[ $% 8KVTWXKWU YTQVG %F BSDIJUFD
UVSB RQUUKDN[ VJG TUV EQORNGVG VTGCVKUG QP CTEJKVGEVWTG
KP JKUVQT[ +P NCVG UV EGPVWT[ $% 4QOG CNUQ DGICP VQ
WUG INCUUDNQYKPI UQQP CHVGT KVU KPXGPVKQP KP 5[TKC CDQWV
 $% /QUCKEU VQQM VJG 'ORKTG D[ UVQTO CHVGT UCORNGU
YGTG TGVTKGXGF FWTKPI .WEKWU %QTPGNKWU 5WNNC U ECORCKIPU
KP )TGGEG
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

VQ VJKU VJGQT[ CNUQ RQKPVKPI QWV VJCV 4QOCP YCVGT RKRGU

YGTG VJKEMN[ EQCVGF YKVJ FGRQUKVU VJCV YQWNF JCXG RTG
XGPVGF NGCF HTQO NGCEJKPI KPVQ VJG YCVGT=?

2.11 Legacy
/CKP CTVKENGU .GICE[ QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG CPF %NCUUKEU

#PEKGPV 4QOG KU VJG RTQIGPKVQT QH 9GUVGTP EKXKNK\C

VKQP=?=?=? 6JG EWUVQOU TGNKIKQP NCY VGEJPQNQI[
CTEJKVGEVWTG RQNKVKECN U[UVGO OKNKVCT[ NKVGTCVWTG
NCPIWCIGU CNRJCDGV IQXGTPOGPV CPF OCP[ HCEVQTU CPF
5IF "QQJBO 8BZ 8KC #RRKC
B SPBE DPOOFDUJOH UIF DJUZ PG 3PNF CURGEVU QH YGUVGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP CTG CNN KPJGTKVGF HTQO
UP UIF TPVUIFSO QBSUT PG *UBMZ SFNBJOT VTBCMF FWFO UPEBZ 4QOCP CFXCPEGOGPVU 6JG TGFKUEQXGT[ QH 4QOCP
EWNVWTG TGXKVCNK\GF 9GUVGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP RNC[KPI C TQNG KP
VJG 4GPCKUUCPEG CPF VJG #IG QH 'PNKIJVGPOGPV=?=?
%QPETGVG OCFG RQUUKDNG VJG RCXGF FWTCDNG 4QOCP TQCFU
OCP[ QH YJKEJ YGTG UVKNN KP WUG C VJQWUCPF [GCTU CH
VGT VJG HCNN QH 4QOG 6JG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH C XCUV CPF 2.12 Historiography
GEKGPV VTCXGN PGVYQTM VJTQWIJQWV VJG 'ORKTG FTCOCV
KECNN[ KPETGCUGF 4QOGU RQYGT CPF KPWGPEG +V YCU QTKI /CKP CTVKENG 4QOCP JKUVQTKQITCRJ[
KPCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF VQ CNNQY 4QOCP NGIKQPU VQ DG TCRKFN[
FGRNQ[GF $WV VJGUG JKIJYC[U CNUQ JCF GPQTOQWU GEQ
PQOKE UKIPKECPEG UQNKFKH[KPI 4QOGU TQNG CU C VTCFKPI #NVJQWIJ VJGTG JCU DGGP C FKXGTUKV[ QH YQTMU QP CPEKGPV
ETQUUTQCFUVJG QTKIKP QH VJG UC[KPI CNN TQCFU NGCF VQ 4QOCP JKUVQT[ OCP[ QH VJGO CTG NQUV #U C TGUWNV QH VJKU
4QOG 6JG 4QOCP IQXGTPOGPV OCKPVCKPGF C U[UVGO NQUU VJGTG CTG ICRU KP 4QOCP JKUVQT[ YJKEJ CTG NNGF D[
QH YC[ UVCVKQPU MPQYP CU VJG EWTUWU RWDNKEWU VJCV RTQ WPTGNKCDNG YQTMU UWEJ CU VJG )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB CPF QVJGT
XKFGF TGHTGUJOGPVU VQ EQWTKGTU CV TGIWNCT KPVGTXCNU CNQPI DQQMU HTQO QDUEWTG CWVJQTU *QYGXGT VJGTG TGOCKPU C
VJG TQCFU CPF GUVCDNKUJGF C U[UVGO QH JQTUG TGNC[U CNNQY PWODGT QH TGNKCDNG CEEQWPVU QH 4QOCP JKUVQT[
KPI C FKURCVEJ VQ VTCXGN WR VQ  MO
 OK C FC[
6JG 4QOCPU EQPUVTWEVGF PWOGTQWU CSWGFWEVU VQ UWRRN[ 2.12.1 In Roman times
YCVGT VQ EKVKGU CPF KPFWUVTKCN UKVGU CPF VQ CKF KP VJGKT CITK
EWNVWTG 6JG EKV[ QH 4QOG YCU UWRRNKGF D[  CSWGFWEVU 6JG TUV JKUVQTKCPU WUGF VJGKT YQTMU HQT VJG NCWFKPI QH
YKVJ C EQODKPGF NGPIVJ QH  MO
 OK=? /QUV 4QOCP EWNVWTG CPF EWUVQOU $[ VJG GPF QH 4GRWDNKE
CSWGFWEVU YGTG EQPUVTWEVGF DGNQY VJG UWTHCEG YKVJ QPN[ UQOG JKUVQTKCPU FKUVQTVGF VJGKT JKUVQTKGU VQ CVVGT VJGKT
UOCNN RQTVKQPU CDQXG ITQWPF UWRRQTVGF D[ CTEJGU 5QOG RCVTQPUGURGEKCNN[ CV VJG VKOG QH /CTKWU U CPF 5WNNC U
VKOGU YJGTG XCNNG[U FGGRGT VJCP  O
 HV JCF VQ ENCUJ=? %CGUCT YTQVG JKU QYP JKUVQTKGU VQ OCMG C EQO
DG ETQUUGF KPXGTVGF UKRJQPU YGTG WUGF VQ EQPXG[ YCVGT RNGVG CEEQWPV QH JKU OKNKVCT[ ECORCKIPU KP )CWN CPF FWT
CETQUU C XCNNG[ KPI VJG %KXKN 9CT
6JG 4QOCPU CNUQ OCFG OCLQT CFXCPEGOGPVU KP UCPKVCVKQP +P VJG 'ORKTG VJG DKQITCRJKGU QH HCOQWU OGP CPF GCTN[
4QOCPU YGTG RCTVKEWNCTN[ HCOQWU HQT VJGKT RWDNKE DCVJU GORGTQTU QWTKUJGF GZCORNGU DGKPI 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST
ECNNGF UIFSNBF YJKEJ YGTG WUGF HQT DQVJ J[IKGPKE CPF QH 5WGVQPKWU CPF 2NWVCTEJU 1BSBMMFM -JWFT 1VJGT OCLQT
UQEKCN RWTRQUGU /CP[ 4QOCP JQWUGU ECOG VQ JCXG WUJ YQTMU QH +ORGTKCN VKOGU YGTG VJCV QH .KX[ CPF 6CEKVWU
VQKNGVU CPF KPFQQT RNWODKPI CPF C EQORNGZ UGYGT U[UVGO
VJG $MPBDB .BYJNB YCU WUGF VQ FTCKP VJG NQECN OCTUJGU 2QN[DKWU 5IF )JTUPSJFT
CPF ECTT[ YCUVG KPVQ VJG 6KDGT TKXGT
5CNNWUV #FMMVN $BUJMJOBF CPF #FMMVN +VHVSUIJOVN
5QOG JKUVQTKCPU JCXG URGEWNCVGF VJCV NGCF RKRGU KP VJG
UGYGT CPF RNWODKPI U[UVGOU NGF VQ YKFGURTGCF NGCF RQK ,WNKWU %CGUCT %F #FMMP (BMMJDP CPF %F #FMMP $JWJMJ
UQPKPI YJKEJ EQPVTKDWVGF VQ VJG FGENKPG KP DKTVJ TCVG CPF
IGPGTCN FGEC[ QH 4QOCP UQEKGV[ NGCFKPI WR VQ VJG HCNN QH .KX[ "C VSCF DPOEJUB
4QOG *QYGXGT NGCF EQPVGPV YQWNF JCXG DGGP OKPK
OK\GF DGECWUG VJG QY QH YCVGT HTQO CSWGFWEVU EQWNF &KQP[UKWU QH *CNKECTPCUUWU 3PNBO "OUJRVJUJFT
PQV DG UJWV Q KV TCP EQPVKPWQWUN[ VJTQWIJ RWDNKE CPF 2NKP[ VJG 'NFGT /BUVSBMJT )JTUPSJB
RTKXCVG QWVNGVU KPVQ VJG FTCKPU CPF QPN[ C HGY VCRU YGTG
KP WUG=? 1VJGT CWVJQTU JCXG TCKUGF UKOKNCT QDLGEVKQPU ,QUGRJWU 5IF +FXJTI 8BS
 4&& "-40 

5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST

%F 7JUB $BFTBSVN 4QPCNF 5[OG
 5IF 3PNBO 3FWPMV
UJPO=?
6CEKVWU "OOBMFT CPF )JTUPSJFT
#FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[
DQTP  $BFTBS 5IF -JGF
2NWVCTEJ 1BSBMMFM -JWFT
C UGTKGU QH DKQITCRJKGU QH
PG B $PMPTTVT CPF )PX 3PNF GFMM=?
HCOQWU 4QOCP CPF )TGGM OGP
%CUUKWU &KQ )JTUPSJB 3PNBOB
*GTQFKCP )JTUPSZ PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF TJODF .BS
2.13 See also
DVT "VSFMJVT
#PEKGPV 4QOCP CTEJKVGEVWTG

2.12.2 In modern times 1WVNKPG QH ENCUUKECN UVWFKGU

1WVNKPG QH CPEKGPV 4QOG

+PVGTGUV KP UVWF[KPI CPF GXGP KFGCNK\KPI CPEKGPV 4QOG
DGECOG RTGXCNGPV FWTKPI VJG +VCNKCP 4GPCKUUCPEG CPF %QPUVKVWVKQP QH VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE
EQPVKPWGU WPVKN VJG RTGUGPV FC[ %JCTNGU /QPVGUSWKGW *KUVQT[ QH 4QOG
YTQVG C YQTM 3FFDUJPOT PO UIF $BVTFT PG UIF (SBOEFVS 6KOGNKPG QH CPEKGPV 4QOG
BOE %FDMFOTJPO PG UIF 3PNBOT 6JG TUV OCLQT YQTM YCU .GICE[ QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG
5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF
4GIKQPU KP )TGEQ4QOCP CPVKSWKV[
D[ 'FYCTF )KDDQP YJKEJ GPEQORCUUGF VJG RGTKQF HTQO
VJG GPF QH PF EGPVWT[ VQ VJG HCNN QH VJG $[\CPVKPG 'O 4QOCP CITKEWNVWTG
RKTG KP =? .KMG /QPVGUSWKGW )KDDQP RCKF VTKDWVG .KUV QH CPEKGPV 4QOCPU
VQ VJG XKTVWG QH 4QOCP EKVK\GPU $CTVJQNF )GQTI 0KGDWJT .KUV QH 4QOCP 'ORGTQTU
YCU C HQWPFGT QH VJG GZCOKPCVKQP QH CPEKGPV 4QOCP JKU 4QOCP EWNVWTG
VQT[ CPF YTQVG 5IF 3PNBO )JTUPSZ VTCEKPI VJG RGTKQF WP
VKN VJG (KTUV 2WPKE YCT 0KGDWJT VTKGF VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG
YC[ VJG 4QOCP VTCFKVKQP GXQNXGF #EEQTFKPI VQ JKO 4Q
OCPU NKMG QVJGT RGQRNG JCF CP JKUVQTKECN GVJQU RTGUGTXGF
2.14 Notes
OCKPN[ KP VJG PQDNG HCOKNKGU
=? %JTKU 5ECTTG 5IF 1FOHVJO )JTUPSJDBM "UMBT PG "ODJFOU
&WTKPI VJG 0CRQNGQPKE RGTKQF C YQTM VKVNGF 5IF )JT 3PNF
.QPFQP 2GPIWKP $QQMU 
UPSZ PG 3PNBOT D[ 8KEVQT &WTW[ CRRGCTGF +V JKIJ
NKIJVGF VJG %CGUCTGCP RGTKQF RQRWNCT CV VJG VKOG )JTUPSZ =? /E'XGF[ CPF ,QPGU

PG 3PNF 3PNBO DPOTUJUVUJPOBM MBX CPF $PSQVT *OTDSJQ =? 5GG GUVKOCVGU QH YQTNF RQRWNCVKQP KP CPVKSWKV[
UJPOVN -BUJOBSVN CNN D[ 6JGQFQT /QOOUGP=? DG
ECOG XGT[ KORQTVCPV OKNGUVQPGU .CVGT VJG YQTM (SFBU =? CP CXGTCIG QH IWTGU HTQO FKGTGPV UQWTEGU CU NKUVGF CV
OFTT BOE %FDMJOF PG 3PNF D[ )WINKGNOQ (GTTGTQ YCU RWD VJG 75 %GPUWU $WTGCWU *KUVQTKECN 'UVKOCVGU QH 9QTNF
NKUJGF 6JG 4WUUKCP YQTM 2QRWNCVKQP UGG CNUQ -TGOGT /KEJCGN
 2QRWNC
VKQP )TQYVJ CPF 6GEJPQNQIKECN %JCPIG 1PG /KNNKQP $%

5IF 0VUMJOFT PO 3PNBO -BOEPXOFSTIJQ )JTUPSZ .BJOMZ VQ  KP 5IF 2VBSUFSMZ +PVSOBM PG &DPOPNJDT 


%VSJOH UIF &NQJSF D[ +XCP )TGXU EQPVCKPGF KPHQTOCVKQP
QP VJG GEQPQO[ QH 2QORQPKWU #VVKEWU QPG QH VJG NCTIGUV =? 6JGTG CTG UGXGTCN FKGTGPV GUVKOCVGU HQT VJG 4QOCP 'O
NCPFQYPGTU CV VJG GPF QH VJG 4GRWDNKE RKTG 5EJGKFGN
 R  GUVKOCVGU  )QNFUOKVJ

 R  GUVKOCVGU  $GNQEJ
 R  GU
'FYCTF )KDDQP
 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF VKOCVGU  /CFFKUQP
 R   GUVKOCVGU 
%FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF 4QOCP 'ORKTG 2QRWNCVKQP GUVKOCVGU 
YJKNG OGPVKQP
KPI UGXGTCN QVJGT GUVKOCVGU DGVYGGP  CPF 
,QJP $CIPCNN $WT[
 )JTUPSZ PG UIF
-BUFS 3PNBO &NQJSF =? /EN[PP (TCPM /CTEWU #WTGNKWU R  2WDNKUJGF D[ 6JG
$QFNG[ *GCF 
/KEJCGN )TCPV
 5IF 3PNBO
8PSME=? =? 6CCIGRGTC 4GKP
 5K\G CPF &WTCVKQP QH 'ORKTGU
)TQYVJ&GENKPG %WTXGU  $% VQ  #& 4PDJBM
$CTDCTC .GXKEM
DQTP  $MBVEJVT=? 4DJFODF )JTUPSZ
&WMG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 3
 
FQK ,5614 
$CTVJQNF )GQTI 0KGDWJT

=? # ETKVKECN FKEVKQPCT[ QH VJG (TGPEJ 4GXQNWVKQP $[ (TCPQKU
/KEJCGN 4QUVQXV\G
 (WTGV /QPC 1\QWH 2I 

*QYCTF *C[GU 5EWNNCTF

 5IF )JTUPSZ =? &GOQETCVK\CVKQP KP VJG 5QWVJ VJG LCIIGF YCXG $[ 4QDKP
PG UIF 3PNBO 8PSME=? .WEMJCO )QTFQP 9JKVG 2I 
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

=? #OGTKECP TGRWDNKECPKUO 4QOCP KFGQNQI[ KP VJG 7PKVGF =? 2[TTJWU QH 'RKTWU
 CPF 2[TTJWU QH 'RKTWU
 D[ ,QPC
5VCVGU %QPUVKVWVKQP $[ /QTVKOGT 0 5 5GNNGTU 2I  .GPFGTKPI .KXKWUQTI 4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 

=? 6JG ITGCVPGUU CPF FGENKPG QH 4QOG 8QNWOG  $[ =? *C[YQQF  RCIGU 
)WINKGNOQ (GTTGTQ 5KT #NHTGF 'EMJCTF <KOOGTP *GPT[
,QJP %JC[VQT 2I   =? *C[YQQF  RCIG 

=? 5JCMGURGCTG CPF TGRWDNKECPKUO $[ #PFTGY *CFGNF 2I =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ :+ :.+++

=? 0GY JKUVQTKECN CVNCU CPF IGPGTCN JKUVQT[ $[ 4QDGTV *GP
=? 6JG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCY CP GPE[ENQRGFKC 8QNWOG  $[ NQRGP .CDDGTVQP 2CIG 
%JTKUVQRJGT $ )TC[ 2I 
=? *WIJ %JKUJQNO
 5IF &ODZDMPQEJB #SJUBOOJDB "
=? #FMKPU  RCIG  %JDUJPOBSZ PG "SUT 4DJFODFT -JUFSBUVSF BOE (FOFSBM *OGPS
NBUJPO 'PE[ENQRFKC $TKVCPPKEC %QORCP[ RR 
=? 6JG (QWPFKPI QH 4QOG 4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ  4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
=? .KX[  RCIG  =? *C[YQQF  RCIGU 
=? &WTCPV  2CIGU  =? 4QOG 6JG 2WPKE 9CTU D[ 4KEJCTF *QQMGT 9CUJKPI
VQP 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ 9TKVVGP  ,WPG  4GVTKGXGF 
=? .KX[  RCIGU 
/CTEJ 
=? 4QIIGP *GUUG *CCUVTWR 1OPKDWU + * #UEJGJQWI 
%Q  =? $CIPCNN 

=? .KX[  RCIGU  =? 4QOG 6JG %QPSWGUV QH VJG *GNNGPKUVKE 'ORKTGU D[
4KEJCTF *QQMGT 9CUJKPIVQP 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ 9TKVVGP
=? /[VJU CPF .GIGPFU 4QOG VJG 9QNH CPF /CTU 4G  ,WPG  4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
VTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? &WKMGT  RCIGU 
=? /GNNQT 4QPCNF CPF /E)GG /CTPK 5IF "ODJFOU 3PNBO
8PSME R 
%KVGF  /CTEJ  =? (CNN QH VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE  $% 2WTFWG 7PKXGT
UKV[ 4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? C
=? 'SWGU
-PKIJV D[ ,QPC .GPFGTKPI .KXKWUQTI 4GVTKGXGF
=? /CV[U\CM  RCIG   /CTEJ 

=? &WKMGT  RCIG  =? #FMKPU  RCIG 

=? "ODJFOU 3PNF BOE UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF D[ /KEJCGN -GTTK =? 6YGPV[UKZ EGPVWTKGU QH CITCTKCP TGHQTO C EQORCTCVKXG
ICP &QTNKPI -KPFGTUNG[ .QPFQP  +5$0  CPCN[UKU $[ 'NKCU * 6WOC 2I 
 RCIG 
=? 9KNNKCO *CTTKUQP &G 2W[
 5IF &ODZDMPQEJB CSJ
=? .CPING[ #PFTGY CPF 5QW\C FG 2JKNKR 6JG 4QOCP UBOOJDB B EJDUJPOBSZ PG BSUT TDJFODFT BOE HFOFSBM MJUFSB
6KOGU %CPFNG 9KEM 2TGUU /CUUCEJWUGVVU UVSF  UIF 34 1FBMF SFQSJOU XJUI OFX NBQT BOE PSJHJOBM
"NFSJDBO BSUJDMFT 9GTPGT %Q RR  4GVTKGXGF 
=? /CV[U\CM  RCIGU 
/C[ 
=? #FMKPU  RCIGU 
=? *GPT[ )GQTIG .KFFGNN
 " IJTUPSZ PG 3PNF UP UIF
=? 4QOG 6JG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE D[ 4KEJCTF *QQMGT FTUBCMJTINFOU PG UIF FNQJSF RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[
9CUJKPIVQP 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ 9TKVVGP  ,WPG  4G 
VTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? 2NWVCTEJ 2CTCNNGN .KXGU -JGF PG $BFTBS +
=? /CIKUVTCVWU D[ )GQTIG .QPI /# #RRGCTKPI QP RCIGU
=? 5EWNNCTF  EJCRVGTU 8+8++
 QH " %JDUJPOBSZ PG (SFFL BOE 3PNBO "OUJRVJUJFT
D[ 9KNNKCO 5OKVJ &%. ..& 2WDNKUJGF D[ ,QJP /WT =? ,WNKWU %CGUCT
$% $%  4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ
TC[ .QPFQP  9GDUKVG YTKVVGP  &GEGODGT  
4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? 2NWVCTEJ .KHG QH %CGUCT 4GVTKGXGF  1EVQDGT 
=? .KX[ ++
=? #WIWUVWU
 $%  #& D[ )CTTGVV ) (CICP &G +O
=? #FMKPU  RCIG  RGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  ,WN[  4GVTKGXGF 
=? 6JGUG CTG NKVGTCNN[ 4QOCP NKDTC HTQO YJKEJ VJG RQWPF /CTEJ 
KU FGTKXGF
=? %QKPU QH VJG 'ORGTQT #WIWUVWU GZCORNGU CTG C EQKP QH
=? 2NWVCTEJ 1BSBMMFM -JWFT -JGF PG $BNJMMVT ::+:   $% KPUETKDGF &KXK +WNK NKWU CPF CPQVJGT QH  $%
DGCTKPI VJG KPUETKRVKQP &KXK NKWU
"VHVTUF WV QBS MVJ
=? *C[YQQF  RCIGU  NNF FU QBS MFT BVUSFT D[ ,WNKGVVG 4GKF
 /05&4 

=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT :8 =? %NCWFKWU $[ $CTDCTC .GXKEM 2CIG 

=? ^2NWVCTEJ -JGF PG "OUPOZ =? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST /FSP :8+

=? #PEKGPV .KDTCT[ 4GVTKGXGF  5GRVGODGT  =? 6CEKVWU "OOBMFT :::8+++

=? 2NWVCTEJ 1BSBMMFM -JWFT -JGF PG "OUPOZ .::+  =? 0GTQ
 #& D[ *GTDGTV 9 $GPCTKQ &G +ORGTC
VQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  0QXGODGT  4GVTKGXGF
=? #WIWUVWU
 $% #& HTQO DDEEQWM 4GVTKGXGF   /CTEJ 
/CTEJ 
=? 5WGVQPKWU
=? .CPING[ #PFTGY CPF 5QW\C FG 2JKNKR6JG 4QOCP
6KOGU RI %CPFNG 9KEM 2TGUU  =? 1 %QPPGNN  RCIG 

=? 6JG ,WNKQ%NCWFKCP &[PCUV[

 $%  #& D[ VJG &G =? .GEVWTG  #WIWUVWU %CGUCT CPF VJG 2CZ 4QOCPC D[
RCTVOGPV QH )TGGM CPF 4QOCP #TV 6JG /GVTQRQNKVCP 5VGXGP -TGKU 6JG *KUVQT[ )WKFG 9TKVVGP  (GDTWCT[
/WUGWO QH #TV 9TKVVGP 1EVQDGT  4GVTKGXGF   4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
/CTEJ 
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST 7FTQBTJBO +
=? ,COGU 1TT
 5IF *OUFSOBUJPOBM 4UBOEBSE #JCMF &O
DZDMPQBFEJB *QYCTF5GXGTCPEG %QORCP[ RR  =? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST 7FTQBTJBO +:
4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+
=? %JCTNGU 2JKPGCU 5JGTOCP
 3PNBO MBX JO UIF NPE
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST 5JUVT 8++ 
FSO XPSME 6JG $QUVQP DQQM EQORCP[ RR  4G
VTKGXGF  /C[  =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8++ 
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT ::8++  =? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST %PNJUJBO :
=? 9GTPGT 'EM 5IF "HF PG "VHVTUVT =? HTQO TQOCPGORKTGPGV 6KVWU (NCXKWU &QOKVKCPWU 4G
VTKGXGF  1EVQDGT 
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT :8+++ 
=? (KXG )QQF 'ORGTQTU HTQO 7048 *KUVQT[ 4GVTKGXGF 
=? *WIJ %JKUJQNO
 &ODZDMPQBFEJB #SJUBOOJDB "
/CTEJ 
%JDUJPOBSZ PG "SUT 4DJFODFT -JUFSBUVSF BOE (FOFSBM *OGPS
NBUJPO 'PE[ENQRCGFKC DTKVCPPKEC %QORCP[ RR  =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+++ 
4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+++ 
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT ::+ 
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+++ 
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT ::+
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+++ 
=? &WKMGT  RCIG 
=? (GTFKPCPF )TGIQTQXKWU
 5IF &NQFSPS )BESJBO "
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST "VHVTUVT .:+++ 1JDUVSF PG UIF (SBFDP3PNBO 8PSME JO )JT 5JNF /CEOKN
NCP RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .8++ 
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .:8+++ 
=? ,QJP %JCTNGU 6CTXGT
 5JCFSJVT UIF UZSBOU # %QP
UVCDNG RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[  =? 5ECTTG 
=? ,QJCPP ,CMQD *GT\QI ,QJP *GPT[ #WIWUVWU $QODGTIGT =? *KUVQTKC #WIWUVC -JGF PG )BESJBO

 5IF 1SPUFTUBOU 5IFPMPHJDBM BOE &DDMFTJBTUJDBM &O
DZDMPQFEJB #FJOH B $POEFOTFE 5SBOTMBUJPO PG )FS[PHT =? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB -JGF PG "OUPOJOVT 1JVT 8 
3FBM &ODZDMPQFEJB .KPFUC[  $NCMKUVQP RR  4G
=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::8++
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=? 2CUV RCPFGOKEU VJCV TCXCIGF 'WTQRG D[ 8GTKV[ /WTRJ[
=? 5IF $IBVUBVRVBO / $CKNG[  RR  4GVTKGXGF
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=? 'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG
=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST $BMJHVMB .8 
UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF XQN + %JCRVGT +
=? %QORGPFKWO
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=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::++  
"ODJFOU BOE NPEFSO CZ UIF BVUIPS PG 5XP UIPVTBOE RVFT
UJPOT PO UIF 0ME BOE /FX 5FTUBNFOUT RR  4G =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::8 
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TC[ RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[  =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::8+ 

=? 5WGVQPKWU 5IF 5XFMWF $BFTBST $MBVEJVT :8++ =? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::8+ 
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=? %CUUKWU &KQ 3PNBO )JTUPSZ .::8+++  =? 6JG )GTOCPKE +PXCUKQPU QH 9GUVGTP 'WTQRG 6JG 7PK
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=? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB 5IF -JGF PG $BSBDBMMB 8+ /CTEJ 
=? *C[YQQF  RCIGU  =? &WKMGT  RCIG 

=? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB 5IF -JGF PG "MFYBOEFS 4FWFSVT .+: =? &G +ORGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU

=? %TKUKU QH VJG 6JKTF %GPVWT[

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 #&6YQ 8KGYU D[
$JWJMJ[BUJPO D[ '. 5MKR -PQZ $QKUG 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ 4CNRJ 9 /CVJKUGP CPF )GQTG[ 5 0CVJCP &G +ORGTC
4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ  VQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  #WIWUV  4GVTKGXGF 
/CTEJ 
=? *C[YQQF  RCIGU 
=? &WTCPV  RCIG 
=? 'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG
UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF XQN ++ %JCRVGT : =? /QTTKU $KUJQR 6JG /KFFNG #IGU  R 

=? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB 5IF -JWFT PG UIF 5IJSUZ 1SFUFOEFST +++ =? &WKMGT  RCIG 
GV :::
=? 6JG $[\CPVKPG 'ORKTG D[ 4KEJCTF *QQMGT 9CUJKPIVQP
=? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB 5IF -JGF PG "VSFMJBO :::++ 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ 9TKVVGP  ,WPG  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN

=? )JTUPSJB "VHVTUB 5IF -JGF PG $MBVEJVT +
=? $TC[ 45
 "SNJFT PG 1FTUJMFODF %CODTKFIG
=? .CEVCPVKWU %F .PSUJCVT 1FSTFDVUPSVN 8++ ,COGU %NCTMG  %Q R  +5$0 

=? ,QCPPGU <QPCTCU &QJUPNF 'SPN %JPDMFUJBO UP UIF EFBUI =? -TGWV\ $CTDCTC /
 #FGPSF UIF /PSNBOT 4PVUI
PG (BMFSJVT FSO *UBMZ JO UIF /JOUI BOE 5FOUI $FOUVSJFT 2JKNCFGNRJKC
7PKXGTUKV[ QH 2GPPU[NXCPKC 2TGUU +5$0 
=? &KQENGVKCP
 #& D[ 4CNRJ 9 /CVJKUGP &G +O 
RGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  /CTEJ  4GVTKGXGF
 /CTEJ  =? &WKMGT  RCIG 

=? .CEVCPVKWU %F .PSUJCVT 1FSTFDVUPSVN ::8+ =? $CUKN ++

#&  D[ %CVJGTKPG *QNOGU &G +O
RGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  #RTKN  4GVTKGXGF
=? 'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG  /CTEJ 
UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF XQN +++ %JCRVGT ::
=? )KDDQP 'FYCTF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG UIF
=? 'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG 3PNBO &NQJSF %JCRVGT  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 
UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF XQN +++ %JCRVGT :8++
=? /GJOGV ++ D[ -QTMWV 1\IGP 6JGQVVQOCPUQTI 4G
=? %QPUVCPVKPG +
  #& D[ *CPU # 2QJNUCPFGT VTKGXGF  #RTKN 
&G +ORGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  ,CPWCT[  4G
=? &WKMGT  RCIG 
VTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? "CTUSBU PG 6JG RQRWNCVKQP QH CPEKGPV 4QOG D[ )NGPP 4
=? *QPQTKWU
 #& D[ 4CNRJ 9 /CVJKUGP &G +O
5VQTG[ *KIJ$GCO 4GUGCTEJ 9TKVVGP  &GEGODGT 
RGTCVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  ,WPG  4GVTKGXGF 
4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 
/CTEJ 
=? 6JG 2QRWNCVKQP QH 4QOG D[ 9JKVPG[ , 1CVGU 1TKIKPCNN[
=? 9CTF2GTMKPU ,QJP $T[CP 4QOCP +ORGTKCN #TEJKVGE
RWDNKUJGF KP $MBTTJDBM 1IJMPMPHZ 8QN  0Q 
#RTKN
VWTG ;CNG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU  +5$0 
 RR  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 

=? 0/QTNG[ .FUSPQPMJT BOE )JOUFSMBOE
%CODTKFIG 
=? &WKMGT  RCIG  
=? 'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM PG =? (TCPM (TQUV #DDQVV 4PDJFUZ BOE 1PMJUJDT JO "ODJFOU 3PNF
UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF XQN +8 %JCRVGT ::8+ $KDNKQ$C\CCT ..%  R 
=? .CRJCO .GYKU
 5IF &OE PG UIF 8PSME 0GY ;QTM =? &WKMGT  RCIG 
6JQOCU &WPPG $QQMU +5$0  RCIGU 
 =? %CUUQP  RCIGU 

=? $WT[ ,$ )JTUPSZ PG UIF -BUFS 3PNBO &NQJSF  h =? (COKN[ 8CNWGU KP #PEKGPV 4QOG D[ 4KEJCTF 5CNNGT
6JG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ .KDTCT[ &KIKVCN %QNNGEVKQPU
=? $WT[ ,$ )JTUPSZ PG UIF -BUFS 3PNBO &NQJSF  h (CVJQO #TEJKXG 9TKVVGP  8KUKVGF  #RTKN 

=? $WT[ ,$ )JTUPSZ PG UIF -BUFS 3PNBO &NQJSF  h =? #FMKPU  RCIG 

=? $WT[ ,$ )JTUPSZ PG UIF -BUFS 3PNBO &NQJSF  =? #FMKPU  RCIG 
  /05&4 

=? .KHGRCE*KUVQT[)GQITCRJ[ )TCFG 7PKV  RCIG \ =? -GGICP RR  $TWPV RR  *CTTKU RR

=? .GEVWTG  # $TKGH 5QEKCN *KUVQT[ QH VJG 4QOCP 'ORKTG
D[ 5VGXGP -TGKU 9TKVVGP  1EVQDGT  4GVTKGXGF  =? -GGICP R  $TWPV RR  2QVVGT RR 
#RTKN 
=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ $BFTBS RR 
=? #FMKPU  RCIG 
=? -CTN %JTKUV 5IF 3PNBOT 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU
=? 9GTPGT  RCIG 
$GTMGNG[ =+5$0 ? RR 
=? &WKMGT  RCIG 
=? %JTKUVQRJGT 5 /CEMC[ "ODJFOU 3PNF " .JMJUBSZ BOE 1P
=? 4QOCP 'FWECVKQP .CVKP 'Z%'6 2TGRCTCVKQP 6GZCU MJUJDBM )JTUPSZ %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%CODTKFIG
%NCUUKECN #UUQEKCVKQP 9TKVVGP D[ )KPP[ .KPF\G[ 7-  RR  /CEMC[ RQKPVU QWV VJCV VJG PWO
5GRVGODGT  4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ  DGT QH NGIKQPU
PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ VJG PWODGT QH NGIKQPCTKGU
ITGY VQ  D[  #& CPF  FWTKPI VJG 5GXGTCP RGTKQF
=? /CV[U\CM  RCIGU 
 #&
=? #FMKPU  RCIG  =? )QNFUYQTVJ[ 5IF 3PNBO "SNZ R 
=? 6JG %CODTKFIG *KUVQT[ QH )TGGM CPF 4QOCP 9CTHCTG =? *WIJ 'NVQP 8BSGBSF JO 3PNBO &VSPQF "%  1Z
'FKVGF D[ 2JKNKR 5CDKP *CPU XCP 9GGU /KEJCGN 9JKVD[ HQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
1ZHQTF =+5$0 
2I  ? RR 
=? 4QCFU VQ 4QOG D[ ,QJP *GUGNVKPG 2CIG 
=? 6 %QTTG[ $TGPPCP 2QYGT CPF 2TQEGUU 7PFGT VJG 4G
=? 6GOKP 2GVGT # /CTMGV 'EQPQO[ KP VJG 'CTN[ 4QOCP RWDNKECP %QPUVKVWVKQP  KP *CTTKGV + (NQYGT GFKVQT 5IF
'ORKTG $BNCSJEHF $PNQBOJPO UP UIF 3PNBO 3FQVCMJD %CODTKFIG
7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%CODTKFIG 7-  =+5$0 
=? ,QJP -GGICP " )JTUPSZ PG 8BSGBSF #NHTGF # -PQRH ? %JCRVGT  2QVVGT RR  )QNFUYQTVJ[

0GY ;QTM  =+5$0 ? R  &CXKF 5IF 3PNBO "SNZ RR  ,WNKWU %CGUCTU OQUV VCN
2QVVGT 6JG 4QOCP #TO[ CPF 0CX[ KP *CTTKGV + GPVGF GGEVKXG CPF TGNKCDNG UWDQTFKPCVG KP )CWN 6KVWU .C
(NQYGT GFKVQT 5IF $BNCSJEHF $PNQBOJPO UP UIF 3PNBO DKGPWU YCU TGEQOOGPFGF VQ JKO D[ 2QORG[ )QNFUYQT
3FQVCMJD %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%CODTKFIG 7- VJ[ 5IF 3PNBO "SNZ R 
 =+5$0 ? RR  (QT C FKUEWU
UKQP QH JQRNKVG VCEVKEU CPF VJGKT UQEKQEWNVWTCN UGVVKPI UGG =? /CEMC[ RR 
8KEVQT &CXKU *CPUQP 5IF 8FTUFSO 8BZ PG 8BS *OGBOUSZ
#BUUMF JO $MBTTJDBM (SFFDF #NHTGF # -PQRH
0GY ;QTM =? /CE-C[ RR  CPF %JCRVGTU 
 =+5$0 ?
=? 6JKU RCTCITCRJ KU DCUGF WRQP 2QVVGT RR 
=? -GGICP R  2QVVGT RR 
=? 6JKU FKUEWUUKQP KU DCUGF WRQP 'NVQP RR  CPF 
=? -GGICP R  #FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[ 5IF 3PNBO "SNZ BU 
8BS  #$ "% 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
1ZHQTF
 =+5$0 ? R  ,Q#PP 5JGNVQP GF =? .CVKP 1PNKPG 5GTKGU +PVTQFWEVKQP D[ 9KPHTGF 2 .GJOCPP
"T UIF 3PNBOT %JE " 4PVSDFCPPL JO 3PNBO 4PDJBM )JT CPF ,QPCVJCP 5NQEWO .KPIWKUVKEU 4GUGCTEJ %GPVGT 6JG
UPSZ 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
0GY ;QTM =+5$0  7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6GZCU CV #WUVKP 9TKVVGP  (GDTWCT[ 
:? RR  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 

=? )QNFUYQTVJ[ 5IF 3PNBO "SNZ RR   =? 6JG .CVKP #NRJCDGV D[ , $ %CNXGTV 7PKXGTUKV[ QH &GPXGT
#FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[ $BFTBS -JGF PG B $PMPTTVT ;CNG 9TKVVGP  #WIWUV  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 
7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
0GY *CXGP  =+5$0 
 +5$0 ? RR    =? %NCUUKECN .CVKP 5WRRNGOGPV RCIG  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN
 #PQVJGT KORQTVCPV HCEVQT FKUEWUUGF D[ )QNFUYQTVJ[ 
YCU CDUGPEG QH NGIKQPCTKGU QP FGVCEJGF FWV[ =? #FMKPU  RCIG 
=? $GVYGGP  $% CPF  $% VJG 4QOCP CTO[ HQWIJV
=? /CV[U\CM  RCIG 
GXGT[ [GCT GZEGRV HQT XG 5VGRJGP 2 1CMNG[ 6JG 'CTN[
4GRWDNKE KP *CTTKGV + (NQYGT GFKVQT 5IF $BNCSJEHF =? 'FYCTF )KDDQP
 5IF IJTUPSZ PG UIF EFDMJOF BOE
$PNQBOJPO UP UIF 3PNBO 3FQVCMJD %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ GBMM PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF RTKPVGF HQT , , 6QWTPGKUGP
2TGUU
%CODTKFIG 7-  =+5$0 ? R RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 

=? 5IF &ODZDMPQFEJB "NFSJDBOB " -JCSBSZ PG 6OJWFSTBM
=? 2 # $TWPV #TO[ CPF .CPF KP VJG 4QOCP 4GRWDNKE KP
,OPXMFEHF 'PE[ENQRGFKC #OGTKECPC %QTRQTCVKQP 
5IF 'BMM PG UIF 3PNBO 3FQVCMJD BOE 3FMBUFE &TTBZT 1Z
RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
HQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
1ZHQTF  =+5$0 
? R  9KNNKCO 8 *CTTKU 8BS BOE *NQFSJBMJTN JO 3F =? 9KNNKU  RCIG 
QVCMJDBO 3PNF  #$ 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
1Z
HQTF  =+5$0 ? R  =? 9KNNKU  RCIG 
  $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

=? 6JGQFQUKWU +
 #& D[ &CXKF 9QQFU &G +ORGT =? /KEJCGN $WTIGT
 #RTKN  5IF 4IBQJOH PG 8FTUFSO
CVQTKDWU 4QOCPKU 9TKVVGP  (GDTWCT[  4GVTKGXGF  $JWJMJ[BUJPO 'SPN "OUJRVJUZ 5P UIF &OMJHIUFONFOU 7PK
#RTKN  XGTUKV[ QH 6QTQPVQ 2TGUU RR  +5$0 
 4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
=? #FMKPU  RCIGU 
=? 2NWVCTEJ 1BSBMMFM -JWFT -JGF PG .BSJVT :+ 
=? 4QOCP 2CKPVKPI HTQO 6KOGNKPG QH #TV *KUVQT[ &GRCTV
OGPV QH )TGGM CPF 4QOCP #TV 6JG /GVTQRQNKVCP /W =? 6JG *KUVQT[ QH VJG &GENKPG CPF (CNN QH VJG 4Q
UGWO QH #TV 9TKVVGP  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN  OCP 'ORKTG  XQNU  1PNKPG .KDTCT[ QH .KDGTV[
QNNNKDGTV[HWPFQTI 4GVTKGXGF  5GRVGODGT 
=? &QPCNF ,C[ )TQWV %NCWFG 8 2CNKUEC
,WPG  " IJT
UPSZ PG XFTUFSO NVTJD 0QTVQP 4GVTKGXGF  /C[  =? .KWMMQPGP 2GVTK 6JGQFQT /QOOUGP #PPLT BOE 8SJU
FST
MKTLCUVQUEK (KPNCPF -WWUCPMQUMK 2WDNKE .KDTCT[
=? #FMKPU  RCIG  #TEJKXGF HTQO VJG QTKIKPCN QP  (GDTWCT[ 

=? #FMKPU  RCIG  =? UGG GZEGTRV CPF VGZV UGCTEJ

=? #FMKPU  RCIG  =? 5GG

=? )TCPV  RCIGU  =? UGG QPNKPG GFKVKQP

=? %CUUQP  RCIGU  =? UGG

=? &CKN[ .KHG 'PVGTVCKPOGPV 5234 1PNKPG 9TKVVGP  =? &T #FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[ VJG JKUVQTKCP CPF CWVJQT #FTK
4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN  CPIQNFUYQTVJ[EQO 4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 

=? #FMKPU  RCIG 

=? %KTEWU /CZKOWU 'PE[ENQRGFKC 4QOCPC 7PKXGTUKV[ QH

2.15 References
%JKECIQ 4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 
#FMKPU .GUNG[ 4Q[ #FMKPU
 )BOECPPL UP
=? ,QJP *WORJTG[ 3PNBO DJSDVTFT BSFOBT GPS DIBSJPU SBD -JGF JO "ODJFOU 3PNF 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[
JOH 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU  R  2TGUU +5$0 
=? +P CPEKGPV 4QOCP NCYU RTQVGEVGF CICKPUV C RGTUQP EQTTWRV %CUUQP .KQPGN
 &WFSZEBZ -JGF JO "ODJFOU
KPI UNCXGU VQ QDVCKP UGETGVU CDQWV VJG OCUVGTU CTVU
$QD
3PNF $CNVKOQTG 6JG ,QJPU *QRMKPU 7PKXGTUKV[
<GKFOCP 6JG 5QHVYCTG +2 &GVGEVKXGU *CPFDQQM 
2TGUU +5$0 
2CIG 

=? #TVKENG QP JKUVQT[ QH 4QOCP EQPETGVG

&KQ %CUUKWU &KQU 4QOG 8QNWOG 8 $QQMU 

#&  4GVTKGXGF  &GEGODGT 
=? (TQPVKPWU
&WKMGT 9KNNKCO ,CEMUQP 5RKGNXQIGN
 8PSME
=? 3PNBO "RVFEVDUT BOE 8BUFS 4VQQMZ D[ #6 *QFIG )JTUPSZ
6JKTF GF 9CFUYQTVJ +5$0 

 

=? )TQWV ,COGU .GCF 2QKUQPKPI CPF 4QOG 7PKXGTUKV[ &WTCPV 9KNN
 5IF 4UPSZ PG $JWJMJ[BUJPO 7PM
QH %JKECIQ #TEJKXGF HTQO VJG QTKIKPCN QP  ,WN[  VNF *** $BFTBS BOE $ISJTU 5KOQP CPF 5EJWUVGT +PE
4GVTKGXGF  ,WN[ 
'NVQP *WIJ
 8BSGBSF JO 3PNBO &VSPQF
=? #PEKGPV 4QOG 5OCTVJKUVQT[ CV -JCP #ECFGO[ 4G "% 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
VTKGXGF  #RTKN  +5$0 
=? ,CEQD &QTUG[ (QTTGUV
 5IF EFWFMPQNFOU PG XFTU (NQYGT
GFKVQT *CTTKGV +
 5IF $BNCSJEHF
FSO DJWJMJ[BUJPO B TUVEZ JO FUIJDBM FDPOPNJD BOE QPMJUJDBM
$PNQBOJPO UP UIF 3PNBO 3FQVCMJD %CODTKFIG 7-
FWPMVUJPO 6JG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU 4GVTKGXGF 
/C[ 
%CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 

=? 9KNNKCO %WPPKPIJCO

 "O &TTBZ PO 8FTUFSO $JW
'FYCTF )KDDQP 5IF )JTUPSZ PG UIF %FDMJOF BOE 'BMM
JMJ[BUJPO JO *UT &DPOPNJD "TQFDUT .FEJBFWBM BOE NPEFSO PG UIF 3PNBO &NQJSF
UJNFT 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
)QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP -GKVJ
 $BFTBS -JGF PG
=? #PFTGY (NGOKPI 9GUV 7BMVF PG UIF DMBTTJDT  2CIG B $PMPTTVT ;CNG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU

)QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP -GKVJ
 5IF 3PNBO
=? -WPQ (KUEJGT
 )JTUPSZ PG NPEFSO QIJMPTPQIZ % "SNZ BU 8BS #$"% 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PK
5ETKDPGTU 5QPU RR  4GVTKGXGF  /C[  XGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 
 &95&3/"- -*/,4 

)QNFUYQTVJ[ #FTKCP -GKVJ

 5IF $PNQMFUF 9QQNH )TGI 3PNF "O &NQJSFT 4UPSZ 0GY ;QTM
3PNBO "SNZ .QPFQP 6JCOGU CPF *WFUQP .VF 1ZHQTF 
ENQVJ +5$0  ZKKK
+5$0   RR
)TCPV /KEJCGN
 $JUJFT PG 7FTVWJVT 1PNQFJJ 9[MG /CTKC 1SPKFDUJOH UIF 1BTU "ODJFOU 3PNF
BOE )FSDVMBOFVN .QPFQP 2JQGPKZ 2TGUU +5$0 $JOFNB BOE )JTUPSZ 0GY ;QTM .QPFQP 4QWV
 NGFIG 
JCTFEQXGT +5$0 : RC
RGTDCEM +5$0 
*C[YQQF 4KEJCTF
 5IF "ODJFOU 8PSME
&CXKF /E-C[ %QORCP[ +PE
-GGICP ,QJP
 " )JTUPSZ PG 8BSGBSF 0GY 2.17 External links
;QTM #NHTGF # -PQRH +5$0 
.KX[ 5IF 3JTF PG 3PNF #PPLT  VTCPUNCVGF HTQO #PEKGPV 4QOG TGUQWTEGU HQT UVWFGPVU HTQO VJG
.CVKP D[ 6, .WEG  1ZHQTF 9QTNFU %NCU %QWTVGPC[ /KFFNG 5EJQQN .KDTCT[
UKEU 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0  *KUVQT[ QH CPEKGPV 4QOG 1RGP%QWTUG9CTG HTQO

VJG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0QVTG &COG RTQXKFKPI HTGG TG
/CEMC[ %JTKUVQRJGT 5
 "ODJFOU 3PNF " UQWTEGU KPENWFKPI NGEVWTGU FKUEWUUKQP SWGUVKQPU CU
.JMJUBSZ BOE 1PMJUJDBM )JTUPSZ %CODTKFIG 7- UKIPOGPVU CPF GZCOU
%CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 
)CNNGT[ QH VJG #PEKGPV #TV #PEKGPV 4QOG
/CV[U\CM 2JKNKR
 $ISPOJDMF PG UIF 3PNBO
.CEWU %WTVKWU
3FQVCMJD .QPFQP 6JCOGU  *WFUQP .VF +5$0
 .KXKWU1TI
1 %QPPGNN 4QDGTV
 0G "SNT BOE .FO " 5IF 1SJWBUF -JGF PG UIF 3PNBOT D[ *CTQNF 9JGVUVQPG
)JTUPSZ PG 8BS 8FBQPOT BOE "HHSFTTJPO 1ZHQTF ,QJPUVQP
1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 
7PKVGF 0CVKQPU QH 4QOC 8KEVTKZ
7048 *KUVQT[
5ECTTG %JTKU
5GRVGODGT  5IF 1FOHVJO )JT
UPSJDBM "UMBT PG "ODJFOU 3PNF 2GPIWKP $QQMU 9CVGT CPF 9CUVGYCVGT 5[UVGOU KP +ORGTKCN 4QOG
+5$0 
4QOCP &0# RTQLGEV
5EWNNCTF * *
 'SPN UIF (SBDDIJ UP /FSP

VJ GFKVKQP 4QWVNGFIG +5$0 
9CTF2GTMKPU ,QJP $T[CP
 3PNBO *NQFSJBM
"SDIJUFDUVSF ;CNG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 

9GTPGT 2CWN
 -JGF JO 3PNF JO "ODJFOU 5JNFT
VTCPUNCVGF D[ &CXKF /CETCG )GPGXC 'FKVKQPU /KP
GTXC 5#
9KNNKU 4Q[
 8PSME .ZUIPMPHZ 5IF *M
MVTUSBUFE (VJEF %QNNKPIYQQF 8KEVQTKC -GP (KP
$QQMU +5$0 

2.16 Further reading

%QYGNN (TCPM 4KEJCTF -JGF JO "ODJFOU 3PNF 0GY
;QTM )2 2WVPCOU 5QPU 
RCRGTDCEM +5$0

)CDWEEK #FC 3PNF %JDUJPOBSJFT PG $JWJMJ[BUJPOT

 $GTMGMGN[ 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU 

RCRGTDCEM +5$0 
5EJGKFGN 9CNVGT +CP /QTTKU CPF 4KEJCTF 2 5CNNGT
GFU 5IF $BNCSJEHF &DPOPNJD )JTUPSZ PG UIF (SFDP
3PNBO 8PSME
 RR
 $)"15&3  "/$*&/5 30.&

2.18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

2.18.1 Text
Ancient Greece 4PVSDF JVVRUGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK#PEKGPVA)TGGEG!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST #PFTG 'PIGNU 5KOQP2 <QG
$T[EG*CTTKPIVQP 'FYCTF & ,QJP1YGPU /KEJCGN *CTF[ .N[YTEJ &ENLT 5JQCNGT %GUCT$ ,GDDC (WNKIGP $QIFCPIKWUEC 4WJTLWPI /ZP
,GPIQF #FCO $KUJQR 4GFFK ,%CTTKMGT <GP\GG 9JKURGT6Q/G <QKEQP 5GNMGV 6RDTCFDWT[ (WTT[MGH <G9TGUVNGT 2CWN.`GPYKMK ,Q[
9GVOCP (NQEMOGCN #FCO %CTT *CLQT %CTNQUUWCTG\ &KOCFKEM 2JKN $QUYGNN 4QDDQV 8CTFKQP %JGCNGT %JTKU1`GPYKMK (TGFTKM
2$5 5KOQPH 4GF9QNH /QQPF[PG #NVGPOCPP /QFWNCVWO 6KOQVJ[2KNITKO /C[QQTCPCVJCP 2KPIXGPQ &KFGTQV 4CUOWU (CDGT *CFCN
5Q.CPFQ &KPC &CXG #VJCPCUKQU 6UKQWTCU 611 )KHVNKVG ,WNKCPR &QE9CVUQP #EJWTEJ (GPPGE 5JCPG%CXCPCWIJ 6QO JCTTKUQP
'XGT[MKPI $MQPTCF 0Q )WTW )CTGVJ 9[P )WCPCEQ ;GMTCVU 2GT *QPQT GV )NQTKC -RCNKQP $TQEMGTV ,TFKQMQ ,DGTM )CFWO #NGZH
;CTFEQEM 3WCFGNN #PVCPFTWU 6JG 5KPIKPI $CFIGT +FCJQ'X $GNCPF #.' 4FUOKVJ /\CLCE /KJQUJK /CZKOCZKOCZ -GXKP $
$QFPQVDQF 2OCPFGTUQP +ECKTPU 8CUKNG -CTN*GPPGT ;QUUCTKCP 5CO *QEGXCT *KUVTKQP #TEVWTWU 0GWVTCNKV[ /CIPWO 6JG PWODGT E
,J /UUQPVQOCTUM .CETKOQUWU /KMG 4QUQHV 5QNKVCTKWU`GPYKMK 5JCJCD & *CKFWE &CPKGN%& 0GYMCK &KUEQURKPUVGT 4KEJ
(CTODTQWIJ *KFCURCN #TKU -CVUCTKU /LRKGVGTU &DCEJOCPP *CTTKX 2CWN #WIWUV 5RQQM[/WNFGT $GPFGT 5VGXKQNK 0CDNC <UEQWV
3WCTVKGT.CVKP &GTVV /CVXG 5JCPGU /QNGEWNCT D 4Q[$Q[ /CTMWUUGR 9CTGJ 5GORGT FKUEGPU $QDQ *WTTKECPG $TQ
MGP5GIWG &WM 5JGPOG <KIIWTCV 6JG2TQLGEV 2GVGTKU2 2UEJGOR $9 /2GTGN ,QPCVJWPFGT /GTQRG ,CUQP 1PG 'URQQ -PWEOQ
.XNCTZ 4GF 9KPIGF &WEM &CPUMK #NCPUQJP 2/.(  $GP FCXKUQP %TCKI[ )CT[ 4KCPC /CPQU #\C6QVJ &GTWOK 9JKVG%
'VJCPXQZ %, -CVGHCP $CTV &TGCO)W[ #PFTGL $KPCDKM )CT\Q /CZ 0C[NQT *CTGL /EOKNNKP 0KEMPCEM +VUOKPG 5NGKIJ
)TKPIQ+P%JKNG *GPT[.K 5VGRJGP &GLXKF 5VGOQPKVKU 4Q[NGG 4QNCPF`GPYKMK #PIT #RQNNQOGNQU 1YGP: 9QQJQQMKVV[ /KPFOCVTKZ
6KIGT5JCTM #VCTW /CUVGTLCOKG 2KPDCNN 5RGVVTQ 7P&GCF)QCV %QQRGTPKEWU $GPDGUV ,QJP %CTFKPCN #FOTDQNV\ /CPFCXK (DTKGTG
#FJCNCPC[ 6QONKNNKU 9KMKMNTUE 6GTGPEG 9C[YCTF /KMCGNDQQM 6JGQ ( /CIKUVGT /CVJGOCVKECG (TGRN[5RCPI 5LCMMCNNG #PIWUOENGN
NCP %QGOIGPWU 22RT  0CVWU4QOC 5EQVVUVGGPU %TC\[XCU ,QUKCJ 4QYG ,*// 6CPIQVCPIQ 5FQTPCP /</
E$TKFG 6CYMGT /KMG U %TC\[PCU %3, 5HGTTKGT $JCFCPK 5CPIQ 9CVEJCTCMQTP ;COCOQVQ +EJKTQ 4CKP4 (TCP\GUMC 6KVQZF /KUMKP
(NC$QV -CPCFC-KF 2UGOOWUC 0UCG %QOR 9KPJWPVGT )QFNQTF 0KXKZ 5GCP 9+ 4GZ0. )WTEJ -CMQPCVQT 9CTU #NGZLQJPE
5VT 6GC&TKPMGT #TI[TQUCTI[TQW 5EKOKVCT %JQDQV )WNKQNQRG\ 6JG 4CODNKPI /CP 9CXGNGPIVJ 4WUU$QV +XKTKXK 4,% 2KIOCP
)TQQING -KTKNN .QMUJKP .GKFKQV )TWDDGT )CKWU %QTPGNKWU %CODTKFIG$C[9GCVJGT 9KOV 1TPKNPCU /GIKUVKCU 1F[UUGU 5JCPGN 0CYN
KP9KMK 5'9KNEQ$QV 9KMK CNH /GVTQOQZKG )TCHGP 7DGTVCT 4LGPUGP 6CEQK +TKUJIW[ 4GVKTGF WUGTPCOG $TCPFQP %JQNOGU :F
GPK\GP ,RDQYGP #NFWZ 4CXGPZZ &GPKJKNQPKJKN -KNNFGXKN 1URCNJ $WEMGVUQHI *KUVRTQH 5[TVJKUU <KTNCPF ,JKPOCP 9GTFPC $QD
+IKP <GTIJVC (( , 5 #[GT %JTKU)TKUYQNF 6JGFC %NQUGFOQWVJ &QPCNF #NDWT[ 'XKNDW ,QCPPG$ #NCUFCKT &KFFKOU &CNV
KP9GPVUYQTVJ ,CTCPFC 5RNK[ #TIQU&CF -WPIHWCFCO #UUKUVCPV: 1TCPI *WVCP 4QMG ;QJCPPGU 5MGT*CYZ 6JCV )W[ (TQO 6JCV
5JQY 5CTFCPCRJCNWU %T[UVCNNKPC 5OCEM$QV #UVCXTQW 2TQFGIQ +PXGTUG*[RGTEWDG -PQYNGFIG1H5GNH 4Q[CNIWCTF *[FTQIGP +QFKFG
<GTKFC -KOQP $QOCE ,CEGM -GPF[U\ ,CIIGF  (T[OCUVGT #NUCPFTQ #VJKPCKQU :CQUWZ #MUK ITGCV )KNNKCO *OCKPU )CURQPKC
5MK\\KM *QPDKEQV '4EJGEM %JTKU VJG URGNNGT 9KRGT $NWGDQV /CVV 4OCIKNN -GGICP &2CRWCUJXKNK 2GTUKCP 2QGV )CN 0%WTUG
*KDGTPKCP +PVGTUVCVGTGXKUKVGF $CF/QVGN 5CFCFU -CRV-QU )TGGPEJKNGHTQI 8KGYPFGT +MKTQKF 6GF -WPIOKPI 5RGNNEJGEMGT
4QDVJ #TKECODGTFGP %QNQPKGU %JTKU &CTVJ 2CPFC 4NGXUG )TCEGPQVGU ,QJP 4GCXGU &K[CMQ <UKPL $TKCP$KTF %CP V UNGGR ENQYP YKNN
GCV OG *QQFGF/CP %RNCMKFCU #NRJCVJQP #MJKNNGWU 1TRJCP$QV 1PQTGO /[UVOCP ;QTKEM 6JG-/CP 2WOCF &GGD
2GXCTPL 5GCVVNGPQY 'FKXQTEG 5VGXGPOKVEJGNN #RGZRTKO #UVGTCMK .QZ -JQKMJQK ,ONM -TKEJ 5OQQVJ 1 -JWMTK /CMGOK 0CMQP
6GF' ,KFFKUEJ`GPYKMK 4C%JC CT &TGCFUVCT 2CTQZ[UO 4CHCGN) +PUKPGTCVGJ[OP 5KIOC  5C[FGP -WMKPK 5CTHC ;CPPKUOCTQW /KU
UCOQ 0KUJMKF .V2QYGTU 4QT[ 5GTGKP
TGPCOGF DGECWUG QH 57. 0KMQ5KNXGT 0CTGGM /QWUG 0KIJVUJKTV <CJKF #DFCUUCDWT
#NCP& -WTW ,QJP )GPGTCN +\CVKQP .CRC\ 5EKGPVK\\NG KIC %CNWO /CEKUFGCP 5KT 0KEJQNCU FG /KOU[2QTRKPIVQP #DU .KPPGNN
'FY[ 2GVGTNGYKU /T .GHV[ 4WPPKPIHTKFIGUTWNG #TJQP &+')1 4+%#4&1 2'4'+4# 2UGWFQ5WFQ 4CPFQO%TKVKE 5NCMT 5RGEKCN6
5VYCNMGTUVGT 53)KDDQP -[QMQ /CNNCEECQU +PXKUKHCP /CMUKO . 2NCVVNGT &7%- 0YYCGY 0GFF[UGCIQQP (WPP[DWPP[ &JR
4[WNQPI &T- 'ND /QUNQH %GTGCNMKNNGT +UQMTCVGU ,WUVKPYGTFGP *W 'OZ`GPYKMK 8CPKUJGF WUGT 0GJTCOU +TKFGUEGPV
,/- 6QKTC`GPYKMK .CMGTU ,QUGRJ 5QNKU KP #WUVTCNKC ,QG$QV 2GICUWU -GPP[ /CVVJGYU +XCP.CPKP 0KIJVTKFGT 1EVCPG 5YGGV
0GQ %JCF[9CF[ <#-; %KXKN 'PIKPGGT +++ $QVVGUKPK 6CYMGTDQV &NQJEKGTGMKO 6KOTGO .KDECR :EGPVCWT ,(QTIGV .KPWZGTKUV
%4)TGCVJQWUG $TKFGUOKNN (WP2KMC 5KT 8KEKQWU &[EGFCTI -GXKP L 4GDQTP5GPVKPCN )WVJKZ 'TKE ,QJP%& 5VCT IKTN )*G 1TC[\KQ
-[NW 0KEM9 /CTU4QXGT 5JK\CPG /QTGUEJK %CURGTM /KMG  %QNQTGFRGCPWVU 2GYYGT 6,&C[ 4WFLGM )TCPFGZCPFK 6QR
IWPQTCOC 2GTKRKVWU 3WKPPEWNXGT 4G[YCU $T[CP /GPQ )QIQ &QFQ %QTRZ .NQTV # 5QHVGT #PUYGT 1 ECTC`GPYKMK 6CYMGTDQV
4QDGTVC ( &WOD$16 6CURCRCU 6GNGZ &KRKEU &$CDC -Q\WEJ $KUJQR1EGNQV (KVDUOCTV ,QF[$ /CTM,CDNQPUMK /KMG ;CPFT
(TCPEQ)) 'RDT $CTVKEWU .CTT[ 2UVCPVQP ,QDDGT -CDNCOOQ *C\WMK`GPYKMK #VWTC %COGNECUV 6QP[NG 5QDTGKTC /CTGM
,COGU 6GNN[CFFKEV #,%JGUUYCU %JCTNQVVG9GDD .WFFG 0KEM 0WODGT *CNNK-TKUJC #DE:[\ 6CPIGPV%WDG 2TW[ #DNQPWU
%JCFVCPM 5/+.;)+4.; 'UECTDQV + CNTGCF[ HQTIQV #PVK8CPFCN$QV 6GGPVLG %JCNG[GT /CLQTN[ $QMKEC- .WPC 5CPVKP `GPYKMK &
9GDD /QFGTPKUV 2J, .KD.QTF 1PEG KP C $NWG /QQP 8KUVQT /[CPY -CVZKLCUQV\CKNG 2GRUKTQZ *WUQPF /'4% 5MQOQTQMJ 6JG
6TCPUJWOCPKUV /EQTC\CQ $[GGG #PFQPKE 4Q[JCPF[ *WV  4[CP 0Q OQTG DQPIQU (TGFGTKEQ %[PYQNHG #ETQVGTKQP (TGUJCE
EQPEK /CTICTKP`GPYKMK /CIKQNCFKVKU 9QNHOCP5( %CPLVJ 'N )TGEQ $QPIYCTTKQT 8Q#$QV ++ #RRNGUCY\ -CTRVQPKVG 'X\QPG ,G &CJN
9KMKFWFGOCP ,09 5KPIWNCTKV[ *KPGUV #MC %CGUCTLDUSWKVVK 5RCTTQYU9KPI 'XTQRCKQU %CVIWV 2CPUGT $QTP #PKOWO /CVV
4QDQVOCP #NNUVCTGEJQ &GCM[PG 2$ 2KNJGV 7UGT # (CPI  2QNKVKECN,WPMKG 'UVGDCP( &GT*GZGT .GNMGUC 2CZ8QDKUEWO
2CVUVWCTV 3WQVJ VJG 4CXGP /CTMEQ (TKGPFN[(TGF 2GVGT EQZJGCF 2CVJGTOU 'VKGPPG&QNGV .GCFGTQHGCTVJ /CTVKP$QV 56$QV #TLWP
6GMNGPK 4GVVGVCUV /UEJGN 4 P $ 9TKVGT 8KTVWCN&GNKIJV 4QD W  6QO U $YD 2TGUVQP* 2GTKMNKU ,FGNCPQ[ %CRVCKP
RCPFC 5CUCLKF 6TWUKNXGT 'UECRKPI.KHG #PCU 5CNNQWO 6KMKYQPV /KMG 9KPVGTU 0KIJQNKVJ :R.K%K6 NN 9CTVJQI&GOQP #NUCPFCKT
)GQTIKQW %GPVWT[ .QTF*CTVYQTVJ +EUGCVWTVNGU )\MP #ECNCOCTK 0Q $TQMGP5RJGTG $QV5EJCHVGT -CVCNCXGPQ 5OGKTC 5COWGN
9KNNKCO`GPYKMK +PI5QE $KI$TQVJGT %JTKUYKMK #PVK5RCO$QV $NQQF[ECTN 5VCODQWNKQVG $GNQXGFHTGCM -TPMQQN 0GY'PINCPF;CPMGG
5OKNGU#.QV 5,2 #JWUMC[ FO %JGGUGOCP (,2$ $TK 5JQGUUUU /GVU(CP ,CEMCTCPIC ,WNKCPEQNVQP ,WFCJ$NC\G 6JG ,CEMCN
)QF 0CVN )VI[ #TOCPQU .CUV%JCPEG6Q$G 5KITC`GPYKMK C /CUVGTQHEQY 4QDQTU 6JG2QKPVDNCPM +FKQOCDQV )QW
XGKC 5VJGPGN %QQNKQ 9KMKGFKVQT .KIJVU 8QNMQX$QV %9KK 6JQOCU9 #$( /CEGFQPKCP 5UUEWDCUUUVGXG +PFWDKVCDN[ 9KM
KHTGWFG 5RCTVCP (GTTCN/QQPTGPFGT 5\GUGVU\GF\KGUKVU\G +TKUJ 2GCTN 2JKNKR 6TWGOCP ,C['U,C[ *GNNUGXKN 6:K-K$Q6 1XGT55
)WNGU -TKUVGNYC 4KFGTP[E #PQP[OQWU &KUUKFGPV #NRJCKQU`GPYKMK 4GVKQPQ 8KTIKPKCP $G[QPF UKNGPEG /GNUCTCP 6JWNKWO /CT
VKP #JJZOQPUVWTT 5RCTFC &CNGLT ,CEMHQTM -OMLP &QOKVKWU 6OCP %TGOGRW $TKVVCKPKC 'NNKQV6JQOCU 0QNK
VWTDCTG EKTEWNQU OGQU ,WCTG\ &CXG /KEJGNNG $QD6JG6QOCVQ 5WR 9MTJPT[ 'PXKTQDQ[ *GNNQEJCTNKG
5[NGPV #PFTGY , /CJGT 4XGTUEJQ 9CVGTOGNQP2QVKQP +PUCPKV[ +PECTPCVG 9KMK DQQ  ,GFI 5EQVV[YQPI :GPQXCVKU 2GTKENGUQ
H#VJGPU 5JCTGETQRRGT 9TCKVJFCTV 0KIJVPKVG 5KG$QV 6TGUKFGP /KNPKXTK FKRWU UKE 9GTG5RKGN%JGSWGTU 0$0$ &TT #RTKN2CTMGT
)GTCMKDQV (QTGKIPGT(TQO6JG'CUV 2NKPMKV %CNVCU ,KPIKD[ )%4GCFGT 4,CIWCT 2KORCMCKMG :ZDGDGZZ $TKGTMKF -GKNCPC ,CEDCV
 5&95 "/% *."(& 4063$&4 $0/53*#65034 "/% -*$&/4&4 

6KRVQGV[ 4CFQP 1FC /CTK 4JCP[GKC 1Z[OQTQP ,CXKGTHX #PQP)W[ .KIJVOQWUG $ 'CNFI[VJ 4QDGTV &TGFIG 5XKEM
/VJGOJ 6CWNCPV &KODQWMCU 'UECRG 1TDKV 4QOCP*KUVQTKCP #VJGPGCP (NCOKPI5KNOCTKN 'NCUUKPV %NWG$QV +ORGTHGEVN[+PHQTOGF
0PGOQ (+6' &'/10& %QWPVGT8CPFCNKUO$QV #UJOGFCK  %[WEJGPI 5VCTGNFC 2TCU /CUVGT:% (N[KPIDCPCPC 'ZEKTKCN
2WOROGWR 9CKYCK #RCTCRCN #TVTGXG /GPQMWPIHW 4JQFQFGPFTKVGU #NRJC 4CNRJC $QWNGXCTF 4KRNQ /CEGFQPKCP$Q[ ;Q &COKGP
0WENGCT9CTHCTG &O[GTUVWTPDWNN 6GTTC :KP ,QVVGTDQV 5MCVGT)WTN %TKOUQPTQQO -CKDC ;GQNFDWFF[DQ[ #OCPFCTW 4GXQVHGN
#TM 6KIGTUTQEM *QOGYQTMIW[ 9KMKMKPII #NGMUF (TKGFNKDGPF WPF VCRHGT &GGTUVQR 0QVVJG 4QQMKGU MKF #KVKCU .WKIK
HCP .KVVNGVGFF[ .KVVNGJCXCPC 2QTEJEQTRVGT $GTGCP *WPVGT 5QZ$QV +++ &WO<K$Q6 0C[JCP#OQT :.KPM$QV &GOQPG[GUM[Q
%JTKUDKN 5KNXGTDCEM4QP 5KNXQPGP$QV 2YPVRYPV`GPYKMK &GTGMVQP[ ,KP,KCP 6JG 4CVKQPCNKUV *GZC%JQTF +TCPYC[ 'PIMCOCN\CEM #F
FDQV &TCIPURNC[ )QTOCPEJCP &CWIJVGTQH5WP (KGNFFC[UWPFC[ ;GNK\CPFRCWN /KUVGTZ .GU\GM ,CE\WM 1C QH #PIGN /KP
KUVGT(QT$CF6KOGU /T1NNKG 'EQPQ2J[UKEKUV (CXQPKCP 5R$QV .KPM(#$QV #ICFC7TDCPKV &GNKDGDGM 'JTGPMCVGT *KPVUU /TOCTKQMCTV
IW[ 4GV2TQH .GIQDQV 6CTVCTWU 2NCPM$QV 4USWKTG 0KM\ DNWGCPIGN O& )CKWU %NCWFKWU 0GTQ #PQOKG$16 .KOG[ 2[TTJWU
#NGZKMQWC *WPPLC\CN #TVJWT$QV .KN*GNRC :SDQV 8QN FG PWKV 0GUYVWQR 2QGVCTKU #DEF $WDDNGU  6QOYUWNEGT 6[TQN
6GPQHQWT 1OPKRCGFKUVC 5CUUQ$QV #NKCNKCE 4KEJCTF\JO /CZHG[POCP 9GD%KVG$16 4QIGTU #FXGPVWTGU 6JTQWIJ 6KOG (TGUEQ$QV
.WEKGP$16 6QDD[ +PUETKRVKQP #TKUVGKCMQTRU 0KPVGPFQ UYG %KVCVKQP DQV  #UVC$16J +PVGTGUVGFKPHCKTPGUU 5GOCL 9CEGCSWKPCU
(QZ$QV )TGEQ .QVLG #FTKUU ,8 &KCPPCC 2TQRCICPFC 6L$QV 4KREJKR $QV $G[QPF /[ -GP 9KNF$QV &#5*$QV &KQIGP
GU6%2 'OCWU$QV %CTNQVO &KUVCN 6YGCM #XKE$QV <TQ$QV &TCIQP6KIGT ,CEM10GKNN 2JKNCHTGP\[ 'ORGT[CP %JWKURCU
VQP$QV 5JCJCHXI ,QTFKDWOC /OCPP %NWG$QV 0)  5WUKM/MT +TKVCMCOCU 56(: 5KNGPV4GUKFGPV 6JGTGUCU 4G\
CDQV &K[CT UG *GNRHWN 2KZKG $QV )QD .QHC /CMGFQPKLC (WTMJCQEGCP $QNCVDGM /CTM #TUVGP &KRCPMCP 7IPETGCVKXG 7UGTIPCOG
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