PERFEZIONAMENTO DELLA LINGUA INGLESE 

Uno dei principi alla base del CLIL è che si devono insegnare entrambe le lingue: L1 (lingua
madre) e L2 (lingua inglese). Questa “integrazione” è necessaria affinchè la lingua madre non si
impoverisca e si arrivi a parlare dei contenuti in entrambe le lingue.
In una classe CLIL si devono sempre tenere presenti due principi:
1. Che la lingua venga usata per imparare e per comunicare
2. Si deve lavorare principalmente sulle abilità comunicative interpersonali orali BICS (Basic
Interpersonal Communication Skills) che sulle abilità comunicative scritte (CALP:
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency).

Una lezione CLIL deve combinare vari elementi:

a. La comunicazione: l’uso della lingua per imparare mentre si usa la lingua
b. Thinking tasks: domande aperte per sviluppare capacità di riflessione
c. Cultura: abilità di porsi in una diversa prospettiva
d. Fare domande: per valutare il livello di comprensione e chiarire i concetti
e. Contenuti: capacità di comprendere e padroneggiare argomenti specifici

In una classe CLIL si dovrebbero affrontare le 4 abilità linguistiche:

- Ascolto
- Lettura
- Speaking: basato più sulla fluency che sulla correttezza
- Writing

La lezione CLIL

Una lezione CLIL deve focalizzarsi in egual misura sul contenuto e sulla lingua e generalmente
segue un modello diviso in 4 fasi:

1. Scelta/ elaborazione testi. I testi migliori sono quelli accompagnati dalle illustrazioni che
permettono al discente di visualizzare ciò che legge.
2. Individuazione del tema principale del testo. Solo dopo che il nucleo dello scritto è stato
identificato si può analizzare la struttura del testo. I testi sono generalmente rappresentati in
modo diagrammatico per facilitare gli studenti a categorizzare informazioni e idee.
3. Importanza della lingua. I discenti devono spere riproporre il contenuto del lavoro preso in
esame con le proprie parole.
4. Ascolto. L’insegnante può fornire attività quali “leggere-ascoltare-fare” come:
- Ascolta e compila
- Ascolta e individua luogo, soggetto e tema
- Ascolta e completa le frasi date sul testo
Il CLIL mira a guidare ed aiutare la produzione linguistica nello stesso modo in cui opera
l’insegnante tradizionale, tramite cioè tutte quelle strategie didattiche volte a testare e sviluppare le
quattro abilità: reading, listening, spoken and written language.
La differenza è che l’insegnante è anche il soggetto dell’insegnamento ed è colui/colei che è in
grado di servirsi di ogni opportunità per sviluppare le abilità linguistiche.

Come si struttura una lezione CLIL?

Innanzitutto si deve tenere a mente uno dei principi del CLIL: ci deve essere integrazione fra le due
lingue (L1 – L2), la capacità di parlare di un contenuto in entrambe le lingue.
Gli studenti infatti sviluppano le abilità della L1 (madrelingua) nello stesso momento in cui
apprendono la L2 (English). Nella lezione CLIL si promuove l’aspetto comunicativo e si tende a far
parlare il discente indipendentemente dalla correttezza grammaticale e sintattica.
Nella lezione CLIL si lavora sulle abilità comunicative interpersonali della lingua parlata
(BICS: basic interpersonal communication skills) e non su quelle linguistiche proprie della lingua
scritta (CALP: cognitive academic language proficinency)

Il successo della lezione CLIL dipende dalla collegialità del progetto, l’insegnante presenta l’attività
con una domanda aperta affinchè la discussione venga stimolata. La domanda può essere posta in
inglese mentre la risposta può terminare anche in italiano → code switching.

The conditional tense (lesson 14)

Conditional sentences: if- clauses

Conditional sentences have two parts:
The IF-CLAUSE (condition) and the MAIN CLAUSE (result)
Ex: if it rains, you’ll get wet
NOTE: the order of the clauses is not fixed – the IF-CLAUSE can be first or second

The Zero Conditional

In “zero” conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present.
Ex: if you heat ice, it melts
In these sentences the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are used
to make statements about the real world and often refer to general truths such as scientific facts.
Conditional sentences type 1: PROBABILITY

This type of sentence implies that the action in the if-clause is quite probable.
IF CLAUSE: Simple present / MAIN CLAUSE: Future simple
→ If she comes, she will enjoy herself

Conditional sentences type 2: IMPROBABILITY

Ex: If I knew her name, I would tell you → se sapessi il tuo nome te lo direi

Type 2 is used when:

1. When the supposition is contrary to known facts
Ex: If I lived near you, I would come every day (but I don’t live near you)

2. When we don’t expect the action in the if-clause to take place

Ex: If a burglar came into my house I would scream (but I don’t expect a burglar to come in) → se
un ladro entrasse a casa mia griderei
NOTE: in English the past subjunctive (congiuntivo imperfetto) of the if-clause perfectly
corresponds to the simple past for all the verbs, that’s why we say that in conditional sentences type
2 you must use a simple past in the if-clause.
EX: If I were rich, I’d buy a yacht

The conditional tense

Possible variations:

The verb of the main clause can be a present conditional continuous:

Ex: If I had a passport I would be leaving tomorrow

Conditional sentences type 3: IMPOSSIBILITY

If-clause: Past perfect / Main clause: Perfect conditional

We use this type of conditional sentence when the time is past and the condition cannot be fulfilled
because the action in the if-clause didn’t happen.
Ex: If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam
The present perfect tense

This tense is formed with the present tense of the verb TO HAVE + past participle
Ex: I have worked, I have slept, she has played
This tense is a mixture of present and past. It always implies a strong connection with the present
and is chiefly used in conversations, letters, newspapers, TV and radio.
It is used for recent actions when the time is not mentioned. If the time is given or implied, we
must use the simple past.
Ex: I have read the newspaper vs I read the newspaper one hour ago.

1. Recent actions are often expressed with the present perfect, because they have results
in the present.
Ex: John had a car crash (he’s probably still in hospital)
VS: Actions expressed in the simple past don’t have results in the present→ John had a car
crash (some time ago, but he’s fine now)

2. The Present Perfect can also be used for actions which occurred further back in the
past, but only if the action could be repeated in the present.
Ex: John Doe has made many films (he can still make more)

3. The Present Perfect is used for actions occurring in an incomplete period, i.e. a period
which is not finished yet. It can be indicated with today, this morning, week, month etc.
Ex: I haven’t seen Jack this afternoon (it means that the evening is not finished yet)

The Present Perfect used with FOR and SINCE

FOR

“For” is used with a period of time (for six days, for a long time). It denotes a period of time extending to
the present.

1. When it’s used with a simple past it indicates a determined period of time
Ex: I lived there for two years (but I don’t live there anymore)
2. “For” used with Present Perfect denotes a period of time extending to the present
Ex: I’ve known her for a long time → la conosco da tanto tempo

SINCE

It’s used with a point in time and means “from that point to the time of speaking” when it’s used with a
“perfect” or “continuous” tense:

EX: she has been here since three o’clock/ we have been friends since our schooldays
But since + simple past is also possible:

Ex: I’ve worked here since I left school→ I still work here (present action) but I left school in the past

The Prefect Perfect tense II

The Present Perfect is used for an action which lasts throughout an incomplete period→ The action
usually begins in the past and continues in the present.

Let’s focus on these times expressions:

- For/ since
- All day/night/ week
- All my life
- All the time
- Always/never
- Lately/ recently

EX:

- He has always worked for us (he still works for us)

- He has lived here all his life (he still lives here)

If we use the simple past in the sentences above we are expressing a finished action (he was in the army→
he isn’t in the army now).

Sometimes, however, the action finishes at the time of speaking:

E.g. - (on meeting someone) I haven’t seen you for ages! (but I see you now)  Non ti vedo da secoli
Verbs of knowing, believing, understanding cannot be used in the present perfect except as previously
shown:

E.g. - I have known him for years OK - I have never believed in this theory.

But normally, recent actions with these verbs must be expressed with a simple past:

E.g. - Did you know that he got married?

The present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be + present participle
(-ING). Ex: I have been working.

This tense is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing, or has only just finished.

Ex: I’ve been waiting for an hour and he hasn’t come yet.

Comparison between the present perfect simple and continuous

• The main difference between the two tenses is that a single action in the present perfect tense is already
finished.

Ex: I’ve washed the car (finished action)

• Being a ‘continuous’ tense, the present perfect continuous expresses an action which continues up to the
time of speaking, or nearly up to this time.

Ex: I’ve been washing the car (that has been my occupation in a recent time but the action is probably not
finished)

You should prefer the present perfect continuous to express a temporary or short action, while for longer
or permanent actions you should prefer the present perfect.

Ex: The man has been standing there all day/ For 900 the castle has stood on the hill

• the present perfect cannot be used in sentences where time is mentioned

The Past Perfect tense

It is formed by HAD + past principle

• It is used when an action which began before the time of speaking in the past stopped at that time or just
before it

• For an action which stopped some time before the time of speaking

• The past perfect is used to emphasize the completion of an action before another started.
E.g. He refused to go before/till he had finished his meal

The Past Perfect continuous

It is formed by HAD BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE (-ING)

Ex: I had been working. I t corresponds to Italian “imperfetto”.

• A past perfect continuous can be used instead of a past perfect to express an action repeated in the past.

Another way of expressing an habit in the past is through USED TO.

It expresses conditions and habits in the past which are now finished.

To be used to’ is a psychological statement: it means that someone is used to doing something and that
action doesn’t bother him/her; he/she doesn’t mind it.

TO GET USED TO + -ING means ‘abituarsi a’.

The future in the past (lesson 21)

It is a construction used to talk about an action, activity or event which was in the future in a particular
point in the past. It’s the future seen from the past.

Ex: Sheila thought that in a short time she would be taller than her sister→ Thought=the action is set in the
past; in a short time=the action of becoming taller than her sister is seen as a future moment. It’ a future
moment seen in a particular point in the past)

1. With the conditional WOULD

2. With a PAST CONTINUOUS→ I didn’t call her because we were meeting the day after
3. With WAS/WERE GOING TO→ I was going to tell him, but he went away
4. With WAS/ WERE TO + INFINITIVE (for actions which took place) → the coach knew that boy was
to become a great player
5. With WAS/WERE TO HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (for events which didn’t happen)→ The meeting was
to have taken place in the headquarter
6. With WAS/WERE ABOUT TO (to express the immediate future in the past, and it’s often used with
JUST) → They were just about to leave when she stopped them

REMEMBER AND REMIND

To remember means ‘ricordare’ or ‘ricordarsi di’ and isn’t followed by a preposition:

E.g. I still remember when we met  Mi ricordo ancora di quando ci incontrammo.

You can use REMEMBER+INFINITIVE for things you have to do:

E.g. I have to remember to buy some bread  Devo ricordarmi di comprare del pane.

You can use REMEMBER+ -ING to recall something you have done:

E.g. I don’t remember going to that meeting  Non ricordo di essere andato a quel meeting

To remind means ‘remember’, but in the sense of ‘ricordare a qualcuno di fare qualcosa’. The structure is:

REMIND+PERSON+INFINITIVE

E.g. Please, remind me to call him. Per favore, ricordami di chiamarlo

REMIND ... OF is used to say that something reminds us something else.

E.g. - He reminds me of my grandfather. Lui mi ricorda mio nonno

Future lez 35