HOANG XUAN SINH

D A I S O D M C M G
(Ti] IS Idn thit tim)
NHA XUAT BAN GIAO DUC
0th, Erich nhi&n xuat ban:
C hu tich FI D QT hem T6ng G iam ddc
NGO TRAN AI
Ph6 T6ng Giarn diic hem Tdng hien tap VU
DUONG THVY
Bien tap kin ddu vd tat ban :
TRA N PHUO NG D UNG
Bien tap la thuat :
BPI C HI HI ED
Sad ban in :
HO A NG D I EM
Sip cha :
PHO NG O ff BA N (NXB G I A 0 D UC )
512
21/320 - 05
M e se: 7K108T5-TTS
G D - 05
Lol NO ! D A U
C hoxugt ban I an C hit nh&t
Tap II hau nhu ride ldp ddi vai MI) I, man khOng ke den
met s6 khai niem nhu Junin vi, pile!) the, ma trdn..., ma melt
dOi khi de cap den. Thy (My, ve mat ngOn nga ua ki hieu cua
ii thuylt tap hop, tap II trung thanh tun tap I.
O day cheat& tai khong lam vide thaylt minh tang chuong,
ccic ban doc co the xem bdn thuylt minh chuong Dinh DO ad
cao cap cim BO GM dye. Sau mai cita ding chuang, ban doe
c6 nhang bhi tap de, hada hilu situ a thuyet hon va ran luyen
hi nang tinh town, hod hieu rdng li thuylt han, cal mat so
khai niem mai dua vim trong bai tap. M6i van de duce nhac
led thi duoc chit thich chuong, tilt,. mac can van a da duce
dua vao, chang han ch V 3, 2 co nghia la van a do da nOi
din 0 chuong v, tilt 3, mite 2. Nan van a duce nhdc Lai cling
chuong cal van de clang xet thi chi' chit thich tilt ,va mac ;
cling tilt thi chi chit thich mac. Thing cling mot tilt,
cite dinh nghia, bd de, dinh li duoc ddnh 36 bang 1, 2, 3...
Cu& cling dl xay Ming mat gulf, trinh Dai el cao cap tang
ngity cang Jett han, chang tai rat mong ban dye viii long chi
bait nhctng thilu sot_han !thong trinh khoi cart man sach nay.
Xin cam an PTS Btu Huy Hien 6 td Dai ad elm khoa Than
trttang Dai hoc SW pham Ha NO 2 dd c6 nhieu clang gap lie
phan Bat tap.
HaHai ngay 13-1-1972
HO A NO XI /A N S I NN
3
LO I NO I D A U
C hoI nuit ban litn thu hai
Thy nhiiu Mn Nha xudt ban Giao dqc dP nght chung tot
cho tai ban cuan sach Dai ad cao cdp tap II, nhung chung tot
dd tit chili ui dd co cudn Dai s6 lib S6 hoc caa giao su Ngo
Tittle Lanh. Nhung trong qud trinh day hoc, cluing tdi thdy
coon Dal sd cao cdp tap II duce sink uien Mc trubng DO hoc
Su phqm dung dl On chi, con sink Men cac trubng Cao clang
Su phew' lai clang nhu tai lieu chink khda, cho nen chung tesi
nhan lei Mt Nhit xudt ban Gieto due cho in lqi coon Bach nay.
Tong cudn setch tai ban chung tOi dd. lam Mc Idea sau :
1) Chaa lai mat s6 cluing minh hay phat biltt dinh li cho
ngan ton han, hay khOng thita.
2)- Cho them 3 trong chuang I, nOi so luoc ui cite tien di
elta thuylt tap hop, mat dieu can thilt cho ngubi gidng yet
cling Mn thilt cho sink vien co tri to mb .khoa hoc.
3) Them vi du, bai tap ve vanh chink va vanh Oda, hai
loci yank d6ng vat 'tre quan trong trong S6 hoc.
Chang tot Iran trong cam on cdc.bqn clang nghiep dd co
ahung 9 kiln (long gdp va Nho xudt ban .Gido due dd nhieu
Ian a ngh cho tai ban.
Ha NO new21-12-1994
HO A NG XUA N S I NE
4
CHUONG I
TAP HO P VA MAN HE
1. TA P HO P VA A NH XA
1. Khai niom tap hqp
NhUng vat, nhung dai tuong twin hoc... duoc totap domat
tinh chat C hung naodothinh
lap
nhUng tap hap. D ay khong
phiti la mat dinh nghia ma la mat hinh anh true quan cita khai
niam tap hop. I A thuygt tap hap trinh bay a day la mat I t
thuygt socap theoquan digm rigay thc.
Ngttai tondi : Tap hop the hoc sinh trong mat lap, tap hop
the lap trong mat trtamg, tap hap N the sotonhien, tap hop
Zeac songuyen, tap hop Q cite s6 huu ti, tap hop R cac sti
time, tap hop C the sophtte...
C ite vat trong tap hop X goi la the phan td eim X. Kt hiau
x C X doe la "xla mat phgn tit tha X"haat "x thuae X P. Phit
dinh cim xE X ki higu la x X.
'Pa him hai tap hap A va B bang nhau va vigt la A = B
kbi va chi khi mai phgn tit thuac A thi thuae B va dim
nghia la the quan ha xE A va x E B la twang throng. Nhu
vay A = B khi va chi khi chting chtla the phan td y nhu nhau.
2. BO Win caa mat top hqp
D inh nghia 1. Gid su A va B la hai tap hap. Ta hi. hieu
A C B quan he sau day
voi mai x, x E A keo theo x e B.
Ndi met each khac, quan he A C
B cd nghia la mpi Win
tit M a. A dau thuec
B.
Quan he A C B la quan bao ham,
doe la "A chilit trong
B", hoac chat* A", hoac "A la mot be phan cita
B" hoac "A
la mot tap hop con dim B" va ngudi ta cling vigt
B 7 A . Phil
dinh vim A C B vigt la
A Q B hay B A A.
Dinhli 1. Quan he bon ham c6 the tinh chat sau :
(i) Cdc quan he A C B vie B C C keo theo quan he A C C .
(ii)
Mudn co A =B can nit cla a 5 A C B va.B C A.
Cluing mink. (i)
Ta hay lay met phan tit thy g xE A . Vi
A C B nen x E. B. Nhung B C C nen xE C. fly vol mai x,
xE A keotheo x E C, tut la A C C.
(ii) than nhien. n
Thttang met be plan A M a met tap hap
B dutqc xac dinh
beri met anti chat C naodd, ma mpi phan tit dm tap hop
B
thda man tinh chat C sa la phalli tit ciut tap hem A . Ta ki hieu
nhu sau
A ={xEBI
x cd tinh chat C
va. doe I A : "A la tap hop tat ca M c phan t8
x E B ma xcO
dribchat C ".
V i du. -
Xet tap hop ZM c ad nguyen va be phan A the ad
nguyen chgn, ta vie%
A ={xEZI x chia hgt cho2 }.
3. Hiau cOa hai hqp
Dinhnghia 2. C hohai tap hop A va B thy

.P hI P
A - B={xEAlx0B}
gel la higu cart tap hop A oh tap hap B. Ngu B c
A thl hieu
A - B g9i la phan bit dm tap hqp B trong tap hap
A va can ki
hieu la CAB.
D inh I i 2. Gid sit' A vd B lit nhung 60 phdn caa mot Sp
hop X, the' thi
(i) X - (X - A) = A.
(ii)
Cite quan h@ A
.
C B od X-B C X- A lit W ang duong.
Cluing mink. (i) Tap hop X - (X.- A) gem cA ophtin toxE X
saocho x e X - A , We la gam the phan tit xE X saocho
x e A.
(ii) G ia sit A C B.VI quan he xE A ken theoquan ha x E B,
nen quan ha B keothee x e A , hie la quart ha x E X - B
keotheoquan he x E X - A . D aolai gia sitX-BCX-A.
The' thi bang I f Juan twang tonhu tren ta cd X - (X - A) C
X - (X - B), tilt la then (1), A C B. n
4. Tap hqp rang
G ia sit X la mat tap hop, X cling la mat ba phan dm X
digu dochophep ta xet tap hap 0 = X - X got la bophan
rang caa X xe 0 co nghla la x e X vb. x X. R6 rang khong
c6 mat phan tit xnaocita X Lai c6 filth chat dd.
Tap hop X - X =0 khong phothuac vao UV hop X. Nth
each khac, ta ed
X- X= Y- YA rth so) X, Y.
non fly, tocd the' coi X - X va Y- Ychila cat phan tit
y nhu nhau vi chting chanoed phan tonaoea (xin thing col
day la mat chitng minh).
Tap hop X - X = 0 khong ph6 thuac van tap hop X, vi I f
dodo, ta goi nd la tap hop ring. Tap hap nay khong c6 mat
phan tit nao ca.
I torang ta c6 0 C X vai mot tap hap X va tinh chat nay
dac trung tap hop rang.
5. Tap hqp mot, hai phO n b Y
G ia sit xla mat vat. Thg thi cd mat tap hap ki hiau {x}chi
gam c6 mat phan tola x. M at tap hop thuac loaf de got la tdp
hop mot phan S .
Bay gibgiA sit x va y la hai vat phan M at. Thg thi cd mat
tap hop ki lieu {x, y}chi gam cd hai plan ta la xvia y. M at
tap hop thuae lotti d6 goi la
tap hop hai phan
Ngubi ta cling djnh nghta nhu vay tap hop ha ban... phan
tit. C ite tap hop da ding vol S p hop rang got la
cdc top hap
han, con cac tap hop M ac goi la
ale Op hap u(5 han.
6.
Top hop cac 60 ph(in mitt mO t top
hqp
G ia. sit X la mat tap hop, the t) phan ciut
X lap thA nh mat
tap hop I d hiau P (X) va goi la
tdp hop cdc bd ph4n cda X.
Tap hop thy baogibcling S it nhat mat phtin tv
, d6 la X.
'Pa S
cluing mirth duac rang, ngu X la mat S p hop him
han gam n phan tit thl P(X)
la mO t S p hop him han gom 2"phan
tit Nhu vay cac S p
hop 0, P(0), P (P (0)), P (P (P (0))),
P (93
(P (P (0)))), P (P (P (P (0)))))... then the WS 0, 1,
2, 22 rt- 4, 24
=16,- 2
16
=65536... phan tit. Tit S p hop
0
chitng ta da-
thanh lap nhang tap hop cri nhigu pit todata
mdc trong this tota I theng dgm duac.
7.
71th de cat cUa hai top hqp
G ia sit xvA y
la hai vat, tit hai vat nay ta thanh lap mat
vat thtl ba ki M au (x, y) va goi la c4p
(x, y). Hai S p y) va
bt, u) la bang nhau khi va chi khi
x = u va y =v. D ar M at
ta c6 (x, y) =(y, x) khi va chi khi x = y, digu nay S i I an thd
toma ta vigt hai vat cim mat cap I A can thigt.
Ta rothg mbrang khai niam cap nhu sac. G ia sit S oba
vat x, y, z, ta O tt
(x, y, z) = ((x, y),
va got (x, y, z) la mat
bd ba M ilan S
(x', y', z) = (x", y", z")
can va da
la
Thvg fly ((x', y'),
z') = ((x",
y"), z") trong during vdi
(x',
y') =(x", y") va z' =z", fly Wring duong voi x' =
x",
G ang vay, chobO n vat x, y, z, t ta dat
(x, y, z; t) = ((x,
y, z), t)
I ra ta ggi (x, y, z, t) la mat bt) bdn.
D inh ngliia 3. C hohai tap hop
X
NI A Y; tap hop cac cap
(x, y) vat x E X vb. y E Ygoi la
tich de the tha X uti
Yva
ki hieu bang X xY.
Khai them tich da the cci thg ma rang chotrtiO ng hop nhigu
tap hop. /46u X, Y, Z, T
la nhitng tap hop, ngubi ta dinh nghia
XxYxZ=(XxY)xZ
XxYxZxT=(XxYxZ)xT...
C ac phan tii oda X x
YxZlit the be ba (x, y,
z) vet xEX,
y E Y, zE Z.
C ling nhu vay, the phan tothe. X xYxZxT
la the ba bO n (x, y, z,
t)voixeX,yEY,zEZ,tET.
C u&
ding nen X la
mat tap hop, ta dat
X2 =XxX,X3 =XxXxX,X
4
=XxXxXxX,...
8. Hop va giaoctia hai tap hop
D inh nghia 4. G ift sit X
th Yla hai tap hop. Ta ggi la
hop
mitt X ud
Ytap hop ki hien
X
U Yg6m eac phan tit hoae thug
X hotm thuae Y, nghia l a
zE X U Ytrong during vbi zE
X hoe zE Y.
Ta can e6 thg ndi
X
U Ygam eac phan tit thuac it nhat
mat trong hai tap hop X va Y.
D inh nghia 5. G ia sit
X
vet Yla hai tap hop. 1kggi la
.giao
tha X ut2
Ytap hop ld hiau. X
U Yg6m the phfin ta vita thuac
X vita thug Y, nghia la
zE X fl YWong during veil zE
X va z
Ngttbi ta baohai tap hop
X va Yla
/thong giao nhau hay
roi nhau khi X
fl Y=0, nghia la khi X
vb. Ylcheng th phan
tit chung nao.
9
Rd r
ang toeat the quan
ho
XnYcXvkY,XUYD .XvkY.
Ngoai ra, gia sit Zla mot tap hop thy y
, mu6n cho Z C X
va ZC Y, can va du cozE
X
vb. zE Yvoi I nca
z E Z, nghia
la z E X n Y, tilt
litzcxn
Y. Nhu vA y X n Yla tA p hop
I on nhat trong tat ca the tap hop
Z vita chda trong X
vita chile.
trong Y. C ling vay, 'math Zchda ca
X va Y
can va du la Z
chda X U Y; nhtt the' X
U Yla tap hop be Witt dada ca
X
14n Y.
D inh I i 3.
Poi cot AV lit(t) A, B, C tit( X tuy 9, to co :
(i)
Tinh chat giao hoan ,
AnB=Bn
A,
'A UB=BU A .
(ii) Tinh chat kit hop
A n (B n (A n B) 11 C,
A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C .
(iii) Tinh chcit phan phdi
A n (B U- (A n B) U (A C),
A U (B n = (A U B) fl (A U C).
(iv)
Gang that Do Mo6c-gang
X - (A U B) = (X - A)
n
(x- B),
X - (A
n B) = (X - A ) U (X - B).
Ching minh.
(i) va (ii) hidn nhien.
11khay chdng minh tong
thde that nhat cue (iii). G ia thxEA n
(B U C), didu doc6
nghia la x E A va x
D andle it nhat mot trong hai tA p hap
B,
C, chA ng hen xe
B. V tiy. x E A 11 B, tilt la x E (A n B) U
(A n C).
D aolei gia sat xE
(A 11 B) U (A fl C),
lieu doco
nghia la x thuOc
it nhat mat trong hai tA p hop A
n B, A n C ,
chinghanxEA n
B, tae laxE A
vax
EB,vA yxEA va
x e (B. U C) dodo
x E A n (B U C).
Ta ehting minh cO ng tilde thd hai caa (I li). G ia thxEA U
U (B n C),
dieu d6 cat nghia la xthuS e it nhat mot trong hai
10
tap hop A,BnC,
chA ng han xE A . \ray x E A U B I ra
xEA UC ,titclaxE(A UB)(1(A UC ).NauxEBnC
thi ta cdxBviixeC,
the la xE A U B va x EA U C,
\ray x E (A U B) n (A U C ). D aolai, gia x E (A U B)
n (A U C),
diau docd nghla la xEA U B va xEA U C .
x
EA U B cd nghia la xthuac it nhat mat trong hai tap hop
A , B.
NauxElithixEA U(BilC ).NanxtZA thixE
B,
vavixEA UC ,nenxEC .VityxEBD C vadoddxG A U
U (B n C ).
(iv) G ia sit x E X - (A U B). D ieu dd ea nghia la x e X
vfleAUB,
tticlaxE2C vax(I 6A vaxit
B. V ayxEX-A
va x E X - B, tic lit x e (X - A ) tl (X - B).
D ttolai gilt sit
x E (X - A) 11 (X - B),
dieu doc6 nghla la x E X - A va
xEX- B,
tdclaxE/C vaxA vaxcEB.
V ayxe.Xvit
x (it A U B, tile la x e X - (A U B).
D 61 via tang thdc thd
hai dm
(iv) ta cothe"C hing minh Wong tp, hoac gp dung tang
tilde thd nhat mitt (iv) va dinh I I 2 (i) ne'u A ,
B C X. Ta xat,
via A , B C X
A n B (X - (X - A)) n(X-(X-
B)) =
= X- ((X - A) U (X - B))
Vity X - (A n
B) =(X - A) U (X - B). n
9. Anh
xa
D inh nghla 6. G ilt sit X
v&Yla hal tap hop da cho. M at
dnh xit f tit X din
Yla mat quy S c choWang ting vat mai
phtin tit x dm X mat phan tit 'tan dinh, I d hieu f(x) caa Y. Ta
viat
f
f
: X YhayX>Y
x f(x)
x f(x)
Tap hop X gni la
ngu6n hay mi.en the d nh
va tap hap Y
g9i la dich hay mien gid tri coa anh xit f.
V i du. 1)
Xet tap hop N cat s6 tonhien va tap hop Z
s6 nguyen khang am nhe han mat sic nguyen during da chom.
Voi myi x
E N ta hay chia x
chom vA (Woe mat s6 du kJbleu
la f(x), S 6 f(x) thuO c Zm Turing ling
xJn f(x)
xac dinh mat anh xa
f : N
2) Xat tap hop the s6 thvc R. Tutting
ling
x 1 n x2
xac dinh mot itnh xa td I t d6n
R
3) G ift sit X =
(1, 2}, Y=(a, b, c}.
Thong dng
1 I . c
2 1n a
xac dinh mat anh xa tV
X dgn Y.
4) G ift sit X = Y= (1,
2, 31.
Taring ling
1 "-.3
2 2
3 I . 1
xac dinh mot anh xa tit
X dgn
Qua dinh nghia mkt anh xa, cluing ta they rang khai niam
Emit xa la khdi niam m6 rang cue khai niam ham s6 ma ta gap
trvang ph6 thong. C ac ham sd ma ta gap 6 trttang phd thong
la nhfing anh as ma -
ngugn I ra dich la tap hop M c sd thtte I t
hoac nhf.tng b0 phan cue lt, va 56
?Tx) Wang ling yeti s6 x lit
mat bigu thdc dai
ad
hay mat bigu tilde throng gist
, chA ng han :
f(x) =21c2 x+ 3 hay
f(x) =5sinx.
Prong dinh nghia anh xa ta that' cite tap hap nook' va filch
khO ng nhat -
that lit nhitng tap hop s6 va phan to
f(x) toting
ttng voi x lei
cang khong phil la mat bigu thdc dal s6 hay
luting giac !
12
Trong G iat doh cluing ta thuting corailing bai tam ye ye
d6 thi eta met ham se.
6
day doing ta cling hay dinh nghia
da thi eta met anh
D inh nghia 7.
G ia su f : X - Y. BO
phan l eta X xY
gem. S e cap (x, f(x)) vet x E X goi I A do 'thi oda dnh xe
Nhu vay, chomet anh xa
f : X - Y, ta
dune met ybe phan
I ' eta X
xYcri tinh chat : vbi moi x
E X,
c6 met vit chi met
cap, cophan tothat nhat I A
x, thuOc
r. D im lai, chomet be
phan P eta X x
YS tinh chat d6, thi r chota met anh xa
f : X
Yma d6 thi lit F. C honen lived ta d6ng nhat anh
xa f
vat d6 thi eta S la met be phan eta doh de S t
X xY.
10. A nh
M Th
D inh nghia 8.
G ia au f : X ->Yla met anh xa
da cho, x
la met phan tay f eta
X- A
la met be phan thy
9 eta X,
B
la met be phan thy g eta Y. TM thi nguoi ta goi :
- pa) la dnh mitt x bdi f
hay gid tri
can anh xa f tot di dm x.
- f(A)
={y E YI tantaixEA sscho
f(x) ei- y}la
dnh Cela A bdi f.
(B) ={x E XI f(x)

B ) la too dnh todn phan caa

B ben f.
Dac HO vet b E Y, r
({b}) {xEXI
f(x) =b}.
don gian ki hieu ta vidt f I (b) thay elm ft
({b}) va goi la tao
anh town phan eta
b bbi f.
M ei phan tit x E f (5) goi la met
tao (ink eta b
bel f.
Ki hieu f(A)
la met diau lam clang vi
f(A)
chi S nghia khi
A E X. RO rang ta c6 f(0)
=0 vdi moi f
Ta chdng minh da
Bang the quan he-:
- A C hi(A))
obi moi b0 pia A act X
- B
t(rim)) ubi
moi b0 phGn 3B oda Y.
Nhung ta khong cci quyen, trong cat quan he
ay, thay the
dilu baoham bang dau citing Unit. C hang han, trong vi do2)
13
ctla muc 9, neu lay A =

thi ta cd
ritiotil = {-
1, 1}va
B = {-1, 1}thi ta co
firl (B)) ={1}
11. Dan anti - Toan anh - Song anh
D inh nghia 9. A nh xa
f : X >Yla met
don anh nau Vol
moi x, x' E X,
quan he f(x) =
f(x') keotheoquan he
x = x'
hay x m x' keotheo f(x) # fix') ;
hay vai moi y E Ye6
nhigu
nhgt mot x E X
saochoy = f(x).
Nailed ta can goi met don anh
f : X --, 17
Ia met anh xa mot ddi mat:
.
V i du.
1) Xet anh xa
f
R > R
x x
3

I le rang f
la met don anh, vi ngu. xI ra y la nhitng s6 time
thi quan he x3 =y3 keotheo
x = y.
Thing le lay R,
ta lay C thi anti
xa

f : C C
x x
3
khang phat la don anh nita, vi got
to , s2
la ba gia tri
can bee ba cua don vi, ta cd
2) G M sit X lit
met tap hap, anh xa
n
x x
got lit anti xa dong nheit
cita
X H hidu 1,, hose ex
Hign nhien
lx la don
3)
C hoX C Y. A nh xa
j : X Y
x t *j(x) = x
goi la
don anh chinh hic
tit X
den Y. Ta cd thg cd nhieu don
A rds tii X
den Y, nhung don anh j goi la chinh S c vi n6 duce
fly dung met each
to nhien.
14
D inh nghia 10. Ta baomot anh xa. f : X --s Yla mat tam
anh niu f(X) =Y, nci mat each line, M u S i moi y E
it nlifit mat x E X saochoy = fix). Nguai ta con goi mat than
anh f: X . Yla mat drift xa fit X len Y
C ac anh xa trong cac vi du 1) va 2) la nhung than anh.
D inh nghia 11. Ta baomat anh xa. f Yla mat song
anh hay mat anh xa mat d6i mat tit X len Y, M u ud vita la
don anh vita la town anh, ndi mat each 'KhooM u vdi mai y E Y
comat S . chi mat xE X saochoy = fix).
C hang hon anh n (tong nhat 1, la mat song anh via mai X.
12. Tich anh xa
D inh nghia 12. G ib. sit cho
f: X >Yvag Y Z.
A nh xa X Z
x
gr(ln)
goi la tich oda anh xa f ud (nth xa g, Id hibu gof, hay van ta.
0
D inh li 4. Cid sit cho
f:X >31,g Y Z, h Z >T
Thi thi
h(gf) =(hg)f.
Ta bdo phep nhan ode arch sa c6 tinh chit kit hap.
Chzing mink. Ta cd S i mai x E X :
(h(gf)) (x) =h(gf(x)) =h(g(f(x)) =
=(hg)(f(x)) =((hg)f) (x). n
D odota ki hiO u h(gf) =(hg)f bang hgf va goi la tich ena
ba anh xa f, g, h.
Chia y rang M u f : X >Yla road anh xa bat ki thi ta
fix =1Y1 ft
15
D inh nghia 13. G ia sit f : X Yva g Y X In hai anh
xa saocho
gf = lx Ud fg = ly
Th6 thi g goi la mO t dnh xr) ngucc clic) f.
Tit dinh nghia ta suy ra f cling 121 mO t anh xa %edge ohs. g.
D inh sau day chota bi6t khi naomot anh xa cd anh xa
tigurele
D inh li 5. Anh xa f : X >YcO mOt anh xa ngitqc khi va
chi khi f la mr)t song dna.
Chang mink. G U sit f cd mO t anh xa nguroc g YX.
Theodinh nghia 13, ta cd
gf = lx va fg = 1 y.
tdc la
g(f(x)) =x ved mot x
Xat quan hO
fix) = f(x),
ta suy ra x =g (f(x)) =g (f(x)) =x'.
f la mO t don anh. Bay giogia sit y la mO t phan td thy
g cala Y. D ht x= g(y) C X trong clang thdc f(g(y)) =y, ta ddoc
y = f(x). V 4y f la mO t to/in anh.
D itolai gia sit f la mO t song anh. Quy S c ohothong ling
v6i m6i y e Yphan tit duy nhat coa f l(y) xac dinh Wit anh
xa g : YX va ta thay ngay
gf = lx va fg = ly.
Nhu vityf:X n Ycci mO t anh xa notoc khi va chi khi f
la song anh, va trong trddng hop dd ta cd mO t anh xa ngdgc
g : Y *X cua f xac dinh b61
y 1-r g(y) =x,
saocho fix) =y.
Ngoai anh xa nmierc nay, f can co anh xa ngutoc naokhac
khO ng ? rlh co
16
D inh li 6.
GM set g : YX uh g' YX Zd hai anh x
nguye cast f: X Y. The thi g g'.
Cluing mink. Ta c6
gf = 1 xfg' =
1 y
.
Tit do
g = g y = g(fg) =(gf)g' lxg' = g'.
Nhvyay nab f : X 1, Yco
anh xa nguac thi anh xa ngttac
la duy nhat, xac dinh bed
y x, arta x la phtin td duy nhat caa. f 1(y).
D olam clang ngathi ta cling ki hieu phan td duy nhat xcita
1 (y) bang f ya dodci ngmai ta I d
hieu
anh xa
la anh xa ngttoc oda f, bang f 1 . Vi f la anh xa ngtotc oda
ri nen f= (f 1)-1 Ta cd 1X1 =lx .
He quit. Cho hai song anh f : X Yu4 g Y 1. Z. The
thi gf : X >Z Id mkt song anh.
Cluing mink. Ta cd
(gf) (f'g')
=pi) = glyg_i =
(fi
g
-i) (gf) =
== .50
fly

=(gf
13. Thu lima va ma rO ng anh x a

D inh nghin 14. G ib. sd f : X Yla mot anh xa va A la

mQt be phan dm X, anh xa
g : A Y
x 1 n g(x) =f(x)
goi la cat thu hep ella anh xa f Mt kJ, phkti
A ytt I d
hieu
la
g = f , can anh xa f goi la cat
and rOng elk g tren tkp hop
A
X.
17
14. Thp hqp chi s6
G ia sit / la mat tap hop toy
g khge Tong ma cat phan to
dole ki hieu lit a, /3, y... va f la mat anh xa
f: I
'Pa I d hieu
f(a) =x,,
tip) =xfi
=xy
Ta bac the phan tU xa , x13 , xy thanh lap mOt hp nhung
phan td cda X dupe dank s6 bdi tap hop I, I d hiau la (xa)a E
can tap hop I gal la tap hop chi s6. Nau the xa, x13 , xy . la
nhiing tap hop thi ta gal (xa), c la nt9t hp tap hqp dcinh s6
bdi tap hop I. Ndu cac phan tit dm X la nhUng ba phan cim
mat tap hop E, tire la ta ed xa , xp , xy C E, thi ta got
(xa)a e / la met hp nhang by phan
mia tap hop E.
Thoc re cluing ta da thay vide danh ad trttoc day rat. Trong
&tat dal chung ta thuong xet nhung day s6 Utile n
o, u1 ,. u2,
D igit &I conghia lit ta da danh sd bang clic s6 tonhien 0, 1,
Vi du. G ia sat I = {1, 2, 3 ), X = {a, b }va dodci
93
(X) ={0, {a }, b
},
a, b }}, va
f : r
P(X)
1 n A i = f b 1
2 A 2 ={a, b
3 A 3 = a, b }
/chit vay ha (A i ), e i gam ba tap hop A 1 , A 2, A 3 trong do
A z = A 3 .
18
15. D ap, giao, tich de cite
mot hp tap hqp
15
day, chang ta hay morang the phep toan hop, giao, tich
ra mat s6 thy 3: flitting tap hop.
D inh nghia 15. G igt sit (2(a)aei la mat h9 tap hop. lbA il
la hop cua hp d6, va kt lieu bang U Xa tap hop the
x sac
a E
cllo x thuac I t nhat mat tap hqp cua 119 (Xa)aef.
D inh nghia 16. G igt sii (21a)aci. la mat h9 tap hop. Ta goi
la giao edit hp c/6, va I d hiau bang r)
X
, tap hap die x sao
ezel
choxthuac tat ca cite tap hop cart h9 (Xa)aei
D inh nghia 17. G ilt sit (20aei
lgt mat 119 tap hop va
X = U X
la hop cna hodd. Ta goi la
tich d8 cac cua hp
a E /
(Xa)ae1 !va U hieu bang 11 Xa tap hop can 119 (xa)aer nhilng
ael
phan tocart X saochoxa EXa via mot a EL N6u cdc tap
hop .2c, den
bang mat tap hop A , till tich d0 cite cua 119
(V ac/ goi I A idy thita 'de cot b4c I cua hlp hap A va ki
lieu
la
Trong trueng hop I =
(1, 2}ta lai tim thity hop, giao, tich
de the cua hai tap hop.
V i du. 1) /C at hotap hop
(I n)neN
danh s6 bat cite s6 tO
nhien 0, 1, 2,... v6i
In =(0, 1, n},
tha thl U I n =N
n E N
(1 I =I n = {0}.
neN
2) Lay thita de cite RN la tap hop clic day s6 Rule
(no,, 14
)
19
BA I TA P
1. X&tap hap {A 1 , A 2,...,
ma aid phan toA t , A2,...,
la
nhitng tap hap. C hang minh ed it nit&mO t tap hop A
i kliO ng
chtla mO t tap hop naotrong cac tap hap con lai.
2.
C luing minh toS A - (A -
B) = B khi va chi khi B C A .
3. G iA sit X
14mO t tap hop cd n phan tit va
r la mOt s6 to
nhien, 0 C r C rt. Tinh :
a) S 6 cac b6 phan S e.
X ed r phan
b) S 6 cac phan tocila
4.
Bi4u than hinh hoc cac tap A x B voi
a) A ={xER
I 14X4 3}
B =
R, tap hap cac s6 thitc
b) A = B =Z,
tap hop the s6 nguyen.
5. Bigu din hinh hoe tap hop
X em the diem (x, y) caa
mat pang dg cac S clang (x, x)
ved 0 xC 1 hoc S clang
(x, x + 1) v6i x 3 0.
6. C hdng minh
a) A UB =A khi va chi khi B C A.
b) A f1 B
=A khi va chi khi A C B.
c) A UQ =A .
d) A n 0.
7.
Tap hop X 6 bai tap 5) S pilaf la d6 thj cua mO t anh
xa tit R dgn R ?
8.
Tap hO P G = {(x, 4.1 x <U {(x,
0) I x3 0}C O
phial la d6 thl atla mO t anh xa tit
R den R ? Bigu (Ban hinh
hoc tap hdp dd.
9. Tap hop
1
G ={(x. x 1)1
x R , x
20
cd th6 coi nhu da thi caa mat anh xa the Tao? Bleu diO n hinh
hoc tap hop dd.
10. G M wit f : X ->Yla mat anh xa A va B la hai bQ phan
dm X, C va D is hai bQ phan cua Y. C hung minh
a) f(A U B) =f(A) U f(B).
b) f(A n B) C f(A) fl f(B).
c) U D) =
ft(C) U riay.
d) f'(C n = ri(c) fl rkm.
e) f(X - A) D f(X) - f(A).
ri(Y- C) =X - r{(C).
11. G ia sit n la mat sd tp nhien chotriteic, f la mat anh xa
tit tap hop cat se tonhien N den chinh nd duoc xac Binh bdi
n - k new k <n
f(k) = {n + k nen k an.
f ad phdi la don anh toan anh, song anh kitting ?
12. G M saf:X-.17 vag:Y->Z1a hai anh xa vah = gf
la anh xa tich oda f va g. C hung minh :
a) I NI 6u h la don anh thi f la don anh, lieu them f la than
anh thi g la don anh.
b) Neu h la toan anh thi g la than anh, nen them g la don
anh thi f la toan anh.
13. C hoanh xa f : X ->K C hung minh f la mat don anh khi
va chi khi cd mat anh xa g : Y->X saocho gf =1x. (X m 0).
14. C hoanh xa f : X ->Y. C hung minh f la mat than anh
khi va chi khi cd mat anh xa g : Y X saocho fg =ly .
15. C hoba anh xa f : X Yva g, g' : U ->X. C hting
minh : a) Neu f la don anh va fg = fg', thi g- =g'.
b) bieu veil moi g, g' ma fg = fg' keotheo g = g', thi f la
mat don anh.
16. C hoba anh xa f : X ->Yva h, Y->Z. C hung minh
Yang neu f la mat than anh va hf = h'f thi h =h'. Nguac lai
21
n5 veil moi h, toth h f
.
= h'f keotheo h = h' la mat
than anh.
17. C hang minh nau c6 mat song anh tit
X d6n Yva mat
song anh tit X dgn Z,
thi th mat song anh toYdan Z
18. C luing minh rang mu6n chomat ba phan G tha tich 66
the X xYla d6 thi dm mat anh xa tit X deli Ythi can va
du la anh xa (phep chit') :
G X
(x, x
la mat song anh.
19. G ia sa (A daei ut mot ho!A iling I th pilau tha mat tap
hap X, B la mat tap hap thy y. C hang minh
a) U Aa D A vbi moi a e I .
a el
b) n
/la C vbi M O a E I .
aef
a) B n A G ) U (B n A a).

aEl aEl
d) B U (n A) = n (B U Ad.

a E a el
e) X (U .4a) = n -

aEl aEl
0 X (n =
U
(X
A a)

aEl aEl
20. G M siti:X >Ylit mat anh xa (Aa)ae la mat ha
nhfing ba phan efia X, (Bfl)fi e j I A mat ha nhftng ha phan cila
Y. C luliag minh
a) AU Aa) = U M a).
ael aEl
b)An Aa) C n f(A).
aef aEl
22
c)ri(u
B1) = U
ri(sfl).

fie/ fie/
d)r(n = n

fie/ 13E/
21. C hohai tap hop X.vA Y. Ta ki hieu bang Hom (X, Y)
tap hop tat ca the anh xa tit X den Y. C hung mirth
a) C 6 met song anh tit Horn (X, Y) den YX.
b) Neu Ychi c6 hai phtin tothi e6 met song anh tit
Horn (X, Y) den
P(X).
c) Ttif a) va b) hay suy ra neu X ad n phan tif, thi P
co2"phtin tit.
2. QUA N HE
1. C hian hai ngoi
Trong 1, 9 thong ta da dua vaokhai niem anh xa. M et
anh xa f : X Ychothong dng voi mei phan to x E X met
phtin t0 y = f(x) e Y. Nhu vay,cac phtin to x, y c6 met.quan
he viii nhau, quan he dri la y = f(x), hay ndi met each khae,
quan he doI A (x, y) e G, yeti G la dd thi tha f. Vag plat
hon, ngt.tai ta nghi den met each ghep cap nhang phtin tocurt
X yea nhung phan tocaa Yde thanh lap met be phan caa
X xY, va goi each ghep cap dola met quan he hai ngei.
D inh nghia 1. G ia sit X I ra Yla nhilng tap hop. M et quan
he hai ng0i t0 X dgn Yla met be phan S cua tich de the
X xY. Ta bao, vai hai plain toa E X va be Y, rang a c6
quan he S yea b ngu va chi neu (a, b) E S. Ta viet aSb.
D 5 thi G aim met anh xa f X Ychota met vi du ve
quan he hai ng6i, va tong throng hop nay ngutoi ta vial b =;(a)
dui khO ng vie% aGb. M et anh xa chota met quan he hai ng6i,
nhung daolai khang dung (1, bai tap 5).
23
Nhu \Tay, mat anh xa chota mat quan ha hai ngbi dac M at.
Ngoai quan h@hai fled quan trong nay, Wan h9c con cd hai
loaf quan ha hai ngdi quan trong nita, dola quan he tudng
during va quan he thti to.
2. Quan ha Wang Wang

D inh nghia 2. G M
sit X la mat tap hop,
S IA mat b0 pan
oda X x X. The thi S goi la mat
quan he W ang duong trong
X
ngu va chi ngu cac digu kien sau day Woo. man :
1. (Phan xa) Vdi moi a E
X ; aSa.
2.
(D 6i ming) Vdi moi a, b E X ; ngu aSb, thi bSa.
3. (Bac cam) Vdi moi a,
b, c E X ; ngu aSb va bSc, thi aSc.
Ngu S IA
mat quan he tuong duong, thi nguoi ta Hwang ki
hiau S
bang - va thuong doc
aSb (a b) la
"a Wong during
veil b".
V i du. 1)
D gu bang thudng dung trong 86 hoc thong Uniting
We s6 thtic lit mot vi du quen thuac ye quan he Wong throng.
'Prong trudng hop dd tap hop
S
la dyeing thA ng y =xcua mat
phA ng de can R2
2)
gh xet quan he &M g du mod 5 chang han trong s6 hoc.
Hai songuyen tn, n gal la clang du mod 5 ngu m
- n chia hgt
cho5 RO rang quan he nay la mat quan he Wong during trong
Z. Ta hay ki hiau bang
C(i), i
=0, 1, 2, 3, 4tap hop cac s6
nguyen tag duong vol i
C(i) = {5x + i I x
E X},
4
thg thi moi s6 nguyen thuac U
C(i) va C(i) fl C(j)
=0 voi
o
i # j, i =0, 4; j
=0,1,..., 4, 'lb. se Wily We digu kin
taring tonhu vay chomat quan he Wing during thy Y.
3) 1k xat tap hop X
cac vectotrong knang gian coa Hinh
hoc giai tich. 1kWm mat vecto
a
coquan he S voi vecto p khi
va chi khi a ding hudng
,
ding chit, ding m6dun vdf
j3. Quan
he S r6 rang lit mat quan he Wong duong. rI lt cling ki hiau
24
bang C(a) tap hop cac vectd tudng during veil a, the thi C(a)
chang qua la mat vectd todo.
D inh nghia 3. G M sit S la mat quan he toeing during trong
X Va a E X. Tap hop
C(a) = Ix E X I xSal
gal lit lap W ang duang cast a den obi quan he W ong duang S.
VI S la phan xa nen a E C(a).
Ta thy tac khac rang C (a) cocac tinh chat sau :
(I ) C (a) r 0.
(ii) x, y E C(a) keotheo xSy.
(iii)
x e C(a) va ySx keotheoy E
C (a).
136 de 1, Vbi hai phan tit. bat Id a Os 5, ta den co hails
C(a) C(b) =0 hods C(a) =C(b).
Cluing minh. G ia sit C(a) n C(b) # 0. Ta se &sang minh
C(a) =C(b). Goi c mat digm thuac C(a) fl C(b). Ta co cSa
va cSb, va doG rill chat clai ring in bac cam, nen a E C(b).
D odovai moi xe C(a), tdc la yea moi xM ang duang poi a,
todewed x E C(b), tue la C (a) C C(5). Thong to, ta cluing
minh C(b) C C(a). fly, ta c6 C(a) = C (b). n
Tit be de trail ta suy ra ngay C (x) =C (a) vai moi
x e
C (a).
D inh nghia 4. Ta booto'awe hien mat sit chia lop tren
rnOt tap hop X khi ta chia nd thanh nhiing I na phan A, B, C,...
khan 0, r ii nhau tang del mat, saochomoi phan tit ciao X
thugs mat trong cat 60 phan do.
D inh fi 1. Gid sit' X la mat tap hop, S la mot quan he
W ang duong trong X. Thd thi cite lop W ong duang phan biOt
aria X dee vOi S thanh lap mot sit chia lop tren X.
Oning minh. That vey, yea moi x E X, ta ed xC C(x). C on
hai lap tieing dung phan biet la rbi nhau thi do136 de 1. n
Nhu vay chomet quan he Wong dining S trong mat tap
hop X, ta dude mat sit chia lap tren X, dola vise chia X
thanh cac lap Wong &tong. D inh li sau day chota thay dao
lai sung
D inh li 2.
Gid su ta co mot sy chia 16p tran mot tap hop
X ail A, B, C ,...
la cac ba phlox caa X do su chia lap. The thi
co met quan ha twang duong duy nhat S trong X sao cho cac
lop twang duong caa X clai adi S la Sc ba phan A, B, C,...
Viec chUng minh dinh li tren, xin dash chodoe gia, xem
nhu bai tap.
D inh nghia 5. G ia atl
X la mat tep.hop,
S la mat quan he
Wang duong trong X.
Tap hop cac lop twang duong phan biet
cila X ddi vol S gni la
tap hap thuang act X trail quan he
twang duong S va
duac ki hieu la X/S.
V i du.
Xet quan he &M g du mod
n
trong S O ' hoc (n la mat
s6 nguyen throng ohotrtidc). Hai s6 nguyen
x, y
gal la dang du
mod n ndu x - y la
bai coa n Rd rang quan he nay la mat
quan he tuang diking trong Z. Tap
hap
thuang cua ZHen quan
he ddng du mod n ed n I dp Wang during :

C(0), C(/),... , C(n
-1)
voi
C(i) =fnxilxe =0,1, n - 1.
3. Quan h0 thii tir
D inh nghia 6. G ab. sit
X la mat tap
hap,
S la mat ha
phan cfm. X x X The thl S dune goila
mot quan he thil ta
trong X
(hay ngubi ta con gal S
la mat quan he thit togida
cac phan tQ mia
X)
ndu va chi ndu cac didu M an sau day
thda man
1. (Phan xa) Vol moi a
E X : aS a.
2. (Phan ddi
ring) Vdi mai a, b E X ndu aSb va bSa, thi
a = 6.
3. (Bac eau) Vol mai a, b, c E X ;
aSb va bSq thi aSc.
NgUdi ta baomat tap
hap
X la 84 this to
ndu.trong X co'
mat quan he thu to.
V i dy. 1)
Quan he E trong tap hop cac s6 tonhieh N la
mat quan he thu to.
26
2)
Quan he chia het trong N : ngded ta I d hieu al
b va dee
"a chia het b".
3)
Quan he baoham C gifta cac be phan eta met tap hop
X
Trong vi du 1), vol a va
b try y to
luon cd a g.. 6 Ileac
a.
NgUdi ta gel met quan he that tonhu thy la
town phan.
Trong vi du 2) khong plied ta hien luen cd al
b
hoac I t( a ved a,
b
thy y, clang I lan vai a =2 VA .
b =
3. D ieu dd cling thy ra
vat vi du 3). Ngudi ta ban I
vat C la tinting quan he thd
to
60 ph4n.
Neu S
la mot quan he thd tut trong
X, thi rived ta thudng
I d hieu S
bang g.. (bat chub ki hieu quan he thil tothong
tinging eta s6 nguyen hay s6 flute) va doe a g
b la "a be hon
b". Ngubi ta coi b .?.- a la clang nghia vet a
g
6 va doe la "6
I on hem a". Ngdoi ta con viet a <
b (hay b S a) quan he
va. a # 6"
va doe la "a thtte su be ban
b" hay "6 thAlc
ski lon hon a".
D inh nghia 7. G ia. su X lit
met tap hop sap thd W. M et
phgn tit a e X gei lit
phdn to t6i ties
(phan tot61 dal) eta X
neu quan hex # a Ix
a) kat) theox=a.
V i d,.
1) Trong tap hop cat se tonhien
thve stt len lam I ,
sap that totheoquan he I (quan ha chia het), the O lin tit tO i
tigu la the s` nguyen
2)
Trong tap hop cat he theta doe lap tuyen tinh eta khong
gian vectoI V sap tint Wtheoquan he baoham
C , cac ha
\rectogem rt \rectola t61
3)
Tap hop cac se thuc, ved quan he that tothong thudng,
khong cd plign tot6i dai cling khong cd phan totei tidu.
D inh nghia S . G irl sit X
la met tap hop sap that tu. M ot
phgn tit a E X get la phlin tti be nit&
titan tolan nhgt) coo.
X nen, vet mot x E X, tocd a E x( xg a).
Neu met tap hop X sap thd tocd met phtin tit be nhat a
thi a la phtin tobe nhgt duy nhgt. That thy gibsit 5 6 la
phtin tobe nhgt, ta suy ra a <
b va 6 # a,
We la a = 6.
C ling nhan get nhu thy del veil phan
ta len nhgt.
27
V i dzt.
1) Tap hop the s6 tonhien sap thit tp theoquan he
eqphtin tit be nhgt I A 1 va O HM toI on nhat I A 0. Neu sap
O M Wtheoquan he
this
to. th6ng thuiting, tap hop eac soto
nhien ea phgn tobe nhgt I A 0 va khO ng c6 phan tit lon nhgt.
2) G ia
sit X la mot bq
phan khac rang thit P
(E), tap hop
the ba phan elm mat tap hap
E.
M u X
act phan Wbe nhgt A
(I on nhgt) ddi obi quan he baoham, thi A ellang qua la giao
(hop) eim the tap hop thuac
X.
D M ) lai, neu giao(hop) the tap
hop the.
X 1p.i thuiic X,
thi dO la phtin tobe nhat (I on nhat)
eaa.
X. DO.c bi0t, 0 I A phg. tit
' be nhgt va E la phan tolen
nhat cua P (E).
3)
Tap hop the s5 thoc, vbi quan hoUM tothong thuong,
khO ng ca phan tobe M t) M ing khO ng ca phan tit I O n nhgt.
D inh nghia 9.
Ta baomat tap hop X I A sap Mit tit t6t trau
nti la sap
thu
tova nau moi ba phan khae rang ella X ca mat
phan tit be nhgt.
V i dp.
Tap hop the sotonhien
N
vei O M tothong thuO ng
la sap Hui totot.
BA I TA P
1. G M sb f : X
>YI A mat anh xa,
S la ba phan aim X x
X
O m the cap (x, x) saocho
f(x) = flxite
a) C hung minh S
la mat quan he Wang during trong X.
b) Xet tap hop thurang
XIS
va anh xa.
p : X XIS
x
C(x).
C hung minh ea mat anh xa duy nhat
X/S >Ysaocho
bigu dosau la giaohoan
/
X Y
P
XIS
nghia la
f =
TP
c) C hang minh f la don anh va trong twang hap f la toan
anh thi 7 la song anh.
2. Xet tap hop the s6 nguyen Zva tap hop N' cac s6 tor
nhien khac 0. G Qi S la quan hotrong Zxthe dinh bai
(a, b) S (e, d) khi va chi khi ad =be.
C hang minh S la mat quan hotuang thong.
3. G ia th S la mat quan he hai ng6i the dinh trong tap hop
cac s6 nguyen Zbai cac cap (x, y) vol x, y nguthn va x+ y 16.
C hang minh :
a) S khO ng phai la 116 thi M ut mat anh xa tit Zdth Z.
b) S khong phai la mat quan Wang (Wang.
c) S khang phai la mat quan ha dui to.
d) Nth d61 gia that mat ehtit bang each cho x + y chain, thi
the' nth ?
4. G ia sit X la mat tap hop va T la mat qtian hohai ng6i
phan xa, dot 'tang trong X. Th hay xae dinh mat quan ha hai
ng6i. S trong X nhu sau : thy khi va chi khi cd xt = x,
xa = y saochox1 Tx2, x2Tx3,... , xn_i Txn. C hang minh
a) S la mat quan he Wang diking va T C S.
b) Val moi quan he tuang dttang H saocho T C H thi S C H.
5. Xet quan ha hai ngai trong tap hop cac s6 thtic R xae
dinh bai tap hop X (*1, bai tap 5).
a) Hay b6 sung X d6 cd mat quan he hal fled phan xa, d6i
xang T (tat nhien b6 sung it nil&!). M au din hinh hoc T.
b) C O T, hay xay dung quan he Wang throng S nhu bai tap
4). Brett din hinh hoc S.
6. G ia th X la tap hop cac ham s6 kha vi xac dinh trail tap
hop cac s6 tithe R. G iA sa S la quan ha the dinh bai ySz khi
va chi khi dyldx =dzldx vai mai x E R. S cd phai la quan
hoWang ding khO ng ?
29
7. C ho X la khong gian ba chigu thong thuang va 0 la mat
digm c6 dinh dm X. 'Prong X ta xac dinh quan he S nhu sau : -
PSP' khi va chi khi 0, P, P' thA ng hang.
a) S cd phai la quan he thong (thong trong X khong ?
b) S ad phai la quan -ha tuong <Wong trong X - {O} khangl
Ngu phai, the dinh M c lop Wong throng.
8. G ia sit X lit mat tap hop va S la mat quan ha thil to
trong X. C hung mirth rang quan he T trong X the dinh bed
khi va chi khi bSa thing la mat quan ha thil totrong X.
9. G ia sit X lit mat tap hop va S la mat quan ha tuong
diking trong X. C hung minh S khong phai la mat quan ha tilt/
ta.
10. Xet tap hap X = Nn (n ?- 1), vai N la tap hop the s6
tonhien. 'Prong X ta xac dinh quan he S nhu sau :
(a1 ,..., O ) khi va chi khi (a
1 ,. ...; =(b1 ,
host cd mat chi se i (i =1,2,... , n) saochot =bi ,
ai-i bi-1,
a.<
bi -
-
C hung minh S la mat quan h@Ulu totoan phtin.
11. G ia sit f la mat don anh tit mat tap hop X cten tap hop
the se tg nhien N va S la mat Tian he trong X xac dinh nhu
sau :
xSx' khi va chi khi f(x) s fix).
C hung minh S la mat quan he tht/ Wthan phan.
12. C hohai tap hap X va Y. G al ft.
(X, Y) la tap hop the
anh xa tit the ba phan elm
X den Y, nghia la neu f E t 0C,
thi f I Ft mat anh xa cd ngudn la mat ba phan dm
X va cd dich
la Y. Xet quan ha. S
trong 'V (X Y) the dinh nhu sau :
fSg khi va chi khi g la ma rang cim anh xa f.
a) C hung minh S la mat quan ha thu tg.
b) Tim tophtin toUR tido, tai dai, be nhgt, ldn nhgt cda
(1 (X, Y) ddi vai S.
30
13. C hung minh nth a la phtin tit be nhat (len nhat) cua
mot tap hop X del thi mot quan he thti td S, thi a la phein
totei lieu (t6i dal) duy nhat eim X
14. C luing minh nth X sap Hill ttt t6t thi X sap thu toan
phan.
15. C luing minh cac tap hop trong the bid tap 10) va 11)
la sap tint totot.
3. S O LUO C VE C A C TI EN D E
C UA Li THUYET TA P HO P
1. M bdgu
Nhu ta da ndi a. dam chuong, li thuyet tap hop ma ta da
trinh bay la mat I f thuyet socap theoquan diem newthis.
Bay giO chting ta hay gioi thigu soM oe the tien de dia li thuyet
tap hop. Ban disc mthn tim hieu ki ea the tham khaonhieu
sach, ehang ban "Li thuyet tap hop"cua Bourbaki.
2. KWnidm nguyen thily
Chung ta khong Binh nghia cha tap hop : ta goi nd la khai
niem nguyen thdy. Khdi niem thuec yap &toe ki higu nhu ta
da biet bang e, cling la met khai niem nguyen they.
Thy hai khai niem tap hop va thuoc vaokheng doge dinh
nghia, nhung ehting tolai td an dinh the quy the : dieu gi ta
ed the lam duoc va diet' gi ta khO ng the lam dude vai hai khai
niem dd D O la bay tign de &la Zermelo - Fraenkel, ma chting
ta them vaocal thtl tam, tien clg Chan.
Theoiruyen thong, cac ties de dd throe chodtith ten va tint
tosau : tien de awing tinh, tien de tuyin 1ga (hay con goi
tien de nOi ham, hay tien de chi re, hay tien de tach), tien de
cap, tien de hop, tien de tap ling Sc b0 ph4n, tien de ue han
31
(hay
tien de the so tg nhien), tien de ehon Ira sea M ing la tien
da thay the.
Tien de mei cimg con g9i la tien de
thay chi chi
tham dvvaoli thuyet tap hop khi dua vaokited niem quy nap
sieu han va s6 hoe tin/ tut. Tien de dd disc Fraenkel dua vao
nam 1922. He thong tien de (khong ad tien de chant thanh lap
li
thuygt tap hop eua Zermelo- Fraenkel. M at vai trong can
tien de dO n6i len nhiing tinh chat it nhieu hien nhien khi ta
phat bigu cluing trong ngen ngit thong thyong.
Triton het cluing ta hay xac dinh the S olit met vat ban
toan hoc. Bang the chit (16n, nhe, la tinh, hi lap, v.v.:), the ki
hieu tha logic kinh dign, hai ki hieu E va =, va the S u ngoac,
chM ig ta cci the vigt bat ki van ban toan hoe nao(ma chting
ta cling gel lit Gong thus,
phat bleu, menh de, khang dinh, v.v...)
can thuygt tap hop.
C hung ta se gel la ph&bigu toan hoc hinh that cal ma ta
dude bang each 4dung the quy the sau
1 ) x E
y, A =B, trong dO x, y, A , B la M ating chit thy y,
la nhang phat bigu. C ac plaid M u del g9i la S ang tong thdc
so cap hay nguyen ta.
2
) M u P vet Q da la S ang phat bleu, the thi
(1P), (P A Q), (1)
v
Q), (P Q), (P
ti
Q)
la nhang phat bigu.
3
) M u P la met phat bigu, the thi (B x) (P(x)), (Vx) (P(x))
la nhang phat
3. Tien de queng tinh
(VA )(VB)(A . B (Vx)(xE A xE B)]
True giac, dieu domu6n nhi met tap hop he/in toan doge
the dinh boi M c phdn tocaa no; hai tap hop A va B bang
nhau vi
chi nS mei phan tit tha A la phan toeita B ve
nmitic lai.
Chzi y : - G ia sit
X, A , B la nhfing tap hop. C hung ta da
S i rang quan he X e A dot la X thuee A , hay X la met phan
tit M a tap hop A . Thong thuang nivel ta hay vigt quan he do
32
dual clang xe A , nhung chi chi la met att lam dung each vie%
trong khi xla met tap hop cling nhtt A .
4. Tien de tuyan I pa hay nai ham
(VA ) (3B)(Vx)ixE A A P(x)) x
E B]
True gide, dieu dd cd nghla chomet eeng that P(x) trait met
tap hop bin x, ton tai met tap hop B, ma the phan tit la cat
ph&n tit dm A , ed tinh chat P(x) (nghia la lam choc6ng than
P(x) dung). Tap help B M c dd ducic xac dinh duy nhat bai tion
de quang tinh. Trot&khi phat bleu Hen de tuyen leta duoi clang
da cho, nhieu nha town hoc da nghl rang chi can met cang that
la dode xac dinh met tap hop :
{xI P(x)}

(4.1)
la tap hop the vat lam chothug thile P(x) dung.
Nam 1901 Bertrand Russel khaim pha noel ta cd the suy
ra met mau than t8 (4.1) bang each xet the vat hi:tang thuec
chinh nd. That tray, xet cting thite xxKM dd ehting ta
mu&xet tap hop the tap hop khang thuec chinh nd G ift sit
JO hop dd ten tai. fly ta ed the vial
(3 BRVx)(x E B x&x)
Lay x=B, ta di den thug thite :
BEB4-13 (4B.
ye mat lich sit, chinh nghich li dd da d&n tai O ng thtic hien
nay tha Hen de tuyen M a.
Nghich 11 B. Russel doa trait thing thtic xx, dua cluing
ta toi dinh li eau day
D inh li 1 - Khdng ton tot tap hop ma cdc vOt act n6 14
cdc tap hqp.
Chang mirth.
That fly, gia sit met tap hop A nhu tray ten
tai. Theotien de tuyen Loa, ta c(5 the xac dinh tap hap B ?is; :
B=jseAlx0x)
Theodinh nghia dm A , tap hop B la met phfin tit eim A .
The thi ta c6 B E B nen va chi neu B B, diet' nay man
oni sb.... 03
83
than vi P va 1P khong the thing thoi dung (nguyen tge khA ng
mA u thugn),I
Th vita they I d hieu clang (4.1) khO ng M I &thief chi ra mO t
tap hop. Nhung H hieu d6 lai rat Hen. D e mixt chits. M t den
do, ta dva tho
mOt tit nguyen fluty m6i,
doI A khai niem
C hO ng ta
M e (41) kf hieu lop the tap hop xthee
man tfnh
chat P(x). Vi du :
fx I x = x}
la lop tat cd cat tap hap. Lac do
ta se n6i den 16p cac nh6m,
16p cite khang gian vecto tren mat trubng.
5. Tien de cop
(Va) (Vh) (3 c) (Yx) [xE c 4-4(x
=aVx=b)]
Trite ghic dieu, doconghia chohai tap hop a va bcd met
tap hqp c co
O len tit I A a vb. bI ca chi C hung. Tap hop dola
duy nhgt theoflan de quang tinh.
Dinh nghia 1 - Gi4
sit a va bla hai tap hap. 111 gel
la
cap
(khong xep tint thanh lap beli a va b, tap hop I d hieu
fa, b}xite Binh M I Hen de cap. Ngtati ta gal la
don to thanh
lap M i tap hap a,
tap
hqp
4a, a}={a}chi cd
tap
hop a I A
plain toduy nhgt.
Dinh nghia 2 - 01a sit a va bla hai tap hop. 'Pa gel I A
cap sap dui hi the. a (thing
thtt nhgt) va tha b(dung thd hai),
cap thanh lap bai don to{a}va cap {a, b}. C ap d6 I d hieu :
(a, b) ={fat, ta, b}
6. Tien de hqp
(VA ) (3 B) (Vx)fxE B (3 C ) ((C eA nxe C ))]
nye
gide diet' cO nghia chomet tap hop A
ma the !M en tit
gam
nhung tap hop ki hieu C , c6 mO t tap hop
B ma the phgn
tit I A the tap hop the van met trong the tap hap C ciut 130
(=tap hap) A . Tap hop dcl I A duy Hi&theoHen d@quang filth
ya goi la hop
eim the tap hop cim be A va I d hieu
U C hay U A hay U ,{C I C e
C EA
34
7. Tien de tap hqp hoe be phen
(VA ) (3 B)(VXUX E B X C A )
Trirc M ac ed nghia chomat tap hop A , cci mat tap hop B
ma the phgn tit la the ha phan ciaa A . Tap I mp &I la duy nhgt
theonen de aiding tI nh va goi la
Op hop Sc b0 plz4n can t6p
hop A , ki hiau P
(A)
8. Tien de chqn
(VI )
0),
[(Vi E I , #0 ) 11X1 z0)1]
e
Trate gist digu d6 cci nghia neu (X
i)jel la mat he kitting rOng
(I z 0) nhung tap hap
kitting rang,
the thi tich D escartes cart
he dci is mat tap hop khong reng.
D ieu dotong c6 nghia rang mei ho
khong rang (Xi); e
nhitng tap hop
khong reng
c6 mat ham cher', nghia la mat anh
xa p xac dinh trong I saochovoi
e I , T(i) E
Paul J. C ohen da cluing minh rang flan de chum la clac lap
del yea cac Hen de coo. li thuygt Zermelo- Fraenkel. Truckd6
G adel da chting minh nett I I
thuyet tap hap cart Zermelo-
Fraenkel la khong matt than, n6
se khong mau thugn neu ta
them van den de chon.
'Prong bail giang D ai sg, chting ta hay dung b6 de Zorn va
dinh I I Zermelo(thu tar tat). Tien de ellen Wong dttong ved cac
phat bieu d6.
B6 de Zorn -
Moi t4p hop E khOng rang sap thzi ikt quy
nap co it nhtft mot phan td t6i dot.
Djnh li Zermelo -
Mei
14p hop co the sap tint tot t6t.
9. Tien de ye hen
Djnh nghia 3- VO i M O
tap hop x, ta get la
eel ke tiip
ctla x, tap hqp cothe philn tit la
cac
phgn tit eua xva tap.
35
hap x. Vay dd la hop cua
tap
hop xva don to{x}. Nd &roc
I d hien x+ :
x+
=xU ixi.
Vol ki hiau dd, a cd
1 =0+, 2 =1+ ,3 =2+ ...
vi
0 =0, 1=0 }, 2={0, {0 }]...

Theoeach M y dung
moi s6 tonhien dau c6 the' vial
Wong minh. Van de dal ra I A cd ton tai mat tap hap chda tat
ca cac s6 toM ien do? Tien de vd han se tra ]di eau M I dd.
Tien de u6 hen
la nhu sau :
(3 A ) [ 0 E A A (Vx) (xE
A ix` e
Troc giac dieu dd c6 nghia din tai mot tap hop chda 0 va
chda cal lid tiep cita m61 phan tit cua no.
Ta cd thd doding chting minh dinh sau day :
D inh li 2 - C o
met tap Op be nhat, ki hieu N, cd the tinh
chat sau
(1) 0 E N,
(ii) Voi moi x e N, x+ E N.
Tap hop N goi la
tap hop the s6 to nhien.
10. Tien de thay the
[(Vx) BY) (Vy) ((xE A ) A S ix, y) e
y G Y)]
1(3 B)(Vydy E B :=:. (3 x)(x e A A S (x, y))i
Noi mat each khan, gia ad S (x, y) la mat phat bidu pho
thuac hai bign xva y vi A la mat tap hop. Ta gia su voi moi
xE A , lap {y S (x, 3/)}la mat tap hop. Tha thi ten tai mat
tap hop dada dung M c phan toy saochoS (x, y) la dung vii
'
it nhat mat x e A .
Tien de nay dirge stir dung khi todim van khai niam quy
nap sieu han va se tht?
36
CI-W ONG 11
NC I A NHO M VA NHO M
1. NI JA NHO M
1. Phap twin hal ngO i
Lam D ai sd, chu ygu la tinh W EIL
ma vi du dign M S la ban
phep town dim S 6 hoc s cap. Tilde that ma S i lam mat phep
toan dai s6 tren hai phan td a, b cua M ing mat tap hop X I A
choWang dug S i cap (a, b) mat phdn tit the dinh eta tap
hop X.
Ndi mat each khac, chomat phep toan 41 sd la cho
mat anh xa to X x X dgn X.
D inh nghia 1. Ta goi la pile], tam hai ngOi (hay con gal
S t I A phep S an) trong mat tap hop X mat anh xa f to X x X
dS X. G ig tri f (x, y) eta f tai (x, y) goi la edi hap thttnh cita
x Ott y.
C al hop thanh cua x va y thutmg ddoc ki hiau bang each
vigt x va y theomat thd tut nhat dinh S i mat dau 4c trong
chc phep toan dat gifta x, y. Trong the dflu ma ngdgi ta hay
dung tot nhigu nhgt, la cac dau + va . ; dal vai dgu . ngurdi
ta thliong quy tallc be di ; vgi cac dgu do, cal hop thanh eta
x va y duos vial x + y, x. . y hay xy. M at S S toot hai ng6i
ki hiau bA ng dau + goi la phep tong, cal
hap
thanh x + y lac
dd goi I A tong oda x va. y ; mat M I S toan hai ng6i ki hiau
bhng dau . goi la phep nhan,cai hop thanh x y hay xy lac dd
goi la tech eta x va y. Ngubi
ta can dung cac ki hiau xoy,
x * y, x T y, x1 y... dg chi cai hop thanh cua x va y.
37
V i du : 1) Thong tap
hap
N the s6 4t nhign, phep
ph4p nhan la nhUng phep toan hai ngtoi ; cal hop thanh eta
x
va y E N bai the phdp toan dd ki hieu theotint tobang
'x + y, xy.
Phep hop thanh xY, la mot phep than 2 ng61 trong
tap W=N
{0}.
2)
Phep trit khong phai la mot phep S an hai ng8i trong N,
nhung la ma phep twin hai ngti trong tap hop Zthe sd nguyen.
3)
Tich anh xa la mO t phep toan hai ngti trong tap hap the
anh xa tit ma tap hop
X don chinh no.
4) Tich ngoai the vecta a A
ft
cua liinh hoc giai tf ch la mot
phep toan hai ned trong tap hop can vista S ding met didm
g6C
0 dm khong gian 3 S ian thong thubng.
5)
'rich ma trail la ma pile') toan hai ngti trong tap hap
the ma tran sting cap n.
S au day, trong the I f luan tang 'pat, ta se via cai hop thanh
tha x va
y la xy n8u khong cd li donaokhign ta phai via khan.
D inh nghia 2. M O t 130 phan
A chit X goi la do dinh (d6i
vbi phep toan hai ngoi trong
X) nat va chi S u xy E A S i
moi x, y E A.
Phep toan hai ngai * the dinh trong 130 pan dodinh A bai
quan 110 x * y =xy voi moi x, y E A got la eat thu hap van
A tha phep than hai ng6i trong X Ngubi ta can S i rang * la
phep Loan cam sink
troll A 1361 phep than . cua
X. Ngabi ta
thuang ki hiau phep toan earn sinh nhu phep than dot
X.
Dinh
nghia 3. M O t phdp toan hai ng6i trong mat tap hop
X goi la kit hop ndu
va chi n8u ta cd
(x y) z= x (y z)
vai moi x, y, ze x ; la giao hoar Mu $chi S u toS
xy =yx
x, y E X.
Phep O ng va phdp nhan trong tap hop the
s8 tonhien N
la kat hop, giaohoan ; nhdng A O mu hda I chtong kat hop :
38
(252 #2(12) , cling kh6ng giaohoiin : 2 1 #12 . Tich anh xa trong.
vi du 3) la ket hop, kheng giaohoiin (nett
X cep nhieu hon mat
phgn tit).
D inh nghia 4. G ia sit de, chomat phep than hai ngO i trong
mat tap hdp
X. MCA phan to e caa X goi la mat don t4 trai
eau phep toan hai ng6i neu va chi nen
ex = x
voi rayi x e X
Thong tu, mat phan tit e dm X goi lit mat don
ui phdi cua
phep toan hai net nett va chi nett
xe = x
vdi nagi x E X.
Trong trudng hop mat phg.n tit
e cita X vita la
mat don vi trai vita la mat dan vi phdi, thi e goi la mat
don 0,
hoar mat phtin to trung lOp
dm pilot) toan hai ngdi.
Trong vi du 1) s6 0 la phan totrung lap cua phdp O ng, so`
1 la phan totrung lap ciut phep nhA n va I A don vi phA i cua
pile)) mu hda. Trong vi du 3), anh xa thing nhat lit phan tit
trung lap. Tich ngoiti edc vectotrong vi du 4) khong cd don vi
tram ciing khong cd dan vi
D inh li 1.
Niu mot phep town hai ngdi trong mat tap hop
X co met don vi trai e' ties mat don 0 phdi e", thi e' = e".
Cluing mink. Xet tich e'e" trong X. V I e' lit don vi trai nen
e'e" = e". M M khac, vi e" la don vi O Wnen
e'e" = e'. Ta
suy ra e' = e".
M at ha quA tdc khA c la
114qua.
Mot phep town hat- ngoi co nhiM nhdt mot plain
to trung lap.
2. NI .I n nh6m
D inh nghia 5. Ta goi lit nua
Whom mat tap hap X eimg val
mat phep toan hai ng6i ket lid!) da chotrong
X. M at nint nhdm
cd phA n tit
' trung lap goi la mat
vi nhdm. M at nua nhdm la
giao hodn
nett phep toan caa nd la giao
C ac vi du 1) (trit phep mil M a), 3, 5) trong 1 la nhA ng vi
du ve nita nhdm, va hon nits vi nhdm. M y) be phan
do dinh
39
A ciut mot nita nhdm
X
eting voi phep than cam sinh trot' A
la mot nita nhdm g9i la
nita nhOrn con
cos rola nhdm
X
Trong mot nit. nhdm
X,
not:* ta ki hi6u gia tri chung eiut
hai v6 cda tang tilde
(xy)z =x(yz)
bang ki hiO u duy nhat
xyz,
g9i la ticketa ba phan tit x, y,
z lay
thee dui todd. C ling nhu vay, ta clat
xyzt =(xyz)t
va goi la dell eta bon phan td
x, y, z, t lay
thee thu todd. M O t
each tang quirt

x =(x1 xn _ 1)x
va g9i lit tich eta n phan t* x
i ,, xi,.
Tinh chat chinh eta eac phep Wan hai ngei k6t hop la dinh
li sau day :
D inh I i 2 ((huh I I k6t hqp). G ta
sa xi , x2, xn lit rt (n a 3)
phan td (phan biet hay khong) mia mat nue: nhdm X, the thi
xix2 xn = (x ... xj)(x xi
)
Cluing mink. Vi X la
mQt nua nhdm nen mO nh de la thing
ved n =3. Ta gia sit
manh de la thing cho k nhan td, WO mai
3 e k <n. 1h
ad, theodinh nghia tick eta nhieu phan tit va
theogia thier quy nap
(x1 xi)(xi x)) (xm
=[(x
1 ... xi) (xe+1 x,)] (xm
=
=(x1 ... x,)(xm
x,,)
=(x1 ... xiii )[(x, x _ 1 ) =
[(xi xm)(xiii _ 1 )1; =(x1 .. x _ i )x = x
1
x2
D inh nghia 6. Trong rant naa nhdm
X, lay thha n (rt la
mot tonhien khac 0) caa mot phan toa E
X la tieh cat) n phan
tit bang a, ki hidu a". Ta co"the quy tae (dodinh li 2)

a" =+", (an)"= arm

40
Trong trvong hep phep town hai ngdi dm
X ki hiA u bang
clau O ng +, thi tdng cem n phan td deobang a gal la bei n
caa a, I d hieu na. Quy the tren luc dd vidt
ma + na =(rn + n)a, n(ma) = mna .
Trong tadt rida nhdm giaohoan, doh cua ba phan tit khong
plat thuds vaothu ttt the nhan tit, ea the'
xix3x3 =xix3x2 =x2x1x3 =x2x3xi = x3xiiz =x3x2xi .
Thug quat hdn ta ed dinh li
D inh li 3.
Trong mdt nem nhom giao hoan X, tich
xix2
khOng pha thuoc oho tha trt to
nhan tn.
Cluing mink. Vi X
la giaohoan nen menh de la dung vdi
n =2. Ta gia sit menh de la dung cho
k nhan tit, vdi mod
k <n. Ta hay chdng minh

xix2 xn =xi
I 2
trong dd (i 1 , i2, ..., la met hot vi ena {1, 2, . . . , n}. Neu
Xn / it

x = ta ed the' vigt hai mitt clang Ulric trA n nhu sau theo
D inh li 2 va tinh giaohoan dm
X :
X Xi Xi Xi
I t - 1 k+
=
(X1
... xi k_ ) (Xi k(Xi
12.1
... xi ))
= (xi, ... xi , _ I k+1 n

) ((xi ... xi tx)

= ((xi ... x,
k-1
) (Xi k2
2
I ... Xi DX

... X )X
theoD inh li 2
st zk-]'t+1
,,, n
=(x1 x2 ... xn _ i )xn theogia thidt quy nap
hay
= x1x2 xr,. n
41
V i du. 1) Tap hop CEIC
s6 tonhien N vai mat trong the phep
town hai nged sau day
phep Ong,
phan
phep lay 1.1C LN (uric chung lan nhat),
phep lay BC NN (bai chung nhO nhat),
la mat luta nhdm giaoham. D 61 vdi phep O ng, N con la mat
vi nhdm goi I A vi nhdm O ng the s6 tonhien. (D ieu d6 th dung
yeti aftc phep than con lai kitting ?)
2) T(tp hop P(X) the ba phan dm mat tap hop X la mat vi
nhdm giaohotim ddi vai m61 phep town hal ng6i giaova hop.
Bia TA P
1. G ia sat a va b
la hai phiin t8 cfia mat mita nhdm X sao
cho ab =ba. C hdng minh (sib)"= ebn vai I TO s6 tonhien
n >1. Ngu a va b
lit hai phan tii saocho (ab)2 = a2b2 thi ta
cd suy ra chive ab = ba khang ?
2. G gi X
la tap hop throng cita Ztrait quan ha (tang du
mod n (ch I , 2, 2, vi do),
a) Val mai cap
(C(a), C(b)) ta ohothong ling lap Wong during
C (a + b). C luing minh nhu thy ta c6 mat tinh xa ta X x
X
(I an X.
b) C hling minh X
la mat vi nhdm giaoloan d6i vai phep
than hai nged the dinh a a).
c) Nati vol m6i cap (C(a), C(b)) ta chothong ling lap Crab),
C hdng minh lfic do X cling la mat vi nhdm giaoloan.
3. G ib. set X la mat
tap
hop thy j. Xet tinh xa
X x
(x, y) n - x.
42
C hang minh X
la mat tiara nhdm dal voi phep than hai ngoi
tren. Nita nhO m dd ed giaohoan kheing ? cO phan tit don 1.1. khO ng ?
4. G 91 X la tap hop thtiong cita ZxN
. trail quan ha tudng
(Wong S xac Binh bbi
(a, b) S (c, d) khi va chi khi ad = be (ch I , 2, bai tap 2). Ta
I d hiau cat phan tit C(a, b) dm X bang alb, (a, b) EZx
a) Vol mai cap (a/b, cld) ta chothong ang lop Wong during
ad +kik!.
C hang minh nha vay ta co' mat anh xa tit X x X
den X.
b) C hang minh X
lit mat vi nhdm giaohoan dal vai phep
than hai ngO i ba).
c) Neu vbi mai cap (a/b, cld)
ta choWong dug lop tuong
during aclbd. C hang minh lac &I X cling la mat vi nhdm giao
holm.
5. Xet tich de the Nn (a 3 1) yeti N la vi nhO m tang giao
hoan cat s6 tonhien.
a) C hang minh cling voi phep than
(a1, ..., an) (b1 , Eon) = (a1 + bt ,..., +
la mat vi
nhdm giaohoan.
b) Trong Nn
ta da xac dinh mat quan he that tit (ch I ,
2, hal tap 10). C hang minh n6u a, p e saocho a <i(3
thia+y<p-tyvoimoiyeNn.
2. NI 1D M
1. Nh6m
D inh nghia 1. Ta goi la nhom mat nits nhdm X cO the tinh
chat sau : le. cd phtin totrung
lap
e ; 2. voi moi x E X, cd
mot x' e X saocho x'x = xx' = e (phan tit x' goi la mat phan
tit tied rung hay nghich daocim x). Nhu vay, mat nhdm la mat
vi nhdm ma mai phan todeli cd nghich dap.
43
Ngu tap hop X
I A hau han thi ta ban ta ed melt
nhom ham
hum va
s6 phan tit cilia X gpi I A clip caa nhcim. Nau A M ) toan
hai tied trong X
I A giaohoan thi ta baota th mat
ahem giao
hoan hay nhom aben.
V i du.
1) Tap hop the so"nguyen ZM ing vat phep tong thO ng
thttong la mat nhdm giaohoan ma ta goi la nhdm O ng cac s6
nguyen. C ung vay, ta ed nhdm O ng the so
. hau ti, nhdm cang
the s6 thuc, nhdm tong the s6 phde.
2)
Tap hop the s6 hau ti khac 0 M ing vdi phdp nhan thong
thuong la mat nhom giaohoan ma ta g9i I A nhdm nhan S c s6
hau ti khac O . C ung vay, ta ed nhdm nhan the sotime khac
0, nhdm nhan the s6 phcie khac 0.
3) Tap hop S
cac phep thg cim I , 2, ..., n}M ang via deft
the phep thg 1a mat nhcim him han, bile/1g giaohoan voi moi
n >3.
4)
Nita nhdm cO ng the s6
tonhien N khO ng phial I A mat
nhdm (tai sao7).
Ngoai the tinh chat
him met
vi nhom, mat nhdm con ed mat
s6 tinh chat coban sau day.
D inh 11 1.
Mai phan td cua met nhom chi e met plan hi
dai
Chang mink. G ia sir x', x"
I A hai phan tit M ai cuing oda
x. Th ed
Nhan hal ve
al ye hen trai mai x', ta dove
x'(xx") = x'e, vay (x'x)x" = x'e
hay
tile I A
'Prong trdong hop phep toan hai ngO i. cua nhdm I d hieu bang
datt (dau. O ng +), thi phan toc161 xdng duy nhat eda
x ki
higu I A x-I (-x) va con ged la
nghich dcio cua x (d61 eim
TU
dinh nghia cim phan tit nghich dao(phan todal) ta
tuiuglUch
44
(s 1 )1 =
x, ( -( -x) =x). Ngu nhdm la aben va phop town
cua
nhdm ki hieu bang dgu . (M u +) thi phtin toxy-1 =
(x+ (-y) =(-y) + x) ki hieu la xly (x - y) ya goi la thitong
caa x teen y (hieu the x va y).
D inh li 2 G nat gian uerc).
Trong mat nhom, thing thzic
xy -Yxz (yx =zx) keo they clang that y =z.
Nhu vey, ta bau trong met nhdm luet gian be thue hien
dirge yid moi A gri tit
Ch'ing mirth. Nhan ben trai hai ve cda tang xy = xz
yeti x-1 , ta cd
t
(xy) =x 1 (xz)
hay
(x111 x)y =(x l x)z
hay
ey =ez
tilt la
y =z. n
D inh li 3.
Trong mat nhom, plutong trinh ax =b (xa =b)
to nghiem duy aka x = a lb Ix = ba l 1.
Chang mirth. Ta thtly ngay gia tri x t=a-lb la nghiem ena
phvong trinh vi a(a-15) =(aa 1 )1, = eb =b. D d la nghiem duy
nhat, vi ngu c
la met nghiem cita phttong trinh nghia la
ac =ax=b, ta guy ra c =xtheohet glen ado. C hung
minh toting tvchophuong trinh xa = b. n
D inh li 4. Thong mat nhom ta to
(xy) 1 = y lx 1
udi x, y C hai pit hi bat ki caa nhom.
Cluing mink. Ta co
(xy)(y-lx-i) = x(yylx 1 = xx t = e
lx 1 )(xy) =y 1 (x lx)y =y ly = e
c I
(xy) 1 = y lx-1. n
45
D inh li nay m6 rang the khac chotich m re thy y nhan
to
1
(xix2 xn) -1 =x
-
x-1 x-1 M c M et
(ar
)
l
vai ince se tii nhien khac 0 ; nguai ta quy the vigt O en todo
dual dang a', va mat khdc dat a" - =e, nhu thy ta da loan
thanh vie xac dinh a chom9i se nguyen A. 1n van cd (dec gia
hay chting minh diet' do)
al
ai = a?+, (a))/' =
vekmoi A , p E Z. C lni g : ki hien lit dung chophep nhan, trong
triamg hop phep O ng ta vigt A a.
D U6i day ta hay dua ra met s6 dinh nghia thong diking cha
nhdm.
D inh li 5. hide nem nhom X ta met nhom ndu va chi nits
hai &Su kien sau duce than man :
1. X co mat don vi &di e.
2. V ed moi x E X, co mOt x' E X scro.cho .x'x =e.
Cluing mink. Hign nhien hai dieu kith tract la can, ta hay
C hung minh cluing la du. G ia sit cd cac M au kith 1 va 2.
Lay met phein tit thy y xE X. Theo2 cd met ,x' E X sao
cho x'x = e. Van theo20 cd met x" E X saocho x"x' = e.
Ta co
xx' ==x"x'xx' =x"ex' =x",(' =a
M at khac, ta lai ea
xe =x(x'x) =(xx')x =ex =x.
Ket luan e 14don vi caa X va x' la nghich dais tha x. fly
X la met nhdm. n
'Pa thing ditgc met dinh li Wang tit nth ta thay the' don vi
trail bang don vi phai va phan tox' trong dieu kith 2 dang
le 0 ben trai tha x thi vigt 6 ben phai tha x.
46
D inh li 6. MN nOa nhom khcic rdng X la mot nhom niu
ud chi niu cac phuong trinh ax =b vb. ya =b co nghCkm trong
X Si moi a, b E X.
Cluing mink. D inh I i 3 ohota biet dieu M gt la can ta hay
chiing minh nola du. Vi X la khac rang nen cd mat plign
toa E X. G ia sV e la mot nghiem eta pinning trinh ya =a.
'hi hay cluing minh e la don vi trai eta X. G ia sic b I A mat
phgn totoy y eta X. G oi c la mat nghtem eta phuang trinh
ax= b. 'Pa cd
eb =e(ac) =(ea)c =ac =b.
Vey e la mat don vi trai caa X. Bay gib ta hay cluing minh
vol moi b E X, cd b' E X saocho b'b = e. M utin fly ta xet
phuong trinh yb =e. S at ten tai nghigm eta phuong trinh nay
choto b'. Nhu \ray the dieu A lan 1 0 va eta dinh I I 5 dttoc
them man, ta cd X I A mot nhO m. n
2. Nh6m con
G ia su A la mat 60 O len eta mat nhdm X, ta cd thg ea
xy E A voi moi x, y E A , tile la A la mat bbphan an dinh
eta X (1, 1, dinh nghia 2). Nhu fly phep toan hai ng6i trong
X earn sinh mat O len toan hai ngid trong A . Nhu A cling yen
phdp toan cam sinh la mat nhdm, thi ta I t A la mat nhom
con eta nhdm X. C hang han ta cd 140 O len the s6 nguyen Zlit
mat nhdm con eta. nhdm O ng the s6 him ti Q. Ta chn y bio
phan {-1, 1}tuy lap thanh mat nit deg vO i phep nhan, nhung
khang phai la mat nhdm con eta nhcim cO ng cat s6 nguyen Z.
D inh nghia 2. M at he O len an dinh A eta mat nhdm X la
mat nhom con eta X neu A ding vai phdp toan earn sinh I A
mat nhdm.
D inh ii 7. Mat 60 phOn A dm mot nixes X la mOt nhom
con czict X niu tta chi niu cac diku /den sau day than man :
1) V at moi x, y E A, xy E A.
2) e E A , Si e lit phan to trong ldp cita X.
3) V ai moi x E A, x
1
E A .
47
Cluing mink. At cd. G ia sit A lit met nhdm con dm X. Theo
dinh nghia nhdm con, ta cd ngay 10. G oi e' m phan totrung
lap oda nhdm A . Ts co
e'a = a yea mai a E A
M at khac ta M ing cd
ea = a
vi e la pilau totrung lap cu. X.
D odd
e'a = ea
hay e' = e
vi luat gian dee thoc hien &toe vdi moi phtin td cim nhdm
X.
Vity ta cd 2. C ue' cang goi x' lit nghich daotrong nhdm A cua
mat pilau td xE A . Vay ta cd
xx = e = 1 1 x.
Thoc hien M at gian doe, ta dime x' = x i . D ieu nay thong
minh 3.
D A . G ia sit A la mat be phan cim X thda man the diet; kien
da cho. VUi 1 , A lit mot nita nhdm, vi phep toan hai ngti da
ciaotrong X la ket hop. 2 va 3 not len nda nhdm A cophtin
totrung lap va moi pilau tit dm A co nghich ditotrong A . Vay
A la met nhdm, do(I d A la met nhdm con cda X. n
H9 qua.
Gid set A la nay 60 plain khac r6ng cart met nhom
X Cac &On kin sau clay la W ang daring :
a) A la mot &W m con &La X.
b) V di moi x, y E A , xy e A Mt E A .
c) V di moi x, y E A , xy t E A .
Cluing mink. Theodinh li 7 ta cd ngay a) keotheob). Hien
nhien b) keotheoc). Ta chdng minh c) keotheoa). VI A x
0
nen cci mat x E A . Theoc) ta cde=xx l eA. Vay diet' M en
2
cda dinh li 7 them. man. G M sd x E A . Van theoc) ta co
98
x-I = ex I E A. Ta duge dieu kien 3 can dinh li 7. D uel ding,
gia sa x, y E A. Vi y-I E A , nen c) chox(y-I ) -1 =xy E A .
Nhu fly dieu kien 1 M a dinh Li 7 them man. D odo. A la met
nhdm con eim X. n
V I du. 1) Be phan mZgem the sic nguyen la bei dm met
se nguyen m chotrubc la mat nhdm con etla nhdm O ng the
se nguyen Z. That fly, tip dung diet' kien c) M a he qua trail,
ta ce mZlet nhdm con vi mx - my = m(x - y) E mZ, tUc la
hieu ctla hai phan tothuec mZlai thfle mZ.
2) 'Prong met nhdm X, be phan A gem the luy thita nit eim
met O en tit a E X la met nhdm con ctla X That fly,
as (eta) = al a =a1-8 E A . D ec biet the bO i M a met se
nguyen lit met nhdm con M a nhdm O ng the so` nguyen Z. Nhd
fly, vi du 1) chi la met trubng hop ciac biet cua vi du 2).
3) BO phan {e 1 chi gem c6 phan tit trung lap va 130 O len
X la hai nhdm con dm met nhdm X. Nglibi ta goi chting la
the ?them con tam thabng cart X.
D inh I i 8. Ciao can mat ho btft ki nhung nhdm con can
mat thorn X la mat nham con caa X.
Chang mink. X&mot hg M t ki (A ,), e I nhfing nhdm con
caa X va goi A la giaocua cluing. Trude M t ta ce A s 0, vi
phiin tit trung lap e caa X thubc A veil 1110i a e I, dode
e E A . Bay gibta lay hai phan tobet I d x, y E A . Vi x, y E A ,
nen x, y E A ct voi M O I a E I. Vi the 21a la nhung nhdm con
nen xy 1 E A veri 1110i a E 1, dode xy 1 e A . He qua caa
dinh I i 7 chota Net A la nhdm con caa X. n
G ift sit U la met be phan M a met nhdm X. The thi U chtla
trong it nhat met nhdm con cat*. X, cu the X. Theodinh I i 8,
giaoA cos. tat ea the nhdm con M ut X chtla U la met nhdm
con cart X dada U. D ola nhdm con be nhat cita X chtla U
(quan he thd tola quan he baoham).
D inh nghia 3. G ia. sit U la met be phan caa mot nhdm X.
Nhom con A be nhat elm X chile. U goi la nhOnt con sinh ra
bei U. 'Prong traimg hop A = IC, ta ndi rang U la met he sinh
tha X vA X aye sinh ra bed U.
Neu U ={a ), a a X, thi de ding they rang ahem con A
sinh ra bid U cd the phin tit la the luy thaa all, A e Z. That
ny, then v1 do2) be phan gem eac lay thita cel la ma nhdm
con coil X. Han naa, d6 lit nhdm can be nhtit tha X chtta {a}
vi m9i nhdm con can X ehda {a thi deochda the lily thiia
tha a Ngubi ta goi A lit nhdm con sinh ra bit a.
D inh nghia 4. M O t tilt X goi la xyclie neu v.&chi S u X
dam Binh ra b&i mO t phi]) tit a E X. Phan tit a goi la mO t
phan to sinh tha X.
Nhu tray ma nhdm IL la xyclie nett vb. chi S u the phin tit
cA a n6 la cac lay thiia a1 , A a Z, caa met phtin tit a a X.
V i dy 1) X&nhdm the phep the 83 ma the phin tit la
e =
fy
=
1 2
(1 2
1 2
(3 2
3
3)
1)
'
s.
1 1
13
3
=
(2
1 2
3
(1 3
3
1.)'
2
4.
)

=
1
(3
2
1
3
2)
e
"3 =
(1.
2
2
1
3
3)
lbhay nghien cdu the phan tit can nhdm con shah ra
bbi
ft, c6
ft =fZ,fl
=
e
Ta hay chang minh rang can lily tiara fit khi A chay khap Z
chi chota ba phin tit phan bit la e,
fl, f
2. Thht tray ta hay
ley ma thy thita thy y . C hia A cho3 ta throe
A =3q+ r, 0 4 r<3
r la du cia phap chia A cho3. Ta 'cat
[At ==

fr, = (fbq irc

Nhung f = e , nen
fi =O c bg fri =eg et =
50
Vi r lay met trong ba gia tri 0, 1, 2, nen fl la mot trong
ba phan to f = e, fl = , ff = 12 . Nhu fly nhdm con A 3
sinh ra bat /3 gam ba 'align tu, d6 la e,
f
va f2 . Nghien mitt
fp ta cd
fi
== e.
Bang I f Wan twang tu, ta cuing c6 nhdm con sinh ra bdi 12
gamha phan tit e, fl, fr Vay nhdm con sinh ra bdi 12 truing
vai nhdm con sinh ra bat /3.
C on fp 14, 15 la nhang chuygn tri nen ta c6 ngay
T23 . T24 . e.
C ling I f Wen nhu tren ta talc e, 13 1 la nhdm con sinh
ra bai /3 , {e, /4}la nhdm con sink ra hat 14, {e, 15} la nhdm
con sinh ra bai /5 .
C u6i sung, vi = e vdi M O A e Znen nhdm con sinh ra
beg e la nhdm con tam uniting {e}.
Nhdm S 3 khang doe sinh ra bat met phan tonaocast n6
ca, trey 83 khang plied la xyclic. C on cat nhdm con kg tren cita
53 dell la xyclic.
2) Nhdm O ng cat s6 nguyen Zla xyclic vi cat phan tit obi
nola ate bet dm 1, fly 1 la met phgn tit sinh aim Z. Ta cuing
cc' thg cot ate phgn tit aim Zla the bet aim -1 chonen -1
M ing la mat phgn t&sinh cda Z
Ngoai 1 vb. -1 ra, Zkhang can phgn tit sinh naokhac. Z
la met nhdm xyclic ve ham, can cat nhdm xyclic bong vi du
1) la hau han.
G ia sit X let met nhdm, e la phgn tit truing lap aim X va a
la met Win tit aim X. Neu kitting c6 met s6 nguyen during n
naosaocho a" =e thi nhdm con sinh ra bat a la v6 han, vi
a2 xd' vai A m p. 'Prong trtiang hap trail lai, goi m la se nguyen
during be nhat saochoam = e, thg thi nhdm con sinh ra bat
a :com phgn tit : = e, al = a, a2 , , (clang minh
trong tu nhu trong vi cht 1)).
51
D inh nghia 5. G ia sit a I A met phan tit bat ki cim met
them X va A
la nhem con sinh ra bai a. Phan ta a g9i la
co
cdp ut5 hqn ndu
A va han trong trueng . hop nay khang 06 met
s6 nguyen duang n naosaocho an = e. Phan tit a goi I A cd
cdp in
nett A cci cap m ; trong truang hop thy in /a se nguyen
duang be nhat saocho= e.
M at phan tiictEX
cocap 1 khi va chi khi a =
e.
3. Nh6m con chugn tic va nhOm thuang
G ia sit A la met nhcim con aim met M t
X, ta hay dinh
nghia quan he trong tap hop X nI nt sau : mei x, y E
A , x y ngu va chi ngu fl y E A .
B6 de 1. Quan trong X /2/ mat quan he W ang duang.
Chang minh. la phan xa vi fi x= e e A . - la dal sting
vi the x
I y
E A thi y l x=(fl y) 1 E A. C udi env- la bac
cau vi neuz i y va y l zE A thi x I z= (fl y)(y-l z) E A.
Vol mai phan to x E X, ta I d hieu lip thong duang chla
x
I A Fe va I d hieu be then cim X gam cac 'M an tit coclang xa
vii a chay khdp A la xA, the la x4= xa I a E A I .
B6 d6 2. 1 =xA .
Chang mink. Truac
hat ta hay chdng minh x C xA. G M , sit
y e x. fly x y, tdc la z 1
y la met phan tit a naode dm
A , dod6 y = xa E
xA . Bay gibta chtI ng rainh baoham
ngttac
lai : xA C x.
M ugn vay ta lay met phan toy thy g tha xA .
y cti dang xa
vie a la met phfin td naod6 ciut A . Tit
' y = xa,
tosuy ra E A , fly x y, tdc la y n
D inh nghia 6. C O .c be phan xA gpi la
Mc lop trai cua ahem
con A trong X Thong to, Mc 16p phdi Ax dm A trong X la
cac be phan ma the phan tit codang la ax vie a E A .
C ling nhtt dai vii cac lop trai, ta cothg cluing minh cac lap
phal. cim A
la can liqttudng duang theoquan he thong duang :
x y ngu NA chi age E A .
52
Tit cac b6 de 1 I ra 2 ta suy ra
Hg qua. (lid sit x ua y la hai pan ta tiny y caa nhom X
thl thi :
(i) xA =yA nen utt chi Mu y e A .
(ii) xA fl yA = 0 Mu va chi Mu x y 0 A .
Tap hop thud:1g dm X tren quan ha tilting dtiong goi la
tap hop finking dm nhdm X tren nhom con A, ki higu la XIA.
C aa pilau tocaa XIA la cac lap trai xA.
Bay gibta hay lip dung cac kat qua trail de"nghien ca) quan
hg gills) cap cim mgt nhdm hUu hat va cap oda mat nhdm con
ena nd. Ts. cd
D inh I i 9 (D inh I I Lagranggio). Cap caa mot nhdm X has
hgn la bpi caa cap caa moi nhdm con caa no.
Chang mirth. G ift sit X co cap la n va A , mat nhdm con bat
ki aim nd, cd cap la m. Trade hat ta hay cluing mink M O lop
trai xA, x E X, dau cd s6 plias' tit la m. M ilan vay ta hay icdt
A ={xi , x2 ,..., xm}
va cac phan t6
C ac phiin tonay la phan bigt, vi nth) cd qui =xx2 hang
han, thi xi =x2 . D d la tat ca cite plain tit dm lop trai xA .
Nhu vay xA cd m pilau tit Vi X la hitu him nen s6 cam lop
trai xA la him han, goi 1 la s6 cac lap trai xA. D ocac lap trai
la rbi nhau nen ta cd n = ml.
'Nogg to ta cling cd I la s6 cac !O p pilaf. Ax. n
S 6 I cac lop trai xA (hay C op phiti A x) goi la chi .96 caa
nhdm con A trong X.
VI M O O at) tit x cua mgt nhdm X sinh ra mgt nhdm con
cd cap bang cap cim x, nen
He qua 1. Cap caa mot phan to thy
S
caa mot nhom Mu
hon. X la Mc caa cap clia X.
Vi min plign tit x# e G oa mat nhdm X dela sinh ra mat
nhdm con cd cap I thimg nh6 hon 2, nen :
53
Ha qua 2. Moi nhOm hau han co cap nguyen t6 dau ld
xyclic ad duce sinh ra ben mat phan td bat ki, khac glean hi
trung lap, cda ;thorn.
V i du. Ta hay lay nhdm cac phgp thg S 3 cd cap 6. Vi du
rave 2 ohota bit the plain tit coa nd ed cap hoac la 1, hoac
la 2, hoae la 3, dola nhUng uac etla 6. Bay gibta hay lay mat
nhdm con dm S3 chang han nhdm con A = e, f31 D inh li
Lagranggia chota bigt s6 the lap trai tha A la. 3. Ta hay thanh
lap the lop trai dd. Ta co
eA =fee e, ef3 = f31
f1 A
=
{fi e = 11 13 =
f2A ={
{/fie
=12, 1213 =f5}
f3A =f3 E eA
f4A vi [4e ft A .
f5 A =f2 A , vi 15 E 12A.
Bay gibtohay xet cac C op phai eim A :
Ae = ee d e, f3 e = 131 = Af3
Af t = {eft = ft , 1311 = f5) = Afs
A
ft =(eft =f2, f3f2 =fs}=Afx
C hti y ta cd
fi A m A ft , f2 A m A ft .
Tth ye tthang hop tang quat, gia set X la mat nhdm va A
la mat nhdm con cita nd. Ta dude tap hop thuong X/A ma cac
phan tola the lap trai xA , x E X. 'Pa mut%trang N cho XIA
mat phdp toan dg nd tra thanh mat nhdm. Nhung ta lai mugn
phdp O en de khang phai la thyg ma suy ra tic phdp Wan cim
X, au the ta mu6n chotrung ging via cap (xA, yA ) lap trai xyA,
thg thi thong ling dd cophai la mat anh xa tit X/A x X/A clan
X/A khang ? D e tra lei eau hai do, ta 'cat vi du tram C hang
54
han ta chotuong dug voi cap (ft A , f1 A ) lop 4A. V i =Jr, ,
nen ffel. =f2 A . M at khdc vi f1 A =f4 A , nen cling vitt quy tax
Wong ling ta c6 lop tral eA =124A Wong O ng vet cap
(f4 A , f4 A ) =(ft A , f1 A ). Nhung f2 A m eA,
vay
quy tem Wen
khang chota mot anh xa. M u6n quy S c 416 chota met anh
xa, ta can an Binh chonhdm con A eta X milt then kiO n, ma
ta got la diet' hen chutin tic.
D jnh nghia 7. M at 'them con A rem mot nhdm X gyi la chudn
Mc thu oh. chinaux l axEA voimoictEA vaxEX.
D jnh 0 10.
NeU A la mat nhdm con chudn Mc cact mat
nhdm X, thi :
(i)
Quy Mc cho tuong ring v6i cap (xA, yA) lop trai xyA la
mat anh m tit X/A x X/A din XIA
XIA cling vol phep town hai mg&
(xA, yA) n xyA
la mot nhdm, goi Ia nhdm thuong elm X trOn A.
Cluing mink. (i)
D 4cluing minh quy tac dd la met anh xa
thi ta phai chting minh rang nail xi A = xA va yi A =yA thi
xi yi A =xyA , hay theohe qua oda bit de 2, thu x
1x1
e A I ra
y-1 yi e A thi (xy) 1 (xi yi) =y 1 x 1 xi yi e A . Bat x = a,
ta coa E A theogia thiat. Xet tich y 1
x1
x1 y1 =y-1 ayi . Ta
c6 the vier : y 1 ayi =(fl ay)(y-1 Nhung y-1 ay E A vi A
la chuan the va y
lyi
e A theogia thiat, vay (y-1 ay)(y-lyi )
E A , the la (xy) (xi yi) E A . Ta ki hiO u cal hap thanh eta xA
va yA la xA.yA.
(ii)
D 4thit nghtem tinh chat kat hop eta phep than hat ngO i
trong XIA, ta hay lay ha phan tit toy y x, y, zcua X The thi
(xA.yA)zA =xyzA =xA.(yA.zA).
D oc16 phep toan hai ngai da chola kat hop.
55
,
D othd nghiem su ton tai cua met don vi trai
,
ta hay set
lap eA =A , trong d6 e la phan trung lap. Ta cd
eA.xA = exA =xA
ved .M 9i lap trai xA e
X/A. V ay eA =A la
met dam vi trai.
C ugi ding vie m9i xA E X/A, ta cd
= x I xA = eA.
Theodinh li 5, X/A
M ing veil phop teen hai ngO i cla chotrong
X/A la met nhdm, vii eA
lit O len tit trung lap oh'.
x I A la
nghich den cua xA . n
D inh li sau day chota bit met dinh nghia thong during clia
nh6m con chugn the
D inh li 11.
GM' sit A Itt mat nhom con Giza mat nhom X.
Cdc dieu kien sau dtty
/a W ong duang
a) A la Malin Mc.
b) xA = Ax vai mai x
Cluing minh.
Ta hay chdng minh a) keotheob). G ia su
xa,
a E A,
la met phan til by y cua
xA. Vi A la chugn M c nen
y-I ay E A WO mei y E X. Lay y =x-I , ta cd xax-1 E A . D at
xax I =a' E A , tocd
xa =a'x E Ax. V ay xA C Ax. D A lai
gia su ax, a e A, la met 'M an ta thy y mia Ax. Vi A la deign
the nen x
I
ax E A. Dat x 1 ax =a' E A , ta cd ax = xa' E xA.
V ay Ax C xA. Kgt ban xA =Ax.
Bay gibta clung
minh b) keotheoa). G M sit a va
x la hai
phan tit thy y theothil tu dm A va X. Ta cd ax E Ax. Theo
gia thigt Ax =xA, nen ax e xA, tile la ax = xa' voi a' la met
phan tonaodd dia
A. Ta suy ra x-I ax =a' e A. Theodinh
nghia 7, A la chugn S c.
n
D odinh li tram tit gibngu A la chugn the thi ta khang phan
Net lap trai, lap phai oils. A va goi met lap trai (hay met lap
O M () cilia A la met
lap dm. A .
56
V i dt.t. 1) Trong met nhdm X, the nhdm con tam thtiO ng {e}
va X la chugn the
2) Trong mot nhdm aben rnoi nhdm con la ehugn M e.
3) Trong nhdm the phep the 83 ta hay xet nhdm con A 3 gam
the phth the than (2, vi du 1) Ta cd
eA 3 = A 3 ={e 11 , 12
}
Vi ft , f2 E eA 3 , nen
eA 3 /1.3 =f2 A 3 .
Vi eac lop trai mitt A 3 la the lap tuang duang, nen hang
thanh lap met chia 1th dm 83 , S y ngoai lap trai eA 3 ra
ta chi O n met lap trai gam the phan ta can lai 13, f4, 15 Ta
suy ra
f3 A 3 =f4 A 3 =f
5
.43 =f3,
f5).
C ling bang 11 luan Wang to, ta them
A 3 =A 3 e =A 3 f1 =A 3 f2 ={e , 11 , 12}
A3f3 A 3 14 =A 3 fs
={f3, f4, fgl
D odd, A 3 la ehugn the theodinh I i 11.
4) Xgt nhdm tong the s6 nguyen Zva nhdm con nZcua Z
gam S c songuyen la bed dm met s6 nguyen it da cho. Vi nhdm
O ng the s6 nguyen la then, nen nZla chugn the, va dodd the
lop trai, pliai cua nZbang nhau. C ac lap aim nZduce ki hieu
la x + nZ, x E Z, vi phep toan 0 day la phep cling + Quan
he Wang cluang xac dinh bai nZla : xN y nth va chi nth
x - y E nZ, tut la hieu xy la met boi etia n Quan he nay
chang qua la quan he clang du mod n. fly Z/nZgam it lap,
dd la 0 + nZ, 1 + nZ, (n 1) + nZ(C huang I , 2, 2, Vi
du) T4p hop thuang Z/nZcling Nth phep toan
(x + nZ) + (y + nZ) (x + y) + nZ
goi la nhdm tong the s6 nguyen mod n. Ki hieu x + nZbang
va lay n =4, ta ed bang O ng caa Z/4Znhu saw
57
o
1 1 2 3
2 2 3 0
3 3 0 2
4. thing au
D inh nghia 8. Wt ding edit (nhdm) la mot anh I ca f to
Tr* nhdm X clan mot nhdm Ysaocho
;Tab) =f(a)
vol M O a, 6 E X. Ngu X =
Ythi dting can f got I A mpt tt ang
eau cita X.
M O t clang cau ma la mat don anh thi goi la mot
don cdu,
mot clang eau toan anh got la mot M an cdu, mot (long cdu song
anh goi la mot deeng coy, WA tor (Ring cau song anh goi la mot
to thing eau. Ng u f : X >Y7 la mot ding cgu tonhdm X den
nhdm Ythi ngubi ta vigt f : X =>Y. (Trong throng hap X va
Yla nhung nits nhdm, ta cling dinh nghia (tong eau (mia nhdm)
nhu trail va cling c6 cac khai nipm tuang
V i du. 1) G ia sit A la mat nhdm con cua mot nhdm X. D on
anh chinh tac
A X
a 1n a
la mot (tong eau goi la
don cdu chinh Mc.
2) A nh sociting nhat cua met nhdm X la mot (tong eau goi
la to thing colt (long nhat ono X
3)
Xdt anh sotonhdm nhan cac s6 time during I t
+ Ten
nhdm O ng the s6 thuc R

log : R R

x logy
58
trong dd log x la logarit eoso10 S o. x VI log(xy) =log x+ log y,
nen log la mat clang S u. Bang eau nay eon la mat song anh
nen la mat (tang S u.
4)
G ilt S A la mat nhdm con chuan tac cila mat nhdm
X.
A nh xa
h : X XIA
x h(x) =xA
la mat dang cau tonhdm X den nhdm thuong Th4t fly,
h(xy) =xyA =xA. yA =h(x) h(y).
Eking S u nay can la mat
toan eau, goi la
toes du Minh tat.
5) G al th X vit Yla hai nhdm thy g, anh xa
Y
x e,
Vol e
lit phat tit trung lap caa Y, la mat clang eau goi la
Bong eau tam thetemg.
6) Nall f : X
>Yla mot clang cau tonhdm A lf clan nhdm Y
thi anh xa nguoc : 12.
cfmg la mat Bang eau That fly,
ta cd
mat song anh, ta chi con cluing mink
f I la mat
d6ng cau. G ia th y, y' la hai phan tif thy g eim Y. D at
x= r(y),x' = f-1
ta ed f(x) =y va f(x') = y'. V i f
la
mat clang cau nen
f(xx') = 1(x) f(x) = yy'.
D odo
(1 (yy) xi
= r' (y)r'(y?). fly
r"la
mat dO ng cau. Ta Joao
hai nhdm X
va Yla clang eau vat nhau, va ta vial X = Y, nau
comat clang eau tit nhdm nay ten nhdm kia.
D inh nghia 9. G ia th f :
Yla mat (tong S u tonhdm
X clan nhdm Y, the phtin trung lap ciaa X va Yduoc ki hieu
thee the tola ex va ey . Ta ki hiau
Imf =f(X)
Keel xE f(x) =ey =ji(ey)
va goi Imf
la dnh cua clang cau f, Kerf la hat nhdn aim dO ng
eau f
S au day, ta se dtta ra mat s6 tinh chat eda tong eau.
59
D inh li 12.
Gid szi X, Y, Z la nhung nhOm vez f : X >Y
.vd g : Y
Z Ca nhung clang c6u. The thi anh xe tick
gf : X Z
tong la met dong cau. Dec W et tech cda
hai clang eau Id met
demg colt.
Cluing minh.
G ia oft a, b
la hai phan td thy y caa nhan
X.
'Pa cd, do f va g
la nhung &O ng cal;
gf(ab) =g(f(ab)) =g(f(a) fib))
=g(f(a)) ef(b)) =gf(a)g f(b). n
D inh I i 13.
GM sit f : X YId met ang cdu tit met niter)
X den met niter?) Y. The thi :
f(ex) = ey
(ii) f(x I) =ff(x),FI me mai x E X.
Cluing minh. (i) G ia sit x la ma phan tothy
3
am X.
Ta
cd
f(ex)f(x) = ftexX) =f(x) =ey/c(x)
Vay Be x) f(x) =ey f(x) hay flex) = ey
sau khi that hiO n luat
O M ) vac.
i) Ta cd
f(x -1)/(x) = f(x-lx) =f(ex) = ey =B(x)1 (x).
soy ra
fix
=Kx/1 -1 n
D inh li 14. Gici silt f : X
YId met ang cclu tit met nhent
X din met nhOm Y, A la met nhom con am X
vet B la met
nhOm con chudn Mc cad Y. The thi :
(I) f(A) Id met nhom con elm Y
(ii) r1
(B) let met nhom con chuein Mc ata X.
Chang mink. (i) Tratdc ha f(A) x
4) vi A la ma nhO m con
nO n ex E A, dodd ey = f(ex) e f(A).
Ta hay lay hai phan hi
thy 3 : y, yi
E BA). Vi y, yi E f(A), nen cd x, xt E A saocho
y =
f(x) va yt = Fri ). Xet tich yyji Ta cd yyT1
=
f(x) f(xi rl =
60
= f(x)f(x11) = f(xxi-1). Vi A la nhdm con nen xxTI E A, dodd
yy11 =f(xx11 ) e f(A). Ta suy ra f(A) la nhdm con cim Y.
f1 # 0, vi B la nhdm con nen ey EB, dodo
1(ex) = ey EB, ta suy ra ex e f 1 (B). Bay gip; ta I dy hai phA n
tit thy y.
x, x1 e f
l (B), ta cluing minh xx.T
1 E f
l
(B). M uO 'n
vay ta 'M t f(xxi i
). ah co f(xxi l
) =f(x)f(x1
1
) =f(x)f(xi)-1.
Nhung
f(x), f(x1) E B va f(x)f(x1)-1 E B vi B I A nhdm con. Vey
f(xxT1 ) e B, tdc I A xxi 1 Ef I (B), dodd rl (B) I A nhdm con
M I A X. C u6i cimg ta chiing minh nd I A chudn tac M uen fly
gia sit a e [1 (B) va x EX. Xet
f(x-l ax) = f(x I )
f(a)f(x) =f(x)
-1 f(a)f(x) EB vi f(a) e B va B
la chudn S c. D odci x
1
axE ft (B) v6i moi a e
r1(B) va moi
x EX. Vey f1 (B) chudn S c. n
Tit dinh h. 14ta cd he qua tat khac
H5 qua. Gid szi f : X . Yla mot Ong ceiu tit met nhom
X den mot nhom Y. The thi Imf mot nhom con cart ,Ypa
Kerf la mat nhom con chudn tar ceta X.
D inh li 15. Gid sti f : X .le la mot dung edu tit met Ahem
X deit mot nhom YThe thi :
(i) f lit mot town anh neu yet chi niu Imf =Y.
(ii) f la mot don anti neu utt chi /Mu Kerf = ex}.
Ch'ing mink. (i) S uy ra tit dinh nghla caa town anh.
(ii) G ia su f la mat don anh. Voi mei phan toy E Y co
nhieu nhdt mot phA n tit xsaocho f(x) =y. Vey Kerf ={c}.
D ad lai gia su Kerf =Xet hai phdn tit.x, x1 e X saocho
f(x) =f(x1). 'llt suy ra f(x) f(x1)
1
= ey. Nhung
f(x) f(x) 1 =f(x) fix 1) I =f(xx 1-1). fly f( ) = ey,
61
E Kerf =e
x
). D ochi -t = e hay x = x
r
NM ( tray f la
don anh. n
D jnh I i 16. Gid set f : X -sit mot d6ng cdu tit met nh6m
X din mgt nham Y, p,: X X/Kerf la todn cdu chinh the (VI
du 4) to nhOnt X din nhom thuong am X trip hat nhdn cda
f. Thi thi :
(i) Co mot d6ng cdu duy nloit XIKerf Ysao cho tam
gide saw
PN
jf
XIKerf
Zh giao hodn, tete Ih f =ip
(ii) Bong cdu 7 ld mgt don cdu oh Itnf =f(X).
Cluing mirth. (i) W it Kerf = A ve. choWong Ong vol mei
O len tit xA cua XIA phan to f(x) dm Y. Quy tee choWong ling
nhu tray la mat anh xa. That fly, gia =thg thi ta
cd x1x1 e A (he qua mitt lid de 2). Nhung A la hat nhan caa
f, nen
fix txt7 = fix ')f'1) =ftx) -I f(x1) =e
y ,We la
fix) = f(x1). Ta dat
: X/A Y
xA 1 7(xA) =f(x).
Ta cluing minh f la mat dung eau. Ta c6, vdl xA va yA la
hai phgn totily g cua X/A,
MAYA) =T(xyA) =f(xy).
Nhung f la mat deng eau nen f(xy) =f(x) f(y), dodo
f(xA.yA) =f(x) f(y) =fixA)7(yA)
then dinh nghia cua T. Vay T la mat clang C all Tit Bang thtic
T(xA) =f(x) vat mot x E X, ta cd the vigt
fix)
=
f(xA) =T(P(x)) =TP(x)
62
veil mgi x E X. fly f = fp. C uai cang gia sit S mat clang cau
: Ysaocho f = fly, vol moi xA e XIA, ta co.
lo(xA ) == 49/3(x)
=
f(x) =
dodop = T
(ii) xA e X<saochof(xA ) =Theodinh nghia cita
T , f(xA) =f(x), v0.37 f(x) = ey. D ocki x e A = eA, We la
xA =eA. Ta suy ra Kerr ={ eA ), vay f la mat don cau (dinh
li 15). Vi p la toan cau va vi f = fp nen ta suy ra Imf =Imf
=f(X). n
He quit. 176i mgi d6ng cdu f X Yto mOt nhOm X din
mOt nhdm Y, ta co
f(X) =
X/Kerf.
V i du. 1) G ia sit A la mat nhO m con chuiin tae cim X h la
toot S u ch{nh tac WX den XIA. Ta c6 Ker h = A . That vay,
ta c6 h(x) =xA =eA M u va chi M u x E A (I* qua aim lad
de 2). Trong troong hop A ={e}thi toan cau h eon la don
anh, dodo h la mat dang cau, vay X =Xlt el (dieu nay ta cd
the hang mink true Trong twang hop A =X thi nhdm
thin:mg X/X la lilt chi c6 mat phan ta, dola lop eX, vi ta
cd xX = eX ved mai x E X. Than S u ch{nh the h hit del la tam
thubng vi Nen"m9i phan totha X thanh phan tit trung lap.
2) G ia sit f la mat anh xa tonit O ng Zthe s6 nguyen
den nhdm nhan C the s6 phde khae 0 xaa dinh nhtt sau

f : Z C*
Vat
kp) cos 2hTh + isin
n IL
trong don la mat s6 nguyen dung chofru&Rd rang f la mat
don can vi
f(k + h) = cos
2(k +h)n
+ isin
2(k
+h)7E
2kar 2kn 2ha 2ha
( cos
.
n n (cos n + isin n ) f(k)f(h).
63
M at I chat vi
2ka 2ks n
( cos+ isin-1 = cos2kn + isin2ka = 1
it
n
nen M c plias tit' cua f(Z)
la the can bae n caa don vi. '1h suy
ra tap hop the can be it call don vi cling vai phep nhan M c se
phtic la mot nhdm. Bay gii) ta 'tat tai Kerf. D e la b0 phan
cua
Zgem the se nguyen k saocho
21=
cos + isin = 1.
fly k
la bai ells n, dode Kerf =nZ. Theohe qua eaa dinh
I i 16 ta co
f(Z)=" Z/nZ,
Bic la nhdm nhan the can bac n caa don vi clang tau veri nhdm
O ng cac se nguyen mod
rt.
5. D 61 )(O ng M a
'Pa da Wet rang trong mot nhara, clang auk
ab = ac (hay
ba = ca) I teotheodang this b = c.
D ieu nay dosoten tai
cua clei :cling a 1
cur' a. Nhung neu ta 'cat mat nact nhdm, thi
ab = ac
chua chile da ken theo b = c ;
chang hsn trong naa
nthm nhan the sti to nhien N ta ed clang tilde 0.2 =0.3, nhong
2 #3. Td day ta th khai niem :
D inh nghia 10. C homat tap hop
X cling vet melt phep than
hai nee trong X. M at pilau ta a E X goi la chinh guy ben trai
(ben phdi) nth vai mai b, c e X saocho ab =ac (ba =ca) thi
b =c, a goi la chink quy
neu nola chinh quy ben trai va ben
phA i.
Nhu fly, trong mat vi nhem, mai phen toth clei xiitng
deli
la chinh quy, nhong nguoe I si khong thing (icet vi nhdm nhan
N thc sotvnhien). D ieu kien chinh quy chi la die.' kian can
de th dei xing.
64
Bay gid ta hay scet van de sau day : "nhung"met vi nhdm
giaohoan X vaomet vi nhdm X "O ng' hart saochompi pilau
td chinh quy et X e6 del siting trong X.
Bs de 3. GM sti X la mOt 'Ma nhom giao hoan co phan to
trung lap e ua X* la bO phan cua X Om the glean to chink
quy cua X. Thd thi
e e X* .
r to on Binh.
Cluing mink. (i) Vi ex =x voi ring x E X, nen tii ea =eb
ta coa = b.
(ii) G ia sit a, b E X* . Tit abx =aby ta suy ra bx =by vi
a I A chinh quy. ?dining b thing chinh quy nen bx =by keotheo
x = y. fly ab la chinh quy, We la ab C X.
D inh li 17. GM sit X lts mOt thorn giao hoCut, 1C a b0
phan cua X Om thc phdti to chinh quy cua X. CO mOt ui nh6m
giao hocin X va mOt don cdu f tic X din X co the tinh eh&
sau :
1. Cite phan to dm fir) co dot sting trong X.
2.
Cite plidn M min X co clang [(a) f(b) I uoi
a e X, b e
Cluing mink. 'Pa hay xet quan he S sau day trong tap hop
X x:
(a, b) S(a', b') neu va chi ngu ab' = at.
Quan he S la mot quan he tuang dyeing : that fly, re
rang nola phial xa va del sting ; nola bac eau vi neu ta co
ab' = a'b va a'b" = a"bc ta suy ra
ab'b" = (ebb" = a"bb'
nhung b' la chinh pay, nen ab" = a"b. G ia ad Tr la tap hop
thuang aim X x X* Wen quan he Wang &fang S. C dc piths to
cua X la the lap Wang during C(a, b) ma ta ki hieu la (a, b).
Ta dat f(a) =(a, e) thi mai a E X, e la phan tit trung lap
cua X.
Ta hay trang bi choX met phep Wan dd X le .met vi
nhom giaohoan va ta se they rang cap (Tx, f) them man bai
toan dat ra.
N W.. - os
G ia sit x=(a, b) vb. y = (c, d) la hat phan tit tha X. Phan
ta (ac, bd) chi O wthuae vao x va y ; that thy gia sa
x=(a', bp, vay ab'=a'b hay nhan hal-ve' vBi ed, ab'ed (=abed,
ta suy ra (ac, 6d) =(a'c, b'd). Th. thdy ngay rang X cling vat
phep town (x, y) ,-)xy =(ac, bd) la mat vi nhorn giaohoan vat
int tit don vi la (e, e). Ta chit 3 la ta ed (e, e) =(a , a) vitt
mot a E X. Ngoai ra ta e6 ngay f la mat don eau va, vitt moi
a E xang tha f(a) = (a, e) trong X la a). D ual cling
mot phan tit x= (a, b) E X cothe \gat
x= (a , b) =(a, e)(e , b) =(a, e)(6 , e) 1 =f(a)f(b)
1
. n
C ap f) caa dinh li 17 la duy nhgt (sal kern mat clang
eau) nghia la nen th mat cap (Y, g) khan tilt man bat toan
thi c6 mat rang eau co : X Yva g = That vay, ling vdi
mai plain ttr x =f(a) f(b) 1 , ta xdt phan to g(a),g(b)-1. Phan tit
g(a)g(b) 1 chi O wthuae vaophan ta x, vi n6u ca
f(a) f(b)-1 =nap f(b')-1 W e la f(a) f(b') =f(a) f(6) hay
f(ab') =f(a'6) (f la citing eau), ta suy ra ab' = a'b (f la don
anh), do do g(ab') =g(a'b), hay g(a)g(b) =g(a') g(b) (g la doing
thu), the la g(a)g(b) 1 =g(a')g(!)') 1 ; vay ta c6 anh xa. to
f(a) f(6) 1 1-+ g(a)g(b) 1
ti X dgn Y. Dg dang chting minh rang dola mat dA ng eau va
g = sof
'Prong dinh I t 17, vi f la mat don eau nen ta hay (tang nhat
a va f(a) vdi mot a E X. D odothe phan S cua X vidt cladi
Bang ab 1 yen a E X, b E
HO quit. Neu tdt cd Grit phan to dm X au la chinh quy
thi Mt cd cac phan to ena X deli to (Mt xling, do do X La mot
nheint.
-O ng dung. 1) S6 nguyen. Ta hay lay X la vi nhdm the ea
to nhien N, phdp toan la O len tang fining: tinging : moi phan
ti N la chinh quy nen X la mat nhcim. Ta ki lieu. X bang
66
Z; the phan tit tha Zgoi la the s6 nguyen ; phgp toan trong
Zxay dung nhu trong dinh li 17 gig la phep O ng the s6 nguygn
va thing ki higu bang dau + nhu phep O ng the sd tonhien.
M ai phA n tit tha Zvigt dudi clang in - n vO i m, n E N. M u
m 71 ta th m - n =p, p sotit nhien saothorn =n + p.
N6u m <n, toth in - n =-p, p lit s6 tonhien saooho
m + p = n. Vay cac phan tit tha Zla... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...
2) 86 hau ti &tong. Lay 81 tap hop ode s6 ter nhign klitte
0 lam X, phep toan I an nay la phep nhA n thong thtibng cac s6
Wnhign ; m9i O ran tit tha N* la ehinh quy nen X la mat
thorn. 'Prong truong hap nay X ki hiau la Q* va car phan td
cue n6 goi la the s6 M u ti duong ; phep toan trong tte xay
dung nhu trong dinh I f 17 g9i la phep nhan the s6 him ti duong
va ki lieu bang x.y hay xy eat hop thetth cua hai ad him ti
during xva y. M ai phan ti/ tha Q+ vigt dudi clang po-1 vbi
p , q E Ns, ta con quy tree vigt &tan ta pq-I cua Q+ la p/q

pl P2 P1P2
hay - ; tich curt va nhu fly la s6 to nhign m
q1
q2 q1q2
dude (tong that vO i m// = mnln E
C hu 3r. saovO i Z, ta ed
Z= N U -1, -2, -3, ..., ...}
(xem tYng dung 1)), trong khi dal thi (1+ ta khdng c6
I 1 1 1
Q+ = bir U 2' 3' 4' n'
(xem Ling dung 2)) ? D g tim higu ta xat cac dinh I I sau day.
X trong hai dinh li sau chi mat vi nhdm nhan giaohoan
(tat nhign ta cO ng e6 the' lay mat vi nhdm thug), va .21+la 130
phan the plan tit chinh quy tha X ma ta gia thigt t = X.
TheoI Q qua caa D inh II 17, X la mat thorn, ma the phan tit
dang ab-I voi a, b E X (D inh I I 17).
D inh fi 18. Ngu veil moi a, E X, hula phuong trinh
ax= bed nghiem trong X, hoc pinning trinh bx =a c6
trong X ; thg thi :
67
X = X UI c
Ching mink. G ilt sit ab-1 E X . Ndu phttang trinh ax = b
c6 nghiam trong X, nghiam d6 phiti c6 clang 6a-1 e X, vay -
ab-1 E { c-1 / cEX}. Neu phuang trinh bx=a conghiam
trong X, nghiam phA i cd clang ab-1 E X. fly
X C X LO {c-1 I c E X}..
Baa ham tilde ngttle I ai lit hien nhien. fly ta cd
X = X U {C I c E X}. n
D inh I I 19. D aolei, gilt S i:
= X U c-1 I c e X}.
Th6 till vol moi a, b E X, hoac phttang trinh ax = b c6
nghiam trong X, hoc phacing.trinh bx = a ad nghiam trong X.
Cluing mink. G il sit a, 6 E X. X6t phuang trinh ax = b.
Phuang trinh nay cti nghiam trong X , dd la x = ba-1 . Theo
gilt thief ye X, b at EX hoac 6 m-1 Et c
1
/ cEn. Neu
ba E X, M u d6 c6 nghia phttang trinh c6 nghiam trong X ;
nen ba-1 e / c E X 3 , toc6 ba-1 =c1, c E X, hay
ab-1 = c, hay phitang trinh bx = a co nghiam trong X. n
Ti: hai dinh tren, ta ditty rang : "Vai moi a, b E N, hoac
phdang trinh a + x= b conghiam trong N hoc b+ x =a
c6 nghiam trong N". C honen
Z=N U (-1, -2, -3, ...I .
Trong khi do, vai 'mg a, b E N. , kitting phA i ban gib ta rang
co ax = b c6 nghiam trong N* hay bx = a co nghiam trong
C hang han a =2, 6 = 3, el 2x=3 vA 3x=2 deu kheng
c6 nghiam trong W.
BA I TA P
1. Lap M c bang town cho cac tap hop gem hai phA n tit, ba
phan tit d6 duct nhang nhain
2. Tha rem S e tap hop eau day vol phep than da chocci
14p thinh mat nhdm :
68
1) Tap hop cac s6 nguyen voi phdp cO ng.
2) Tap hop cac s6 h8u ti yea phdp O ng.
3) Tap hop cac s6 thoe voi phdp O ng.
4) Tap hop cac sophtic voi phdp O ng:
5) Tap hop S e s6 nguygn la boi eda mot s6 nguyen m v o i
phdp O ng.
6)
Tap hop cac s6 thoc duong voi phep nhan.
7) Tap hop the s6 thoc khan 0 voi phep nhan.
8) Tap hop cac 56 pink c6 modun bang 1 vol. phdp nhan.
9) Tap hop cac so' phdc khan 0 voi phep nhan.
10) Tap hop S e 56 hdu ti cd dang 2", it E Z, voi phdp than.
11) Tap hop the can philc bac n dm 1 voi phdp nhan.
12) M =(1, -1}voi phdp nhan.
13)
Tap hop S e s6 th1e duong voi phep toot T xac dinh
nhu sau : aTb =a2b2 voi m9i s6 thoc a, b >0.
14) Tap hop the s6 thtic c6 clang a + ba (a, b E veil
phep O ng.
15) Tap hop can s6 thoc ed dang a + ba (a, b E Q va
a2 b2
t 0) voi phep nhan.
16) Tap hap can s6 phtle S gang a + bi (a, b E Z) vbi phdp O ng.
17) Tap hop cat vecton chigu cart khO ng gian
1.9fd phdp
O ng veeto.
18) Tap hop cac ma tram vuO ng cap n voi phdp S ag ma tram
19) Tap hop the ma tram vuO ng cap n khO ng suy bign voi
phdp nhan ma ban.
20) Tap hop can ma trait vuO ng cap 7 1 S . dinh thttc bang 1
voi phdp nhan ma tran.
21) Tap hop cat ma tram vuong cap 7 1 c6 dinh thdc bang
t1 voi phep nhan ma tran.
22) Tap hop cac da thdc (c6 he sotime) voi phep c9ng cac
da
23)
Tap hop gdm da thtic 0 va cac da than c6 bac khO ng
qua it (n la mat s6 nguyen, it 0, ohotrutoc) veil phep O ng
cac da thdc.
69 ,
3.
C hung minh rang moi nua nhdm khac reng hau han X
let
mot nhdmneu va chi ngu luat gifin uoc that hien dale veil
moi phan tocoa X.
4. C ho X
lit mO t tap hap toy Y. Ki hieu Horn
(X, X) la tap
hap cac anh xa to X den X Vol phep M an anh xa Horn (X, X)
cd lap thanh met nhdm hay kheng ? C hting minh rang be phan
8(X) M a Horn (X, X) gem the song anh tit X dgn X la met
nhdm voi phep nhan anh xa. Hay tim cap cda S (X) trong trM ing
hap X co n phan tit
5. C ho X la met nhdm voi don vi la e. C luing minh rang
thu veil moi a E X ta cd a2 = e, thi X la aben.
6. C homet hoM ang nhdm (.2g, e / ma cac phep tain deu
I d hieu bang den nhan. elating minh rang tap hop tich de cac
voi phep town xac dinh nhu sau
a E
(Xtx)a E / (Ya)a E f = (XaYa)a e /
la met nhdm (goi la tich cac nhdm 2c).
7. C ho X la met tap hap khac rang cimg via met phep than
hal ngei kgt hop trong X a la mot phan toctia X. XI hieu
aX=faxixEXI ,
Xa =xa I x EX}.
C hfing minh X la met nhdm khi VA chi khi voi moi a e X
tocd aX =Xa X.
8. C hung minh rang moi be phan khac r6ng 6n dinh cila
mot nhdm hau han X la met nhdm con cua X.
9. Trong the nhdm 6 2) nhdm naoC a nhdm con O a nhdm nao?
10. C hung minh rang trong nhdm tong cac se nguyen Z,
mot be phan A coa Zla. met nhdm con can ZM u va chi M n
A cd clang mZ, m E Z.
11. Trong nhdm cac phep the S 4, cluing minh rang cac phep
the' sau : e, it = (12) (34), b = (1 3) (2 4) va c =(I 4) (2 3)
thanh lap met nhdm con dm S 4. M aim con dd cd aben khong ?
12. C hoYlit met be plan dm met tap hap X. C hung minh
rang be phan S(X, Y) oda &X) gem cac song anh f X a
70
saothe f(Y) =Yla mot nhdm con cart
S(X) (bai tap 4). Tim
s6 phan totha $(X, Y)
trong truting hop X ad tt phan tit va
Ycd mot phials tit.
13. C hoA va B
la hai 1)0 phan tha mot nhdm
X. 1h dinh
nghia
AB=fablaeA,bEB)
A' ={-1 1 aeA }
C h'ing minh cac dA ng thlic sau day :
a) (AB) C =A(BC).
b) (A 1 ) 1 =A .
c) (AB)-1 = B-1 A -1
d) Mau A la melt nhdm con dm X thi A -1 =A .
14. C ho X
la milt nhdm va A la mat be phan khac rung tha
X.
C hting minh A la nhdm con cila X khi va chi khi A A 1 =A .
15. C hoA la mot nhdm con dm nhdm X irka E X. C hting
minh aA la nhdm con ciut X khi va chi khi a E A .
16. Trong mot nhdm ,X
cluing minh rang nhdm con sinh ra
bai 60 phan 0 lit nhdm con tam thtiO ng
{el, e la plain totrung
lap cfm X.
17. G ia sit S
la Wit b0 phan khac rang dm mot nhdm
X.
C hung minh rang cac pilau tit cilia nhdm con sinh ra bai
S la
cac phan tocd dang x/x2 ...xn vol cac xl , xn thufie S hoar
3 1
. Tim nhdm con tha nhdm nhan the s6 huu ti duong sinh
ra bed b0 phan cac songuyan to'.
18. C luing minh rang moi nhdm con clia mot nhdm xyclic
la mot nhdm xyclic.
19. C ho X
la mot nhdm vat phA n tit don vi la e,aeX cd
cap la rt. C hung minh rang ak = e khi A ra chi khi k chia hat
chon.
20. C hoa, b la hai phan tit thy 31 cila mot nhdm. C httng
minh ab va ba cd thug cap.
71
21. G iEt sit X
lit mot nhdm xyclic cap n va a
E X la into
phan tat sinh aim no. Xet phan tit
b =ak. C hung minh rang :
a) C ap cua b bang nld, 6 day d
lit UC LN ctla k va n.
b) b la phan tosinh dm X
khi va chi khi k nguyen t6 vdt
rt (tit dd
suy ra s6 phan ta: sinh dm
X).
22. G ia sit a, b
la hal phan tit cila met nhdm, va gia sit ta
cd cap ciut a bang r, cap cita b bang a, vat r, s nguyen t6 ding
nhau va them nita ab =
ba. C hang minh cap cua abbang
rs.
23. C hung minh rang mai nhdm cap v6 han d@u cd v9 han
nhdm con.
24. C ho X
va YI A nhfing nhdm xyclic cd cap I A
In va n.'
C hung minh rang X
x1( I A mO t nhdm xyclic khi va chi khi
va n nguyen t6 cang nhau.
25. C hoA la mO t nhdm con cunt mO t nhdm
X. G ia sit tap
hop thuang X/A cd
hai phan tit. C luing minh A I A chugn tic.
26. Thong nluirn eke phep thg S
n, be phan A n gam cac phdp
thg chin la nhdm con chutin tic cua S .
27. G ilt sit
' X I A mO t nhdm xyclic van
han, va a E X la met
plight tosinh G oi A la nhdm con dm
X sinh ra bat a3. C hang
minh rang cac lop trai cila A bang cac lO p phai ctla
A va s6
cac lop dobang 3.
28. G M sit X la mO t nhdm, ta goi la
tam oda X 69 phitn
C(X)
=(a E XI ax= xa vii m9i xE X).
C hitng minh rang
C(X) la
mO t nhdm con giaoloan ciut
X
va mci nhcim con cita
C(X)
la inert nhdm con chugn tat dm
X.
29. Tim tat ca ale nhdm con va nhdm con chugn tic ctla
nhdm cac phep the' S 3.
30. G ift sit X la mar nhdm,
x va y la hai phtin tocaa
X. Th
goi la. /wan at aim xI ra y phtin t4
xyx-ly-I. C hung minh rang
nhdm con A sinh ra bdi
tap hop cac ham todm tat ca the
cap phtin to x, y cita X
la mat nhdm con chugn taxcaa
X goi
la
nhdm cac loan tit, va nhdm tinning
XIA la aben.
72
31. C luing minh rang muein chomet nhdm timing XIH cart
mot nhdm X la aben, at ed va du la nhdm con ehuA n S c H
chtla nhdm the hoan tit caa X.
32. Tim nhdm the hoan tit' cua 83.
33. C luing minh Ring moi nhdm ed cap be han hoac bang 5
la aben.
34. Hay tim the nhdm thdang cua
a) Nhdm tong cazs5 nguyen la bei eim 3 tren nhdm con
the s5 nguyen la boi oh' 15.
b) Nhdm O ng the s5 nguyen la bQi caa 4tren nhdm con
the s6 nguyen la bgi east 24
c) Nhdm nhan the so"thtte khan Q tren nhdm con the s
Rule ddang.
35. C ho D a tap hop the duO ng thong A trong mat phA ng ed
phdang trinh la y =ax+ 6 (a t 0, 6 a nI ning s6 Uwe). A nh xa
DxD , D
(A 1, A 2) A 3
trong dd A
1
, A 2 , A 3 tan brut th the phydng trinh la
y =aix+ 61 , y =a2x+ 62 , y =a1 a2x+ (b1 + 62) the dinh
mgt phep toan hai ng6i trong D .
a) C luing minh D la met nhdm vO i phep toan A n.
bA nh xa
co : D R."
A 1-0 a
trong dd R"la nhdm nhan the s5 thy khae 0 va A la dttang
thA ng cd phdang trinh y =ax+ bla met dong eau.
c) Xae dinh Karp.
36. C hoG I , G 2 la nhiing nhdm vai don vi theothtl tp la et.
e 2 va G la nhdm tich G I xG 2 (hal tap 6), A va B la the bg
phan G 1 x{e2 },. (el ) x02 dm G. Xet the anh xa
P1
(xi x2) XI
P2 " G G 2
(xI x2) 12
ql G I ->G
(x e
2)
q2 G 2 -3. G
x2 7. (e) , x2)
a) C hung minh p1 , p2 la nhung toan cau Xac Binh Ker p1
va Ker p2 .
b) C hung minh q1 , q2
la nhang dun M u. Xac Binh I mg1 va
I mq2 . Tit dd suy ra G 1 clang M u vat A, va G2 long eau voi B.
c) C hang minh A va B la nhUng nhdm con chug]) tac
va
AB =BA =G.
37.
C hung minh rang m9i nh6m xyclic hitu han cap n 1:1411
Bang M u vial nhau (clang M u vUi nhdm ceng citc s8 nguyen mod n).
38. C hung minh rang M O I nhdm xyclic ve han dau dang cau
vai nhau (clang cau vtli nhdm O ng cac s6 nguyen Z).
39. G ia sat X
la met nhdm va Yla met tap hop duoc trang
bi met phen town. G ia su cc; met song anh
f: X Y
tiler) man tinh chat
f(ab) =f(a)f(b) vOi M O a, b E X C hA ing
minh Y.cang voi pile]) than da chotrong Yla met nhdm ; them
nfia la aben nau X aben, la xyclic nau X xyclic.
40. C ho X
va Yla hai nhdm xyclic cocdc phan td sinh theo
'Hatt tola x vet y va cd cap la s va t.
a) C hang minh rang guy tac co, choWong Ung vai phan to
xa E X phan to Ofif E Y, trong do k la met sa tonhien Hide
0 chotruer; la met ct8ng can khi va chi khi sk la I NN cna t.
b) Ngu sk =nit va lh (tang cau thi (s, tn) =1,
74
41. C ho X lb
mat nhdm giaohoan. C hung minh rang anh
xa
so:x >x
a ak
vet k la mat s6 nguyen chothree, la mat dang eau.
Xac (firth Ker so.
42. C ho X la met nhdm. A nh xa
co : X X
a pt a -
la mat ttt ding eau coa nhdm X khi va chi khi X la aben.
43. C ho X la mot nhdm. C hang minh rang tap hop the
tp
clang eau caa X
cling vet phep nhan anh xa la mat nhdm.
44. G ia sit X, G1, G2 la nhang nhdm, G =Gi x G2 pa
f : X >G1 g : X G2 la nhung anh xg. Xdt anh.
h X +G
x h(x) =(f(x), g(x)).
C hang minh rang h la mat &M g eau khi I ra chi khi f va g
14flitting &M g eau.
45. Prong tap hqp X =Z3, vdi Zla tap hop cac s6 nguyO rt,
-ta xcic dinh mat phep M an hai ngoi nhu sau :
(k1 , k2,
k3)(11,
12 , 13
) = (k + (-1)k313, k
2 12 , k3 13)
a) C hang minh rang X cling vet phep than d6 la mat nhdm.
b)
C hang minh rang nhdm con A sinh ra bei plain to(1, 0, 0)
la chudn tic.
c) C hung minh rang nhdm thuong X/A ding eau vdi nhdm
O ng cac s6 phdc cc; dang a + (di vdi a, b E Z.
46. C hung minh rang :
a) Nhdm O ng cac s6 time ding eau vdi nhdm nhan cac s6
time (Wong.
75
b) Nhdm O ng the ad phdc coclang a +
bi Arai a, b nguyen
Bang eau WO nhdm tich ZxZtrong doZla nhdm cang cac
ad nguyan.
47. C ho X la mot nhdm. veri mai phtin tit a E X toxet anh xa
fa : X >X
x 1 * a
-I
xa.
a) C hdng minh fa la mot tit clang cau cda
X, goi la to ddng
edit trong
xae Binh bdi phth tit a.
b)
C luing minh cac tor clang eau trong lap thanh mat nhdm
con caa nhdm the toclang eau cda
X (bai tap 43).
c) C luing minh mat nhdm con
H cda X la chuan S c va
chi nth fa
(H) =H vbi moi
todang eau trong fa cda X. V 1 11
dochi, cac nhdm con chuan tile cling can goi la the
thorn con
bdt hien.
d) C hung minh anh xa a
fa la mat ddng cau tit nhdm
X
clan nhcim the toclang cat, trong dm
X via hat nhan the ddng
eau dola tam G (X) (bai tap 28) cda
X.
c) C hdng minh
X/C(X)
dthg eau vol nhdm cac tor ding eau
trong cim X
48. C luing minh rang nth
f : X Yla mat ddng cau td
mat nhdm hbu han X den mat nhdm Ythi
a) C ap tha a E X chia M t chocap etia
[(a)
b) C4 caa. X chia M t chocap caa
[(X)
49. C luing minh rang nhdm Yla anh ddng cau ail mat
nhdm xyclic hitu han X khi va chi khi Yla nhdm
xyclic utt cdp
dm no chia hat cdp cha X.
50. Hay tim tat ca cac clang eau tit
a) M at nhdm xyclic cap n clan chinh
b)
M ot nham xyclic cap 6 dean mat nhdm xyclic cap 18
.
c)
M at nhdm xyclic cap 18 clan mat nhdm xyclic cap 6.
76
51. C hung minh rang ngoai clang cau tam thvO ng ra thi
khang th mat &M g eau nth tit nhdm thong cac s6 hvu ti clan
nhdm rang the th nguyen.
52. G ilt sit C "lit nhdm nhan the s6 phtic khde 0,
H la tap
hop the th phuc eim C ' nam tren true thuc va true do. C hung
minh rang H la
mat nhdm con dm C ' va nhdm thtiong C '/H
Bang cau add nhdm nhan U
cac s6 phdc th moduli bang 1.
53. C luing minh rang nhdm thvang
R/Z(R. la nhdm cling
the s6 thuc, Zla
nhdm O ng the s6 nguyen) cang cau vai nhdm
U (bid tap 52).
54. G oi X
la nhdm nhA n the ma tram vuong cap n kh6ng
suy Bien ma the phan tit la thtle. Hay chting minh
a) Nhdm finking tha X
tren nhdm con cac ma tram cd dinh
thde bang 1 clang eau vai nhcim nhA n the s6 Hive khdc 0.
b) Nhdm thuang mitt X
tren nhdm con the ma trail eel dinh
thtic bang 1 clang cau yea nhdm nhan cac s6 thuc dating.
c) Nhdm thvang cue X
tract nhdm con the ma tran th dinh
thlic dvang la mat nhdm xyclic cap had
55. G ib. sit X la mat vi nhdm (nhan) sink bai mat phan tit
a th cap v6 han, nghia la :
X ={a"I n
C hUng minh vi nhdm X (D inh 11 17) la nhdm ve C ie phan

tocua k la ... ct-3 , (1 -2 , cri , a , al , a2 , a3 nghla la

X =X U{C l, C2, a-3,}

77
CHUONG III
VANH VA TRUtI NG
1. VA NH VA M I EN NG UYEN
1. Venh
D inh nghlit I . Ta gel la earth met tap help X cling voi hai
phep town hai ngO i, da chotrong X ki hiau theoO ld tut bang
ode dau + va . (ngubi ta thubng ki hieu nho vay) va pi la
phep O ng va phep nhan saochothe diet, hen sau them man :
1) X cling vai phep ging la met nhdm aben.
2) X cling voi phep nhan la met M at nhdm.
3) Phep nhan &A n ph6i dot voi phep O ng v6i cac phtin
tolily y x, y, zE X ta c6
x(y + z) =xy + xz,
(y + z)x =yx + zx.
Phan tit trung lap dm phep O ng thi ki hieu la 0 WI gel la
phan to khifing. Phan todal xting (dal veil phep O ng) eta met
phalli tit x thi I d hieu la -x A ra goi la ddi cua xNeu phep nhan
la giaohoan thi ta bau tianh X la giao hoon. Neu phep nhan
c6 phan totrung lap thi phan tit d6 gel la phan tit don vi cunt
X va thubng ki hieu la e hay 1 (nau kheng cci ski nhdm I an).
V i dg. 1) Tap hdp Zthe se nguyen ciing v6i phep O ng va
phep nhan thong thuelng la met vanh giaohoan c6 don vi goi
78
la vanh cac s6 nguyen. Ta cling cd vanh the sohfiu ti, cat s6
time, cac s6 phtic (cac phep toan van la phep O ng va phep
nhan thong. thuong).
2) Tap hyp Z/nZcac s6 nguyen mod n M ing Nth phep O ng
va phep nhan ode s6 nguyen mod it (ch I I , 1, bai tap 2) va
ch I I , 2, 3, vi du) la mat Wirth giaohotin codon VI , got la
vanh sac s6 nguyen mod n.
3) Tap hop cac ma trait vuO ng cap rt,n, >1, (vita cac phan
tit lk thud hang han) cling vet phep O ng va phep nhan ma
tran la mgt vanh cd chin vi. Vanh nay kitting giaohodn.
4) Tap lutp cat s6 nguyen la bat ova mat s6 nguyen n >1
chofru&la mat vanh vai phep gang va phep nhan thO ng fiking.
Vanh nay la giaohodn, nhung khO ng cd don vi.
5) Tap hop cac ma tram yang cap n >1 codang
al a2 an
0 0 ... 0
0 0 0
trong dd the ai la nhang s6 thuc, ding vat phdp O ng va phep
nhan ma tram la mat yankVanh nay khO ng giaohoan, khO ng
cd don vi.
6) G ia sir X Id mat nhdm giaohoan ma phep toan ki hiau
bang da'u O ng +. Tap hyp E cac to:long cau tit X Mu X dityc
trang hi hai phep than kat hop : mat mat, ph6p toan O ng
(t, f +
g((f
+ g)(x) =f(x) + g(x)
vet moi xG X) khian cho
E la mat nhdm O ng giaohoan (phein tit khO ng la anh xa 0
xac dinh b61 0(x) =0 vet moi x E. X, phan tit dt3i cua f la anh
xa -f xac dinh bed (-f)(x) =-(f(x)) vet mot x E X) ; mat khac,
phep than nhan (f.g). n fg. Th co (g + h)f =gf + hf va fig + h) =
= fg + fh That vey,
((g + h)f)(x) = (g + h)(f(x)) = err)) +
+
h(f(x)) =gf(x) + hf(x) (gf + hf)(x), vb. (f(g + h))(x) =
+
+ h)(x)) =
f(g(x) + h(x)) =- f(g(x)) + f(h(x)) =fg(x) + fh(x) =
=(fg + fh)(x). Vay cling vat -hai phep toan dd la mat vanh,
got la vanh the ty Ang cdu clic" nhim X. Vanh nay cd don vi,
79
dola anh va ddng nhat cim
X,
nhung khang giaohoan M u X
c6 qua 2 phtin tit.
Ngoai the tinh chat lit mat nhdm tong giaohoan vit mat
naa nhdm nhan, mat Nth con cd mt
sd tinh chat suy ra tit
1u4t phan !Mai.
Dinh li 1. Cho X lez
mOt vtinh. V bi mot x, y,
ze X ta cb :
(0 x(y - z) = xy - xz, (y - z)x = yx - zx.
(ii) Ox =x0 =0.
(iii)
x(-y) =(-x)y =-xy, (-x)(-y) =xy.
Cluing minh. (i)
TheoM at phan ph6i ta cd xy =x((y - z) +z) =
=x(y - z) + xz.
Ta suy ra x(y - z) =xy - xz.
G ang thac thu
hai chang minh ciing trong tu.
(ii) Theo(i) ta cd
Ox = (y - y)x = yx - yx = 0 = xy - xy
= x(y - y) = x0.
(Hi) Tit (i) va (ii) ta dttoc
x(-y) = x(0 - y) = x0 - xy =
= 0 - xy = -
xy = Oy - xy = (0 - x)y = (
-x)y ; to suy ra
(-x)(-y) =xy.
Das
bi0t, yid moi s6 nguyen n >
0, ta duoc
(-xi"= xn thu n than, va (-xi' =-xn mkt n le. n
Tit (ii) ta suy ra M u vanh
X ed
don vi va c6 nhieu hon mat
phan tothi e # 0.
2. Win can thong. Mien nguyen.
es day
ta hay t6ng plat hda khai ni9m vire I ra bai btrong
vanh cac s6 nguyen.
Dinh nghia 2. G ia sit X
la mat Nth giaohoan. Ta ban mat
pilau toa E X la bi cim mat phan to b E X hay a'chia
cho b, ki hiSu a i b, n6u ed c E X saochoa = be ; ta can ndi
rang b la ube dm a hay b chia hat a, 10 hiau b I a.
Nhtt vay theoBinh li 1 (ii), moi phtin to
x e X la M c aim
0 ; nhung dolam dung ngO n ngit, ngabi ta dials nghia :
Dinh nghia
3. Ta goi la ueic aza 0 moi phan to a # 0 sao
choc6 6, # 0 thea man quan 110
ab = 0.
80
Ta suy ra ngay tit dinh nghla rang align to0 va cetc vac
G oa 0 khang plied la chinh quy. Trong mat vanh khang c6 Ude
M ut 0, 1119i phan tokhac 0 deu la chinh quy. That fly, quan
he ab= ac Wong duong cal quan he a(b - c) = 0.
Dinhnghia 4. Ta gai la mien nguyen mat vanh ea nhieu
M in mat phan tu, giaohoan, cci den vi, khang cci dem cfia. 0.
V i do : Vanh cac s6 nguyen Zla mat mien nguyen.
3. Vanhcon
Dinhnghia 5. G ia xu X la mat vanh, A la mat ho
phan cim X an dinh dii vai hai phep than trong X nghia la
x + y EA va xy E A vei moi x, y E A . A la mat W ink con
M ut vanh X nail A ming voi hai phep town earn sinh tren A la
mat vanh.
Dinh112. Gid szi A itt mat be phan kb& ring cem mot
'Ranh X Cac dieu kien sau day llz W ong duong :
a) A Its mot yank con ala X
b) V ai nua x, y E A , x+ y E A , xy E A, - xEA .
c)Vol moi x, y EA , x - y EA , xy E A .
C hung mink. a) kaothen b). Vi A la mot vanh con chonen
ta c6 ngay x + y va xy thuac A vial moi x,y E A . M at khac vi
A la mat vanh nen n6 la mat nhdm veil phep O ng, ta suy
ra -xE A eel moi x E A (ch I I , 2,2, dinh li 7).
b) keotheoc) theo(ch I I , 2, 2, he qua mia dinh I I 7).
c) kelp theoa) Trade hat ta chit 3, rang cau phep than cam
sinh tren A M ing c6 firth chat kat hop va phan ph6i. D ode
M ing vol he qua dm dinh I I 7 (eh I I , 2, 2) ta c6 A la mat
earth con dm X, n
V i do. 1)
BO phan {0}chi gam ea phan tokhang va 60
phan. X la hai vanh con ea vanh X.
2) BO phan mZg6m the s6 nguyen la bai dm inert s6 nguyen
m chotnidc la met vanh con aim vanh cazs6 nguyen Z.
81
D inh I i 3.
Giao cua mat hy Mt ki nhung oanh con cua mat
vanh X la mat ultnh con am X
C luing mink Wang tonhu trong nhdm.
G ilt sit U
la mot ba phan eta mat vanh X. Th6 thi U chtia
trong it nhgt mat vanh con eta
X, coth6 X. Theodinh I f 3,
giaoA cua tat cis the vanh con eta
X chda U la mot vanh con
eta X chilli U,
Wash con nay got la vanh con eta X sinh ra
bdi U.
4. Mean va vAnh thircing
D inh nghia 6. Ta gal la
idean trai (idean phdi)
eta mot
vanh X mat Nth con A eta X
filth man diet' kiO n xa E A
(ax E A ) vai mpi a E A va moi x e X. M at vanh con A eta
mot vanh X goi la mot
idean eta X ngu va. chi M u A vita la
idean trai vita la idean phiti eta
X.
Tit dinh nghla tosuy ra ngay We kink
D inh I i 4. M 5t 1)5 phan A khac rang eta mot vanh
X la
mat iciaan cua X ngu va chi nth C A C dial' M en sau them man :
D a -
beA vaimpia,bE A .
2) xa e A va ax e A M O a E A va moi x e X.
V i dg. 1) BO plait' {0}va. I D O plan X la hai 'dean cua vanh X.
2) BO phan mZgam the s6 nguyen la bet eta mat s6 nguyen
m chotruth la mat Wean eta vanh the s6 nguyen Z.
D inh I I 5.
Ciao caa mat by bat ki nhang idean cua mat
(Ranh X 16 mat idean cua X.
C hang mink Wong tonhu dinh ii 3.
G M sit U
is mot ba phan cua mat vanh X. TM thi U O stia
trong noit nhat mat idean eta X, cothe'
X. Theo'huh 11 5,
giaoA cua tat ca cac idean eta X C hita U la mot idean eta X
chtla U, idean nay got la
idean sinh ra bbi U ; ngu U =
= a2 , an
}thi A goi la idean sinh ra bat the phgn tit
a2, ..., an
. I daan sinh ra bat mot phtin tit goi lit
idean chinh.
82
D inh li 8. G id ad X la met udnit giao hoan c6 don uf va
al, a2 , an E X Be phan A caa X gam the phan to co long
%I ntl + x2a2 + + xnan voi xi , x2 ,..., xn E X la W ean caa X
Unit ra bdi al, a2, ..., an.
Chting mink. G ia sit a =xiai +... + xa, b =vial. +... +ynan la
hai phan tit thy y thuoc A va x la mat phan tothy g thutic
X. Th ed
a b = (xiai + + xnan
) (via
l + + ynan) =
(xiai yiai) + + (xnan ynan) =
(xi + + Oen ynian E A
xa = ax= x(xicti + + xnan) =xxisti + + xxnan E A .
fly A la mat idean clia X. A chda the ai vdi i
vi a1 =O ai -F + lai + + O an , i =1,2, ...,n.
C u& ding m9i idean chila an thi ming dada
slat ,..., xnan vdi x, E X va dod6 chda xiai + + xnan.
Kdt M an A la giaocua tat. ca cac idean chda 1a1 an
I tdc
la idean sinh ra beil cti, a2,..., an.
n
Tit dinh nghia ta ming suy ra ngay
D inh li 7. Ngu X let mot vanh co don Ed ua ngu A la mot
W ean cart X chda don vi elm X Mi ta co A =
Bay gid ta hay xet mat idean A thy y cim mat vanh da cho
X. VI A la mat nhdm con cim nhdm aben cO ng &la X, nhdm
thitang XIA la mat nhdm aben hoan toan xac dinh then (ch I I ,
2, 3). C ite phan tit dm XIA la cac I dp khac nhau x + A dm
A trong X. Ta hay trang bi cho XIA mat phep M an nhan dd
nd trO thanh that vanh.
D inh li 8. NM A la mat idean cita MO( X, - thi :
(i) Lep xy + A chi phu thwic veto the lap x + A wa y + A
ma khong phu thuoc vim sa ltia alum caa the phan to x, y nY
the lap do.
83
X/A cling vai hai phep Man
(x + A, y + A) x y + A
(x + A, y + A) n xy + A
lit mat vanh got vanh (Mang Leta X tren A.
Chang mink. (i) G ia sit x'
+A = x +A va y' + A = y
A .
V ayx'-x =a EA va y' - y=bEA, hayx'=x+a
va y' = y + b.
D od6 x'y'
(x + a)(y + b) =xy + ay + xb + ab.
Vi A lit
met Wean, nen tit a,
b E A ta stor ra ay, xb, ab E A fly
x'y' + A = xy +
A . in ki hieu
(x + A)(y +
A ) =xy + A . Nhu
vay ngoai phep O ng (x + A) + (y + A ) = x + y + A trong
X/A,
ta cd O len nhan xae dinh boi
(x + A)(y + A) =xy + A.
(ii) Phep nhan trong X/A
re rang la I ce%hap dotinh kat km
caa O len nhan trong X.
Ngoai ra tocling cd hat phan ph6i.
Vay X/A
la mat vanh. Neu X la giaoholm thi
X/A cling giao
hogn. Neu X
c6 don vi 1 thi 1 + A la dun vi cua
X/A. n
V i du.
Vanh (hung cua Ztren idean nZgyi la vanh cac
s6 nguyen mod n. Phep O ng va phep Ethan trong Z/nZxae
dinh boi
+ nZ) + (y + nZ) =x + y + nZ
(x + nZ)(y + nZ) =xy + nZ
KI hieu x+ nZbang
x vet lay n = 4 ta cd bang O ng va bang
nhan cua Z/4Znhu sau
5
5 0 I
I T. 2 a 5
2 a 5 I
a a 5
I
5 5 0
a
0
o a 2. I
84
5. D Eng cau
D inh nghia 7. M at clang can (vanh) la mat anh xa t,i mat
vanh X dgn mat vanh Ysaocho
f(a +
b) =f(a) + f(a)
gab) =f(a)f(b)
trig mot a, 6 E X. Nan X =Ythi cling eau f got la milt todung
eau ena X
'Pa acing dinh nghia don cgu than eau, clang clu Wang tv
nhu da dinh nghia trong nhdm.
V i du.
1) G ia sit A lit mat vanh con dm mat vanh X. D an
anh chinh tan
A --a X
a a
la mat ddng eau goi la don cgu chinh the.
2) A nh xa eking nit&dm mat vanh X la mat dung eau, gal
la toclang cau ding nhgt cim X.
3) G ia sit A la mat idean ciut mat vanh
X. A nh xa
h : X XIA
x - x +
A
la milt (long eau tit vanh X den Nth thvang X/A. D ong eau nay
can la toan cdu goi la toan eau ch{nh tac
4) G ia sit X va Yla hai vanh, anh xa
Y
x 1 n 0
WA 0 la ph/in tokheng cua Yla mat clO ng egu goi la clang cdu
D uren day chting tohay dtia ra cac (huh I i tuang totthu trong
nhdm ma vigc cluing minh, hoac Wang tohoc gip dung the
lc&qua trong nhdm, xin nhudng cho
CrOC gia.
D inh li 9. Gig au X, Y, Z la nhang vanh, f : X . Yva
g : Z l nluing rthng can. Thd thi tich Guth xa
85
gf : X ->Z
cling la mot deng eau Dac bit tich 'caa hai clang cdu la mot
ddng cdu.
D inh li 10.
Gid sit f : X - YCa mot (Ong cdu tit met ultn
t h
X din met Minh Y. Thd thi :
(i) f(0) = 0
(ii) f(-x) =-f(x) udi moi x e X.
D inh 1i 11.
GM sit f : X -I. Yla mot deng cdu tit mot uanh
X den mot uttnh Y, A la mot uanh con cud X dix
B ld mid
idean elm Y. Thi thi :
(0 flit) la mot uanh con edit Y.
(ii) ri(R) ld mot idean dm X.
HO quit. GM set f: X -A,
Yld mot deng cdu tit met uanh
X din mot uanh YThe. thi I mf la
mot uanh con ce a Yua Kerf
/e/ mot idean cud X.
D inh I i 12.
Gid sit f :X Yltz mat tang cdu tit mot ultnh
X den mot uanh Y. Thu thi
(i) f lit mot toan dnh nezt vet chi nia Imf =Y.
(ii) f la mot don dnh next uo, chi mitt Kerf ={0}.
D inh li 13.
GM 80 f : X --Ylet mot clang cdu to mat uanh
X din mot ain't Y, p :X -* X/Kerf M town aid chink Mc (ui
du ,3) tit uanh X din uanh thuang cad X teen
Kerf
Thi thi :
(i) CO mot deng nen day nhdt : X/Kerf Ysao cho tam gide
f
X Y
X/Kerf
Id giao hod?).
(ii) Deng cdu f la mot don cdu yet Im
7 = f(X).
86
He qui. V ol mot clang eau f : X n Ytic mot Minh X din
mot vanh Y, to to
f(X)
X/Kerf
BA T TA P
1. C h'ing minh cac tap hop sau day voi phep O ng va phep
nhan cac se lap thanh mat vanh
a) Tap hop the s6 c6 clang a +
b 4
vat a, b E Z.
b) Tap hop the sti pink c6 clang a + bi voi a, b E Z.
C hting minh cac vanh et6 giaohoan c6 don vi.
2. C hang minh tap imp the ma tram vuO ng cap n vdi cac
phan tit la nhfing s6 nguyen lam thanh mat vanh voi phep O ng
va phep nhan ma tram.
3. C hing minh tap hop cac da thdc cua x\di he songuyen
lam thanh mat vanh voi phep O ng va phep nhan da that.
4. G ia sU da chotrong mat tap hop X hai phep toan O ng
va nhan saocho: 1) X M ing vei phep O ng la mat nhdm ; 2)
X M ing veil O len nhan la mat vi nh6m ; 3) phep nhan pit
ph6i d6i voi phep O ng. C hting minh X la mat vanh
5. Tim cac udc oda khO ng trong vanh Z/6Z.
6. C hang minh Z/nZ (it x 0) la mat mien nguyen khi va
chi khi n la nguyen td.
7. C hang minh tap hop X =ZxZding vdi hai phep toan
(a t , bi ) + (a2 , 62 ) =(a1 + a2, bi + b2
)
b
1
)(a
2, b2) = (a tat, b 162)
la mat vanh giaohoan, c6 don id.. Hay Um tat ca the vac dm
khO ng vanh nay.
8. G ilt au X la mat vanh ea tinh chat sau day :
x2 = xvdi mm x E X.
87
C luing minh rang
a) x=-xyea mai x E X.
b) X la vanh giaoham.
c) Neu. X
la vanh kh6ng cd tnic dm 0, cd nhieu hon met
phan thi X la mien nguyen.
9. C lic vanh bM c bid tap
1),
2), 3) la tug vanh con cha
nhirng vanh nao?
10. C ho X lit met vanh thy j, A vb. B la hai idean elk X
C hung minh rang be phan
A +B= {a+bI aEA ,bE
B}
la met idean dm X.
11. C ho X la met vanh thy y,
n la mat s6 nguyen chotru0e.
C hang minh be phan
A =I xEXI nx =01
la met idean cha X.
12. C ho X la mat vanh thy j, a e X. C hung minh rang 136 phan
oX=faxIxEX1
la met idean phai cha
X, va be phan
Xa =
{xaI xEX}
la mat idean trai cha
X.
13. G M sit X la
met mien nguyen va n la cap (oh I I , 2,
2, dinh nghia 5) dm phan ivdon vi
e. C hung minh
a) n la met s6 nguyen te,
b)
M ei phtin tvkhac khang xe X cd cap n.
c) Be phan
mX ={mx I x E X},
vbi
m la met se nguyen chotrite; la mat idean dm
X.
d) X/mX = X nen in la b6i eta it,
XlinX = {0}nen in kheing phai la 136i cim n
88
14. G ig. sit X le mot vanh giaohoan, th don vi. M O t idean
A m X dm X g9i la W ean t6i dui va chi nth the idean
caa X elute A chinh la X va ban than A . M ot idean P # X mia
X goi la idean nguyen t6 ngu va chi lieu veil u, u E X tich
nu E P thi u. E P ha4c u E P, C hUng minh rang :
a) X/P la mien nguyen khi va chi khi P la idean nguyen t6.
b) XIA la trueing (V) khi va chi khi A la t6i dal.
15. G ig!. sir A la mot vanh, B 1a rat tap hop c6 hai phep
toan O ng va nhan, va f : A B la melt song anh thiiit man
f(a + b) =[(a) + f(b)
f(ab) =
f(a)f(b),
yea moi u, b E A .
C hung minh : a) B la mot vanh.
b) Nth A la vanh giaohoan thi B cung la vanh glad hoan.
c) Ngu A la vanh th don vi thi B cung la vanh th don
d) Ngu A la mien nguyen thi B cung la mien nguyen.
16. Hay tim tat A cac toclang eau tha vanh the s6
nguyen.
17. G M sit f : -+X la mot toclang eau cart vanh X. C hfing
minh rang tap hop
A = {x E X I f(x) =x)
la met vanh eon ella X.
18. G ia sit X la.mot vanh thy y, Zla yanh the s6 nguyen.
Xet tO p hop tich X xZ. Trong X xZtodinh nghia the phep
toan nhu sau :
ni ) + (x2 , n2) =(x1 + x2 , ni + n2)
(x1 , n1 ) (x2 , n2) =(xi x2 + n1 x2 + n2 x1 , nt n2)
a) C hung minh rang X x Zla mot vanh cd don vi.
b) A nh xa
89
f : X X xZ
x (x, 0)
la mat don S u.
19. C hoA va B fa hai vanh tity g. Xet tap hop tfch d4cat
X =A x B. Trong X todinh nghia cat phep teem
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b +
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac, bd)
C hung minh :
a) X I A mat vanh.
b) C ac be PbatC A ={(a, 0) la EA .1 va B =f(0, b)1
b e
B}
la nheng vanh con aim X clang cau theoC ul toval. A va B.
C ) A I ra Ft la hai idean aim xsaochoA fl B =110, 0)}va
X =A + B (bat tap
10).
d) G I A sit A va. B I A nhang vanh S don vi, hay tim cat don
vi caa X A va B.
20. G ia sit X I A mat vanh va a E X. C hung .minh rang :
a) A nh xa
ha : X X
x ax
la mat Hong cau (nhdm) tit nhdm O ng aben X dan nhdm O ng
aben X.
b) A nh sa
h : X E
a h(a) = ha
M mat Hong S u tit Nth X clan vanh E the tod6ng eau aim
nhdm ()O ng aben X (1, of chi 6).
c) Tim Kerh. C hang minh rang h la don cau khi X cci
don vi.
21. G ia sn't X va YI A hai vanh, f : X Yla mat d6ng S u
tovanh X d6n vanh Y, A va. B theothd tola hai idean mkt
90
X Ira Ysaocho f(A) C B, p .
X >X/A va p' : YY/B la
the
M an egu chinh tat (5, vi du 3). C hung minh rang t6n tai m6t
dung cgu duy nhgt
f tb X/A dgn Y/B
saochohinh vuO ng
I
X Y
p
P'
i
X/A
Y/B
la giaohot', We la 7 p =p'f
Ngu f
la mot toan cgu thi f cd phai la mgt than cgu hay
khO ng ?
2. TRI TO N
1. Trub ng
D inh nghia 1. Ta pi la
&W ong
mgt mien nguyen X trong
dd 1119i
phan tit I thac khO ng deu cd mgt nghich daotrong vi
nhdm nhan X. fly mO t vanh
X
giaohodn, cd don vi, cd nhigu
hem mgt phgn tola mO t trubng ngu vitt chi ngu
X -
{0}la mO t
nhdm &S i vO i ober) nhan cim
X.
V i dy.
Tap hop Q cat s6 hitoti ding vtli phep cling va phep
nhan cat s6 la mO t trubng. Ta cling cd trubng sd that R va
trubng s6 phtte C .
2. Tnatng con
D inh lights,.
2. G ilt sit X
la mO t trubng,
A IA mOt bo phdn
dm X do
dinh d61 volhai phdp than trong
X. A la mgt
trubng
con eta trubng X ngu A
ding volhai phdp than cam sinh tit
A
la mgt trubng.
Tit dinh nghia 2 vb. lip dung hg qua cna dinh li 7 trong
(ch I I , 2) cling vesi dinh li 2 (1, 3) todusc
91
D inh U 1. G id
sit A ha mat 60 ghat' c6 nhigu han mat plain
t* cga
mid trubng X. Cat diet<kiln sau day la tuang duang :
a)
A la mOt truang con cart X.
b) V 6i moi
y E A, x + y E A , xy E A, -x E A, x 1 EA
ntiu x # 0.
c) V ol moi x, y E A ,
x.- y E A, xy-1
E A ndu y x. 0.
V i du. 1) X
la trubng con cim trubng
X.
BO phan {0}khO ng
phiti la mO t trubng con cim
X,
vi then dinh nghia mO t trotting
cd it nhgt hai phgn ti.
2) Trubng s6 hilu, ti Q la trailing con cita trubng sti thitc R,
ban than R lai lit trubng con aim trotting se phile C .
C oi mO t trubng X
nhu mot vanh, ta cd the"at van de xet
cac idean cim
X. Mac du
mO t trubng X
cd thd cd nhieu trubng
con, nd lai chi ad hai idean tarn thubng :
X vit
{0}. Thuc vay,
gia stl A la mO t idean dm
X va A A
{0}. Vgy ad Wit phan
to x m
0 thuO c A . Vi A la mO t idean nen x
1 x=1 E A . D o
do A = X
(1, 4, dinh I f 7). \ray hat nhan ola moi dgng eau
f : X Y
tit
I S trubng X
den mO t D ating Ychi cd thd hoot 11 {0}hot1c
la X.
Trong truitmg hop Kerf ={0}thi
f la
mot (km eau (1, 5,
dinh I f 12), Kerf = X thi f la deng can khO ng.
3.
Tnsbng cac thuang
G ia sit X
la mO t mien nguyen. Theodinh nghia, the phtin
tit khac 0 am X
deu la chinh quy, nhung dieu dd churl dam
bac thong cd
nghich daotrong
X,
chang han trong vanh
cac
se nguyen Zchi trit 1 va -1 cd nghich ciaotrong Zcon the s6
khac thi khO ng. Bay gibta dat van de nhting
X vaomO t trubng
X
'saochomoi phgn tit khac 0 cim
X c6
nghich dabtrong X .
X
la mO t mien nguyen nen
X
la mot vi nhdm nhan giaohoan.
Theo(ch H, 2, 5 dinh li 17) ta cd the' nhung
X vac, mO t vi
nhdm nhan giaohoan X saochomid phan td chinh quy dm
X
cd nghich ciaotrong
X. Nh'u
ta cd thg trang bi cho
X them
92
phep toan cong de X In met trurong thi van de doge giai guy&
xong. C u the' ta co
D inh I i 2. GM sa X- la mat mien nguyen, ba phan
Sc phan to khac 0 tha X. CO mat truong Tc viz mat don eau
(vanh) f tit X can X co cat tinh eh& scut :
1) Can phan tEl cat' X co clang f(a)f(b) 1 vOi a e X, b e
29) C ap ( , p Ca duy nhdt sal kOm mat thing edit, nghia
la neu co cap (Y, g) the* man cti6u kin 1 thi 60 mat thing
ctiu so: Ysao cho tam slew
f
X X
8\c/ W
Y
giao holm.
Chting mink Vi X la met mien nguyen nen X la mot vi nhdm
nhan giaohoan. Ta xay chI ng vi nhdm nhan giaohoan X va
anh xa f nhur trong dinh 11 17 aim (ch I I , e2, 5). Bay gig ta
hay xet hai phgn tit x = (a, b) va y = , d) thy y cud X .
Phan tit (ad + bc, bd) chi plan thuoc vao x va y ; that vay
gig. sit x =(a', b') , fly ab' = a 'b, ta suy ra (ad + bc)b'd =
= (a'd b'c)bd, Bie la (ad + be, bd) =(a'd + b'c , b'd) . Thong
tp clgi yea y. 'Pa thay ngay rang X ding yea phep cong . (x, y)
x+ y =(ad + bc , bd) lit met nhdm giaohoan ; phgn to
kheing la (0 , 1) ; phtin tit c161 mia x = (a, b) lit -x = (-a, b).
M at khac X M ing yeti phdp nhan (x,
+Y
=(a, b) (c, d) =(ac, bd) , thy tada bigt, la met vi nhcim giao
hoan. Them nua ta cd thd thit dg thgy phep nhan phan ph6i
clO i yea Thep cong. Vey X la met vanh giaohoar( cd don vi. M ai
phan to x = (a, b) khiic phan tit (0, I ) , dodoa m 0, cd
nghich daola xI = (b, a) . Vey X la met batting. A nh xa
f : X chototing -O ng voi mei phan t9 a E X plain tii
(a, 1) E X th tinh chat
f(a + b) =f(a) + f(b)
93
ngoiti the tinh chat doM et trong dinh li 17 dm (eh H, 2, 5).
D odo f la mot ddn eau (vanh) tit X den X . C ap (X, f) xay dung
nhu vay cd tinh chat 1. C uoi thing gib. sit (Y, g) la cap cling
thea man tinh chat 1 nazi bai toan..Qnh xa
: Y
x =f(a)f(b)1 g(a)g(b)
1
la met song anh ban ten phep nhan : so(xy) =
w(x)(o(y), nhu ta
da bia M at khan ta cling a clang thit rang
co(x + y) = so(x) + co(y) yea m0 x, y E X .
'
Tit d6 p la met clang cau va hien nhien ta th
g = pi
V i f
la mot don eau (vanh) nen ta (tong nhat the phan to
a E X yeti the O din to f(a) E too. Ltie de mei phan tit xe.k
cothe vial &M K clang- a
exva beg*. Ta eon I d
hieu phan tit ab-1 bang alb (ch I I , 2, 1). Vay a =
all =ablb
voi 1110i a E X va b E X. Hai phan D i a/b 'Tack! la bang nhau
khi va chi khi ad = bc. C iie quy the cO ng va nit la
a/b + cld =(ad + bc)/bd
(a/b)(e/d) =ac/bd.
D oi ella a/b la -a/b=a/-6. Nghich dim eim
a/b vii a m 0
la b/a. Ta thay lai cat guy S c efia se M tn ti.
D inh nghia 3. G ia sit X la mot mien nguyen, rc la mot
truing: X goi la mot truing cac thuong
mitt mien nguyen X M u
co'M t ddn eau (vanh) f : X ->X saochi cap (
X , f) them
man tinh chat 1) caa dinh li 2.
Tit dinh nghia 3 va dinh li 2 ta suy ra trading the thuang
cast moi mien nguyen ten D a WI xac dinh duy nhat (ly lai met
deng eau).
V i du.
Truing cac thuang cim vanh cat so nguyen. Z la
tinning cac se huu ti Q.
BA T TA P
I . C hang mink
mien nguyen hitu han lit mot truing.
94
2. C hung minh vanh the ea nguyan mod n I A mot trading
khi va chi khi r7 la nguyen t6.
3. C hUng minh rang trifling cac sohim ti khang c6 trtiO ng
con naokhac ngoai ban than nd.
4. C hung minh rang 14than
A =ja +6 tff I a , 6 E mot trifling eon aim trilling
s6 that I t.
5. C hUng minh rang bO phan
A = {a + b + c I /41 a,
b,ceQ}
la mot truang con dm trtiang s6 tittle Ft
6. G ia sit X la mot trading, e is phgn todun vi dm X. Xet
136 phan
A = {me I n E Z}
a) C hung minh A I A mat vanh eon etia vanh X, A ca phai
la.mot mien nguyen khang ?
b) C hting minkA dang eau cal vanh cac s6 nguyen Z khi e
ea cap vohan va clang eau yeti vanh min s6 nguyen mod p khi
e ad cap p
c) Trong tniang hop e al cap p, hay cluing minh A I A mot trifling.
7. G ia sit X I A mat trifling, Yla mat tap hop da choding
vlii hat phep twin tong va than trong Y, I : X Yla mat
song anh td X dgn Ythem man
f(a + b) =f(a) + f(b)
f(ab) =f(a)f(b)
vol moi a, 6 E X.
C hang minh 'Y1a mot trudng va X = Y
8. Hay tim :
a) C ae to tong eau dm truling cac sd M tn ti.
b) C ac tp d6ng eau ciut trifling cac s6 phtic gift nguyen cac
s6 thuc.
c) C ac toclang tau cua truong the sa thug
95
9. C hung minh rang tap hop the ma trail ed clang
vai
a b
{-6
a, b
I A !lilting se thuc la mat truxig d6i yid phep O ng NT/
phep nhan ma tran, trueing nay dang thu
trtaing the sd pink.
10. C hung minh rang tap hap the ma trail c6 clang
[ a el
26 a
vie a, b E
Q I A mat trtiang the phep Wan van la the phep eang
va nhan the ma tran) clang eau WO trtiong A 0 bid tap 4.
11. Tim tttiong the tithing eta mien nguyen A trong bai tap 6.
12. C hang minh rang mai trithng deli cotrutng con be nhat
((man he thd tola
quan he baoham) clang thu hoc yeti trubng
se htiu ti, hone yid trtiO ng the s6 nguyen mod
p vii p la mat
se nguyen t6 (bai tap 11).
13. G ia sit X
la mat &tieing, A la mat vanh con eta vanh
X.
a)
C hang minh rang nail A conhieu hon mat phan t8 va A
c6 don vi, thi phiin td don vi eta A triing via phan todon vi
eta X, va lue doA la mat mien nguyen.
b) G M sit A
lit mien nguyen. C hing minh rang ba phan
P = (6-1 I a, e b O )
lit mat tniiing con eta X vb. P la
trueng the thuong eta A.
c) C hang minh rang P la trifling con be nhat trong the
throng con eta X chda A .
14. G ia sit p la
mat 56 nguyen to. C hing minh rang tap hop
cite s6 hitt ti ed clang
mkt, trong don nguyen tovia p, la mat
mien nguyen. Tim trueing the thuong eta mien nguyen thy.
96
CHUONG IV
VANH DA THUG
1.
VA NH D A THHC M O T A N
1. Vann da then mO t 6n
nal niem da flak la khai niam ma ta da lam quen it nhiau
a ph6 thong. 111 got la da O ak, met tdng c6 (bang
a, + aix+ + am?"
trong d6 cat a, i = 0 n, la nbitng s6 that va xla met chlt.
Phe-p O ng va phep nhan da thdc la
(a, + aix + + amx") + (b0 + bix+ +b/) =
a, + bo + + (am + em).?" + in +1 ++bnxn .
(a, + aix + ...+ anin)(60 + biz + ...+ bnx") =
(Lob, + (aobi + aib0)x + + (aobk +++ I
+ akb)xk +... + amen?" trong d6 ta gift sit n Tn.
es day thong ta hay dinh nghia da thdc met each tdng quat
Jadn va chinh xac hon. G ilt ad A la met vanh giaohoan, cd don
vi ki hieu la 1. G oi P la tap help the day

(a,, ai ,.., ,...)

trong docac al e A vai moi i E N va bang 0 tat ca trit met
s6 hem han. M au vey P la mot be phan via lay thaa de` cam 441. !
97
(ch I , 1, 15). al dinh nghia phep ceng va phep nhan trong
P
nhu sau
(1) (an, air-, + (be, =

(a0 + be, ai +
an + b
e
,.
(2) (a0,, ae,..)(be, bp..., =
(c
o) eV - c )
vet
akbo = Eabi, k = 0, 1, 2,...
ek =aobk
i+j=k
VI cdc al va bi
bang 0 tat ca trit met s6 huu han nen cdc
a1 + bi va ci
ming bang 0 tat ca trit met se huu han, chonen
(1) va (2) chotohat phep toim trong
P. Ta hay chdng minh
P
la met vanh giaohoan cc) don vi. Trttec M t hi4n nhien pile))
O ng la giaoholm M kat hop Phan tit khong la day
(0, 0, ..., 0, ...),

A gri tit dal cila day (a0,

a,,,..) la day (a0, ar
,. . . ,
an,..). Vey P la
met nh6m O ng giaohoan. VI A la giaohoan,
nen
i+j=k i+j=k
dodopile)) M en la giaohoan. D ophdp M an trong A c6 tinh
chat kat hop va phan phtli dal vai phep O ng, nen vol mei
m =0, 1, 2, ... -ta cd the viat
Eah Ebit/ ) = G ah(bfj
) =
h+k=m +j=kh+i+j=m

E(alibi)
= Eahbi )

h +i+j=m
j+1=m 1.1-4-i=1
tit dd toal A gri nhan trong
P la kat hop. D ay
(1, 0,..., 0,...)
98
la !Than tis don vi cim P. V ay P la 1111# vi nhdm nhan giaohoant
C u6i cling lug phan phdi trong A chophen ta vigt
E cti(bi + = E alb,/ + E aPj
i+j=k
volmoi k =0, 1, 2, ...,
trong- P.
Bay gibta hay Kat day
x =
at cothen quy tac nhan
x2 =
k3 =


=
i+j=k i+j=k
ta suy ra
(0, 1, 0
(2)
(0, 0, 1, Q...
(0, 0, 0, 1,..
(0, 0,..., 0, 1,
tit dolust phan phdi
0,
n
lh quy valc vi&t
x =(1, 0,
M at khac ta xet anh xa
A v P
a (a, 0.., 0, ..)
Xnh xa nay hign nhien la mat don eau (vanh) D odotit gib
ta clang nhat plign to a E A veil day (a, 0, ..., 0, ...) E P, tit
vi vay A la mat vanh con coo. vanh P Vi mai phan tocim P
la mat day
(%,ate, ...)
trong dothe ai bang 0 tat ca trit mat so` hitu hen, chonen mai
phalli to caa P co clang
(cto, alp ..., ac, 0,...)
trong cid a
0 ,
E A kh6ng nhat thigt khac 0. \riga (long nhat
a vO i (a, 0, 0, ...) va viac dua vaoday xchophop ta vigt
99
(a.,
%, 0, ) (a., 0, ) + (0,

a1,0, ..) +
+ (0, a., 0, ...) =(a., 0, ) + (ai ,0, ) (0, 1,0, ...) +
+ + (an, 0,
) (0, . 0, 1, 0, ) =a. + ai x+
+ ax"=

=anx + st lx+ + a
n
x".
Nob( tothubng ki hieu cac phan td elm
P
vier dual clang
+ aix + + an?
bang
f(x),
Dinh nghia 1. Vinh P goi la
heath da thhc ctia tin x
idly
he hi trong A,
hay van tat
vInh da thac cua
an x tren A , va
hiO u la A /X/
C ite O rin tit cua vanh dd goi la da thee oda
an xlay he
trong A . Trong mat da thdc
f(x) = ox + a
ix + + an?.
cac i =0, 1,
n gal la cac he hi
caa da thdc. C ac
as goi
la cac hang hi
mist da thitc, dim biO t
ace = o
goi la hang hi
hi do.
2. Bac ctla m01 da
thac

Xet mat day

(an, a. . , an, )
thuoc vanh
P Vi cac ar
bang 0 tat ca trbmot s6 hitu hart nen
nau
thi baogibcUng cd mat chi s6 n saochoa.x0 ye a, =0.
I >
n. Theonhu tren, tovita
(an,..., an, 0, .) =+ aix+ an?
Dinh nghin 2. Elbe
caa da thud khac 0
f(x) =a
ox + +an _ +
vbi a. * 0, n >0, la n. He toa. goi is
Ile to cao nlilit
cila fix)
100
NM I vhy ta chi dinh nghia bac coa mat da flit khac 0. D 61
vii da thdc 0 ta baonokhO ng c6 bhc.
D inh li 1. GU/ sit f(x) ua g(x) Ia hai da Mac kheic 0.
(i) Neu bac f(x) khac bac g(x), thi ta co
f(x) + g(x) m 0 ua bac (f(x) + g(x)) =
max (bac f(x), bac g(x)).
Neu be f(x) =bac g(x), on neu them nha
f(x) + g(x) # 0, thi ta co
bac (f(x) +g(x)) s max (bat f(x), t4c g(x)).
(ii) Neu f(x) g(x) x 0, thi ta co
bac (f(x) g(x)) Lc. bac f(x) + bac g(x).
Viac chung minh khO ng c6 gi kh6 khan, xin nhubng choban doe
D inh li 2. Neu A la mot mien nguyen f(x) tia g(x)
la hai da Mac kluic 0 cart vanh A[x], thi f(x) g(x) # 0 Mr
bac (f(x) g(x)) =bac f(x) + bac g(x).
Chang mink. G ia sd f(x), g(x) E A [x] la hai da thdc khac 0
f(x) =ac + + amain (am #0)
g(x) =bo + + (bn #0)
Theoquy tac nhan da thdc ta
f(x)g(x)=aobo + ...+(a.bk + +akbo)xk + + amboxn+m.
am va b. W inn 0, nen amb # 0 (A khO ng Tide cda kliO ng), do
d6 f(x) g(x) # 0 va bac (f(x) g(x)) =m + n =bac
f(x) + bac g(x)1
HO qua. Neu A la mien nguyen, thi A [x] cling In mien nguyen.
3. Phep chia vii du
Trong muc 2 toda thdy ngu A la mat mien nguyen thi A [x]
clang la mat mien nguyen. Ta td dat eau hei : ngu A la mat
tutting thi A [x] cophai la mat tuning khO ng ? C au hO i duqc
101
tit lbi ngay hie khac, A [x] khong phai la met truing vi da
three_ xchang han khong conghich &to. Thy fly trong truing
hop nay A[x]
la met mien nguyen dewM et, nola met vanh oclit
(eh V, 2) nghla la met vanh trong di( cc( phep chic voi du.
D inh 11 3.
Gid sit A la mot trilling, f(x) va g(x) x 0 la hai
da three ezia vanh A[x] ; thd thz bao gib wing co hai da three
day nhat q(x) va r(x) thitec A silo cho
f(x) =
g(x) q(x) + r(x), noi bdc r(x) <bdc g(x)
nen r(x) # O.
Cluing minh.
TrUtI c hdt ta hay chling minh tinh duy nha
fix) =g(x) q'(x) + bac r'(x) <be g(x)
neu
r'(x) # 0
Ta suy ra
0 =g(x) (q(x) - ex)) + r(x) -
r'(x).
I sI du r(x) =r'(x), ta co
g(x) (q(x) - q'(x)) = 0, vi g(x) # 0 va A[x]
la met mien nguyen, nen, suy m q(x) - q'(x) =0 We la
q(x) =q'(x).
G ia sii r(x) # r'(x), vay
bac (r(x) -
r'(x)) =her (g(x)(q(x) - qrx)) =bac g(x) + bac (q(x) - &fix))
(dinh I f 2).
M at khac theogia thiet va dinh I I 1
bac (r(x) - r'(x)) S max
(bac r(x), bac r'(x)) < bac g(x)
bac
g(x) + bac (q(x) - qlx)),
&du nay mau thuan voi clang thile tren. C hu y
: nau met trong
hai da thdc r(x) va r'(x)
bang 0 thi ta khong thd nit deli bac
nhung then dokhong anh hureng Uri viec chdng minh,
vi 10c dobac (r(x) - r'(x))
,
bang W.c r(x) nen r'(x) =
0 va bang
bac r'(x) ndu r(x) =0.
C on sit ton tai cua
q(x) va r(x)
thi suy ra tii thuat Wan dud!
day. Tim q(x) va r(x)
goi la three hien phep chia
f(x) cho g(x).
D a Utak q(x) goi la thuong, da thttc
r(x) la du cua f(x) cho g(x).
V iec
tim thuong va du la tic M ac ndu
b4c f(x) <bac g(x). Ta
set
102
chi can dat q(x) =0, r(x) =f(x).
Trong twang hap trai lai ta
dung nhan xet eau day :
Neu ta biet mot da attic h(x) saocho
fi(x) = f(x) - g(x) h(x)
cc) bac tittle stir be hen bac cua f(x) thi bai M an tra thanh don
gian tam : tim thadng va du cha fi (x) cho g(x). That vay, nee
fi(x) = g(x) qt (x) + ri(x), ta guy ra
f(x) =g(x) (h(x) + qi(x)) + ri(x)
tit do
q(x) =h(x) + qi(x), r(x) =ri(x)
Trong tittle tihn, vat
f(x) =+ + + ao
g(x)=bne +bn _ ixn 1 ++be , br, m 0 va n 5 m tonhan xet
am
rang, M y h(x) =thi da thtic fi (x) =
ce bac tittle sit be him bac cfm f(x), hoac fi (x)
tniang hop f (x) =0, dv r(x) =
0 va thitang q
fi (x) x 0 ta tip tut vai fi (x), ta dude f2(x)... D ay da tilde fi(x),
f2(x)... ce bac giam dam Khi ta di den mot da tittle ce bac flute
sit be ban bac mitt g(x) thi da thI c d6 chinh la du r(x.). Ngu
mot da thtic cfm day bang 0 thi dv r(x) = 0. D e nhin thay 1.6
hon ta hay vast ra the bade ma ta da thuc hien d6 duqc day
fi (x),
fi (x) =f(x) - g(x) h(x)
f2 (x) =ft(x) - g(x) hi (x)
fk(x) =fk_ 1 (x) - g(x) hk_ k(x)
vai fk(x) =0 hoac bac fk(X) <be g(x). D ing va yea ve cite clang
thtic de 1ai, ta duqc
f(x) - g(x) h(x)
bang 0. Trong
(x) = h(x). Ngu
103
f(x) =g(x)(h(x) + h
i (x) +
+ hk _1(x)) + fk(x),
tit do
q(x) =h(x) + h
i(x) + + hk _1(x), r(x) =fk(x).
n
V i du.
Trong time flan cla time hien

chic fix) cho g(x),

no.tbi to sap
did nhu sau da lap day f
i(x), f2(x)...
1) A la tntbng 56 him tl.
x3 7x2 + 2x42x2 + 2r 1
1
x3 + x2
2 x
1
x + 4
8x2 +
2
x 4
8x2
+8r 4
11
2 x
Tvd6
x3 7x2 + 2x4=
(-2x2 + 2x1) x + 4) x.
2) A
la trubng cac s6 nguyan mod 11
1x3 7x2 + ix4-aX2 aX -
- Tx3 + 1x2 - 5x
6x+ 4
- 8X2 aX - g
- 8X2 gX - g
0
V ay
1
7x2 2x4=(-2x
2 + 2x1)(6x+ 4)
104
Tit (hobnghia 2 (ch I I I , 1, 2) va djnh 11
. 3 ta cothe khA c
ha qua.
H. qua.
f(x) chia hit cho g(x) khi va chi *hi du trong phep
chin f(x) cho g(x) bang 0.
4. NghiO m cga mO t da thtic
D inh nghia 3. G M si
c la
mO t phan tit tag g eim vanh A ,
/la/ = an
4- apc + + an
i la mO t da thlic thy 3, cim vanh
Aix] ; phiin tit
f(c) =an + aic + +
ane e A
dttqc bang each thay
x bai c goi la
gin tri caa f(x) tai c. Ngu
f(c) =0 thi c
goi la
nghigm caa f(x)
Tim nghiem ciut f(x) trong
A goi la gidi phuong trinh dui s6 b4c tt
ant + + a
n L-- 0 (a
n *
trong A.
D inh H 4.
Gid sit A la mdt &yang, c
E A , f(x) E Aix]. The
can pile)) chia f(x) cho x - c In f(c).
Ching mink. Ngu ta chia
f(x) chox- c, du hoac bang 0 hoac
la mat da tilde bac 0 vi bac
(x - c) bang 1. S lay du la mat
phan tii
r E
A . Ta cd
f(x) =(x - c) q(x) +
r
Thay x bang
c, to dupe
f(c) = 0 q(c) +
r,
vfly
r =f(c). n
HO quA . c la
nghiqm caa f(x) khi
vet chi khi f(x) chin hit
cho x - c.
Thqc M an phep chia
f(x) =anx" + 1 + + an
cho
c, ta dude cac he td cua da tilde
thing
q(x) =b
oxn i
+ bizji 2 + + n _
105
chobelt cac cO ng flute
bo =ao, bi = + cbi
- 1
va du

r =an + _ 1.
Vi r =f(c), ta say
ra mat pluming phdp (phuong plulp Hoocne)
dg tinh f(c) bang sodc"eau day :
a a, a
chb
0 n -1
trong dorani phan totaa clang thd nhi doge bang each cO ng
vaophan tit taring ang mla ding thil nit&tich cita
c voi phan
to dilng trot&clang tht? nhi.
D inh nghia 4. G ia sit A la mat tniang, c E A , fix) E Aix]
va m la mat ea tonhien 1, c I A nghiem bei cap m nau va
chi nal' f(x) chia hat cho (x - cfn va f(x) khO ng chia hgt cho
(x - Trong trUang hop m = 1 noted ta can goi c I A
nghiem don, In = 2 thi c la nghiem Jeep.
Ngtted ta coi mat da thttc ea mat nghiem bed cap m nhu mat
da thole c6 m nghigm trimg vai nhau.
5. Pit W. dai sd ve phiin td sieu vi5t
WA sit A la mat truong con cim mat truitmg
K, c E K va
f(x) =ao + aix+ + ane
la mat da tittle dm. vanh A M . Lac do, vi a
o,..., an E A nen
ao, a1, ..., an E K, dode ta cothg coi f(x) la mat da thim lay
he tit trong K va f(c) la mat phan tothuO c
K. Ngu f(c) = 0 thi
c goi la
nghiem cka met da this lay he to trong A.
Dinh nghia 5. G ial sit A
I A mat truting con caa mat truting
K. M at phan to c E K goi la dai so tren A nau c la nghiem
dm mat da G lue khan 0 lay lag totrong A ;
c goi la sieu Met
tren A trong trttang hop trai
106
/qui vay bito c lit dai ad trait A cd nghia la ton tai nhiing
pilau tit ai e A (0 s i f ti) khang bang khang tat cat, saocho
ao aic + + anon =O .
V i du. 1) C ac phgn td aim truang A clau dai ad trail A .
2) Trong truaing sd thtte R, la dal sd trail tniang ad him
ti Q, n la kali vial trait Q. Trong truting s6 pinic C , mgi sd
plata la dai s6 tren truaing sd thue I t. Thvc fly, M O ad pink
z=a + bi la nghiem efut da thawx2 tax+ a2 b2.
(Na air A la mat truaing con ciut mat truong K, c E K I ra
f(x) E A[x] . f(c) goi la mat, da thac ciao phan to c lay he td
trong A . BO phan cua K gam the phan td co dang f(c) ki hiau
la A te]. D 6 dang that), A [c] la mat vanh con dim vanh K, goi
la oath da Mac can phan to c lay he tit trong A . 'Pa cd th6
eh:Ling minh A[c] la vanh con be nhgt cim K chda A va c.
D inh li 5. G id sit A la mat truOng con cart mat non& K
viz c la mot phan to that K. Neu c la sten oiN tren A thi A[c]
ddng cdu tun yard] da Mac A[x] clic] do x. Neu c l did sd tren
A thi. AEC] dang edit Si mat uanh thuong cats uanh
Chang mink. X6t anti xa
: A [x] + K
f(x)I n f(c)
Hign nhien sola mat ding eau (vanh) va I mp =A [c].
Theo he qua tin Binh li 13 trong (ch I I I , 1, 5) tocd
A [c] =A [x] / Ker p
Trong trtiO ng hap c lit sidu viat tren A , f(c) = 0 khi va chi
khi f(x) =0. fly Ker p = (0). D odo
A[c] = Mx] {0}= Aix]. n
BA I TA P
1. Trong vanh da tilde A [x], (A la trureing Z/3Zthe s6 nguyen
mod 3), hay tim tat ea eau da tilde cd bac la :
a) 2 ; b) 3 ; c) n.
107
2. Trong Nth da fink Z/5Z[x] hay tilde hign the !M ap nhan
+
4x O X2 + I x + 4
( _I t2 + ix
+3)2.
3. Trong vanh da fink Z/6Z[x] hay thuc hian phap nhan
(2x3 + + lx) (5X2 + 3x+
Vanh nay c6 tide coa 0 hay khong ?
4. Trong vanh Z/57,[x] hay time M an phep C hia
f(x) =+1%2 ir T
cho
g(x) = 2x2 + 2s
5. Trong vanh Z/7Z(4 hay xac dinh p de du cim O len C hia
+ px + 5 cho122 + bang 0
6. Trong Walla Q/4 cluing minh rang da thtic
(x+1)24 x2 2x - 1
C hia hgt cho
a) 2x+ 1 ; b) x+ 1 ; c) x.
7. C hang minh rang da fink x2 + 14 C Z/15Z[x] c6.4nghiem
trong Z/15Z.
8. G ia sit A la mat truemg va f(x) la mat da thdc bac n ciut
vanh A fxl. C hdng minh f(x) ed khong qua n nghiam 'M an Het
trong A .
9. D inh li 3 cri can citing nila khong ngu A la mat vanh va
g(x) la mat da tilde co ho tit caonhat bang dun vi ?
10. C hang minh rang dinh li 4va he qua ciut nd con dting
vol A la mat vanh.
11. C hting minh kat qua trong bai tap 8) can dung yid A la
mat mien nguyan.
12. Xel clang eau p trong dinh I I 5. C httng minh Ker
W
la
mat idean nguyen to(ch I I I , 1, bat tap 14)).
108
2. VA NH D A THUC NHI U AN
1. Wirth da thdc nhidu an
'Prong 1 ta da xay dung vanh da thdc mO t I n A[x] 14 he
tit trong mO t vanh A . D O la vanh ma cac phan tit la dm day
(a., a
t , ..., trong d6 cac ai E A bang 0 tat al frit mO t
s6 him I lan. D ay (0, 1, 0,...) &lac hi hiO u la x. Tat nhien ngu
ta kG hiO u day dola y thi ta lai M hiO u vanh da xay dung la
A [y] va g9i la vanh da tilde caa I n y. Bay gibta hay dinh
nghia vanh da thdc ona it an M y 110 td trong mO t vanh A bang
quy nap nhu sau.
D inh nghia 1. G iA sit A la mO t vanh giaohoan cci don vi.
Ta dal
A l = A [x1
]
A 2 =A 1 [X21
A
3
=
A 2
[x
3
]
A n
=A n_dxn]
vanh A a =A n_ i [xn] ki hiO u la A[xp x2, ..., xi.,] va goi la vanh da
thdc cita n In x1, x2, xn ldy h6 tit trong vanh A. M O t phan
tit cAa An g9i la mO t da thdc cita it In x1, x2,..., ; 16y 14
td trong vanh A , nguili ta I d hiO u nobang f(xl, x2,..., xn) hay
g(xl, x2,..., xn)...
Tit dinh nghia 1 ta c6 day vanh
A . = A C C A 2 C C A.
trong doA 1 _, la vanh con cast A , i =1, 2,..., rt.
Bay gibta hay xet vanh A 1 [x2] =A [x1 , x2]. D O la vanh da
tilde eta I n x2 lay hO tit trong A l =at ]. Vay mai phan tit
cda A [x1 , x2 ] cci thg vigt duel clang
(1) f(x1,x2) = an(xt) +
a
l(x1 )x2 + + an(x1)x2 vfri ale ai(xi) E
(2) a,(x1 ) =A i + bit xl + .. +bemir. i = 0, n
vl A [x1 , x2] la mO t vanh non ta c6 phep nhan phan ph6i d6i
veil 014O ng, dodo f(xi, x2 ) con cothg vigt
109
(3) Art , x2) =c1
411412 +c
2421 422 + + einxion 402
vO i cac ci E A , the an, a i2 la flitting s6 tut nhien va (a,1 , a,2)
(ail, ai2 ) khi i x j. C ac ei goi lit the ha to va the ciefief goi
la the hqng to cda da this f(x1,. x2). C hang han x6t. da thde
Asp x2) E Z[X , x2] vbi Z lit vanh cac s6 nguyan
f(x1 , x2) =x3i 1 + + 2).x2 + (4 +a, - 1)x22 =
=x3i 1 + x1 x2 + 212 + :434 + I C A
D a this f(x1 x2) =0 khi va chi khi the ha t8 ci dm nobang
0 S t ca. That S y nelt the ei =0 thi 1.6 rang f(x1, x2) =O .
D eolai gia f(x1, x2) =0. Via f(x1, x2) dual dang (1), ta
dugc cac da this (2) bang 0 tat ca, We la
bio== bin= =
D ining cac c1 ,. , cm trong (3) chinh la the
=7I, dochi
c i = C 2 = = cm =
0.
Bang guy nap ta chang minh mO i da BS c f(x1, x2, ..., xn)
cda vanh x2, ..., :rt
.] coth6 via dual clang
(4)
f(xi, x2,..., xn) =cixain ++ cm.491 .../ennovbi cac
ci E A , can ai1, am, i =m, la. nhang sot9 nhian va
(air..., am) x(n p ..., khi i x j. C ac c1 pi la the ha td,
cat gra la cac hang td curt da thtie f(x1 , x2,...,
ES than f(x1 , x2,..., xn) =0 khi S . chi khi cac ha ti dm no
bang 0 tat ca.
C hohai da thtic f(x1,..., xn) va exp. xn) baogibta sung
coth6 via chi-mg olden clang sau day
AS",
xn)
=Xfi :tin + + cnixaimi _49. (6)
g(xi xn) =+ + xna.
trong de (alt, an) . # (a1 ,aj d khi i x j.
1 10
C hang han, vol fix,, x2) =+xix2 va ,g(xi, x2) =
=ax
1
2 xx
1
+
2
+ x
2'
ta viat
2
NI , x2) =xi + 0xi4 +xix2 +0x2
g(xi , x2) = 0+21 + 2XI X22 XiX2 +x
2
ta c6 tang, hien, tich mitt fix, xn) va xn) la
D ocac tinh chat mitt cac phep than trong vanh A fx, ,
ni
fix xn) g(xi, xn) = daxain ...x0m
txxi,
xn)
ext,
xn
) = E cedie,ii+ap
+a,,

i,j
i =M ; m
Tit mat da D oi bang 0 khi vb. chi khi the 110 ti tha ttd
bang 0, ta suy ra hai da thdc xn) xn) Wing
nhau khi va chi khi thong c6 the hang toy nhu nhau. That
vay set hai da thtic fix, xn), xn) thy y (5). Hien coa
chang la
. xn) - xn) =E (c1
i=
D od6 xn) - ex = 0 khi va chi kill c - di =0,
i =1 tire la f(x,,..., xn) = g(xi ,. . . , xn) khi va chi
khi cii = M.
2. BO
D inh nghia 2. G ia sit /Try x,) E A [xi, xn] la mot
da thole klitte 0
f(x, ,=

..yanm +
+ c,n.X1.01 . 40,1
vol the c #0, i =1, ..., M vb. (au,(a p,khi
i # j. of la bdc caa da thdc trap xn) dot veri an xi s6
mu th caonhat ma xi c6 dome trong e hang tit cim da thug.
111
Ngu trong da thde xn) an xi
khang cd mat thi bac ciia
xn) dal yea nd la 0.
Ta g9i la bac cars hang tee ...4n tong cac s6 mG
aii + + (ti eda cac dn.
Bat cda da Mac
(dal bed than thg the an) lit s6 I on nhgt
trong the bac elm the hang tit dm nd.
D a fink 0 la da tilde khang cobac.
Ngu the hang td eita fix1 , xn) cd ding bac k thi f(xp..., xn)
g9i la mat da three thing cap bite k
hay mat eking bt).e k. Dac biOt
mat clang bac nhat gia la clang tuyin tinh,
mat clang bac hai gel
la dang than phttong,
mat dung bac ba gel la clang lap phuong.
V i du. Da thdc
Az, , x2 , x3) =2x1244 4x2 + 34+4-5x344-44x3 +6
s b6
+ I A 9, nhung &A i veil x1 nd cd bac la 2.
D A sap xgp cac hang toelm mat da tilde
f(xp xn) khae
0 ta cd thg sap x0p
nd theothe lay thita tang hay giam dal
vai mat tin flan dd. C hitng han, trong vi du tren ta cothg sap
xgp Pap x2, x3) thee cac lay thita I ui mitt 4.
f(x1 , x2 , x3) =4(1 x2) + xi(2443 5x324) + 34 41-5 2x3 + 6
hay theothe lay thila lid dm
x2
f(xt , x2 , x3) = 44x3 +x3(2.xix53 4x2 + + 34+ 6
hay theothe lay thita lui dm x3
f(4, x2 , x3) =34+2%14%35 A xi4x32 445 x2ix2 +x2i + 6.
Ngoai cac each sap x6p dd, nguai ta can cd mat each sap
xgp gal la
each sap xep theo !di tit dien
(giting each sap xgp
the chit trong td then). C ad) sap xgp nay
data
tren quan he
Qui to
toan phan da xac dinh trong tich dd bac
(n a 1)
yea N la tap hap cae s6 to
nhien (ch 1, 2, bai tap 10). Ta co,
theoquan he that to cig,
(a1 ,a2,...,an ) > (b 1 ,h2,..., bn)
112
nee va chi ne'u cd met chi se i = 1, 2,..., rt saocho
al =ai =61 _ 1 ,ai >bi
Quay lai da thtic f(xi, x2, 13) trong vi du tren, the so` mu
trong mai hang tit chota mO t phan tit thuec N3, cu the ta cci
7 phan t8 thuoc N3 : (1, 3, 5), (2, 1, 0), (0, 0, 9), (2, 0, 0),
(1, 3, 2), (0, 5, 1), (0, 0, 0) ma theoquan hO thti ta dang xet -
cheng stip thu tut nhu sau
(2, 1,0) >(2, 0, 0) >(1, 3, 5) >(1, 3, 2) >(0, 5, 1) >
(0, 0, 9) >(0, 0, 0)
vol (2, 1, 0) la phan tit I on nhtt. Viet cac hang tothrong ang
caa f(xl, x2, 13) theothd tren
fixt x2 x3) = xix2 +4 +20144- 6x
1
x3
2t
3 4r52x3 + 34+ 6
ggi la sap xtp f(xi, 12, x3) theolei ta dign.Hang tit -4x2
tudng ling vei phan tolen 'that (2, 1, 0) gat la hang td cao
nhdt coa. f(xi, 12, x3).
D inh li 1. Gid sit f(xi, mOt da the& udi hang to
cao nit& g(xi, xn) Id mOt da thtic vat hang tit
cao nhdt la dxbi ...xbn. a& gid sU >(bi,..., b,,). Thl thi
hang tri cao nhdt diet da the& tang f(xi, xn) + g(xi xn)
la all _4,
Chiang mink. Ta hay vitt f(xl, va x) duel dang
xn) =cliqu + + crnxI si

=d1
a1;11 , xan=dmx7ml xnamn
voi c ix`it it =
=0
i , , a,_ 1,>(all,ai
d i =
I n.
Ta xn) + xn) =
(c1 + di).x7n + + (cm "+ d
O A I s6...-on
113
D odohang tit caonhgt aim da thdc tang lit
(el + 4.ta =
ann.
n
Ha qua. Old sdft(x1,xn), fk(xl,
la nhang da
them to hang
hi cao
?theft theo the tzt la
celki
oh gid sit
(an, ..., am) >(a21, a2n) >
aim)
The thi cixin
la hang tit cao nhdt cart da thee tong
xn) + + fk(xl, xd.
Tap hop sap the D i I V con la mot vi nhdm giaohoan din
via phdp O ng (ch I I , 1, hal tap 5)
(al,an) + (bp ..., b,) =(a1 + bi , .,
an
+
b.)
Phgp O ng nay va quan he the 41 trong

cd tinh chat
B6 de 1. Neu
..., air) >(bp ,..,
thi (05 + c1,
+ c.) >(b1
..., bn + cn)
vet most'c3, ..., en) E Nn.
Chung mink. VI
(ct i, ..., an) >(bi,bn)
ngn cd mO t chi s6 i =1,
saocho
at
b a. =b.
a1 >b.
1
1-1.,
dodd
at + ci =bi + ct ,
+ c
1
_ 1 =
a1 + ci >b +
Hg quit. Neu

, an) >, tin)

uct
, cn) >(di,
, de)
thi (a1 +
+ cn) >(b +d
1 , ..., bn + dn)
114
Clang mirth. Theobd dg 1
(ai + cp ..., an + en) >(al + b + c
n) >(1), + dt by, dii). n
Tit 136 de 1 va he qua cua no, ta say ra
Eljnh H 2. Gin set f(xi, xn) vh g(xi, xn) lit hai da auk khan
0 caa vanh tit
] c6 Mc hang to cao nhdt theo thd tit lit
c lxjii .. xnm oh dixin NM cid]
x 0 Oa hang tit cao nhdt eta
da that tich , xn)
x,,) la cidixlii +ba
Chang minh. G ia su
xn) =citin
+ + ettain ,x:e
g(xi,..., xn) =
rbninciprei rnt x:ron
da O gee sap xgp theo161 todign. D igu doc6 nghia la

aln) >(a
n,..., aid veil mai i =1
va (b11,..., bin) >birit val moi j
Ta hay chang minh

d
I
. tam +b1
la hang tocaonhgt cua da thee tich
xn) xn).
Nhan f(xj ,..., xn) vdi xn) ta &roc

xn) =
di +... +bjn
ij
i= 1, ..., 1
j = 1, m
M ai hang tocs xla .,. x:e +bln chota pagn tv

b
J1r ath + bird E Nn
Theobd de 1 I ra he qua dm nd, ta c6 rat bgt Bang thin
115
+ bin) >(
bin) >(aa + bii ,
abt
b
in) >(a11 + as, by) ,
Vay hang tit
C i di aqii +b 1 1 +b
chinh la hang Wcaonhgt e8a da thdc tich.
n

HO qua. Ndu A la ntbt miM nguyen thi xn 1 cling bay.

3.
O a thtic d6i xO ng
G U sit A la mot vanh giaohaul cO don vi. Trude hdt ta hay
xet vanh da thile 2 an
, x2
]. Trong vanh nay ta chu y tai
hai da thdc Taobiat sau day
f(xi , 12) =xl + x2 , g(xi , 12) = xi x2 .
C ac da thdc nay cO tlnh chat : nabta thay x
1 bang x2 vii
x
2
bang x
1
thi da thdc along thay &di
f(xi , 12) =x
l
-I - x2 =x2 +x1 = f(1 2 , xi)
ext , 12) = xi x2 = x2 xi , xi)
Tsang vanh A ix]. , x2
i khong phai chi ed hai da dote doc6
dabchat nhovay, chang han da tilde

r(xi , 12) =+ 4-
xi x2
cling chota
V(xi

2) p(X2 , xi)
M O t each tdng quid
116
D inh nghia 3. G ia sit A la mot vanh giaohoan cd don vi,
f(xi , . , x,) la mot da than aim vanh 21[tr1 xn]. Ta bao
f(xi ,.., xn) la met da these dot xung can n donau

f(xi , x2 , ., xn) =x1(2) , ., x1.00)

yea moi phep the

( 1 2 ...n
=
v(1) v(2) ... r(n)

tegio) suy ra tit f(xi bang each thay trong

x,) x1 bea bdi
x1(n)
.
V i Trong Walla Z[xi , x2 , 13] da theta
f(x1 , x2 , x3) = 4x2 +
x2
x3+
x3 x
1 + x1 xi + x24 +
+ x3
1 x
2 + 211 12 13
la d61 xdng. That vey ta they ngay rang
f(xi , x2 , x3) = f(x2 , 13 , xi) =
f(13, x
i , 12) =
=1(12 , xi , x3) f(x3 , x2 , x1
) =f(x1, x
3 , x2).
M uO n ed f(x3 , x2 , xi) clang hen, ta thay x1 bang 13 x2 bang
x2 , ; bang x1 trong f(x1 , x2 , x3) , ta duet
f(x3 , x2 , xi)
2
=x32 x2 + x2 x1 + xi x3 + x3 x22 + x2 xi +
-Ex x
2
+ 2x3 x x
3 3 2 1
dode.
f(x1, x
2 , x3) = f(x3 , x2 , x1 ).
D inh I i 3. B3 ph3n gbm cdc da that d6i rang caa vanh
A[xi ,.., xn] la mot yank con caa vanh .A.[xi ,., xn]
Ch'ing mirth. G U sit f(x1 xn) I ra ex, , xn) la nhang da
thac d6i xang, nghia la
, xn)
=A XT " T(n))
117
Va
g(z i
xn) = gix
tio
yid moi phdp thg t. Thg thi
x) g(
x
t c.)
xn)
=

coo) g(x.rioco)) ;
f(xi xn) =
xr
dg(co) ,-,
vii mot phep thg T. n
C dc A gin tocart A la nhang da thtic dot
tray mai phan td a E A cothe yigt
a = ax? xn .
M oi da tilde del ringf(x1 xn) E4A nhgt thigt phai chira
tat ca it an
Nth phai cc; ding mat bac dai wit mai gn do: that
fly nguf(x1 xn) oft
mat hang td trong d6 chaa mat an
xi
vai s6 mu la k, thi noTing c6 hang tit suy ra tit hang tit ay
bang each thay thg x, bai xj
, tic lit hang tit ch/a vat ding
se ma k.
C ac da thtic sau day
=+ X2 + + S r,
=X2 + Xi X3 + Xn
1
x
n
53 = X1 X2 X3 +x1 X2 X4
+ xn _2 xn _ Ixn

ern 1 = XI X2 ;" Xn I n 2
= x1 1 2
... xn
ming la nhang da th/c clef ring, ggi la cac
da theft d6i xang
co
bdn. C hung citing mat vai tre quan trong trong if thuygt cac
da th/c dra ring dodinh li clitai day.
Trude khi de cap Uri Binh
n))
ring dac biet. That
us\
I i
d6, tohay dea vaoki hieu sau day. G ia
sit g(xi ,..., xn) la mat
da thee tha ,..., xis] , phtin tocim A ki
codude bang
each thay trong g(xi ,..., xn) : x1 bed eri, x2 bee 62, ..., bai an
Ed la met da thee -
the, the da thee 461 ring toban, ki hieu
la g(81 ,..., an) .
C hang han A rai n =2 va g(x
i , x2) =- 4x2
thi g(st , 62) =6j 62 . VI 61, ..., an la nhiing da thtic dai
ring men on)
M ing la met da thee elai ring theodinh
11 3. C hang han
g(51 , 62) =6i
62 =(x+
x2)2 x
l
x2 = 4+xi x2 +
la mot da thee d61 ring dm x
1 va x2 . Nhu vO y, M O I da thee
eaa the da thae dal rang coban 6
1 , ..., a
n
I A met da thee dai
ring tha n x1 ,..., xi
, . D ieu ciaolai M ing thing nci la nal dung
mkt dinh li 4sau day, thta tren cite b6 de :
Bodg 2. Gid sti f(xi ,..., xn) C a
mot da thdc ddi ming khac
0 at =71 ... xan
n la hang td cad nhdt act no The thi
a1
3 a 3- 3 an

Chung mink.
Ta phai C hung minh ai yin moi i =2,...,n.
Vi xn) la 461 rung, nen f(x
i in
) phai chtia hang tit
suy ra tit hang tit
well
x:n
bang each thay x
i _ I bai xi va xi bai xi _ . Nau ai >ai _ thi
(a1 ,..., ai _ 2
,
ai , a1 _ 1 ,.., an) >(a1 ,..., a1 _ 2 ,
a1_1,
ai ,..., an)
dod6
axis
khong phai lit hang tit can nhat, mau than vai gia thigt.
n
dd 3. Gid sit al , .., an /4 nhung se to nhien
sao cho
ai 3 az.. 3 an
119
The thi da thac
f(x
l ,..., xn) = 6 7 1
-
2 lei - 3
anay- 0,,,ro
trong da 6t ,..., 6^
la cac da thac ddi xang co bad, eh hang tit
cao nhdt la
...
Chang ainh.
C ac hang tocaonhat M a cri , 62 ,
theothd tola
C rn - 1 , C n

X1 , Xi x2 XI X2 ... Xn _ 1 ,xi X2 ... xn .

.4
clang dinh li 2 tocd hang tit
' caonhat M a fixi xn) la

22 (xi x2).2 a3 (xi x2 ... x^ _

1
)a _ 1
(x, x2 ... xrdan
= x7 , x:a. n
B6 de 4. Cid sit al
la mat s6 to nhien. BO ;Man M caa !sr,
v6i N la tap hap cac s6
to nhien, gain the phan hi
(t1 , t2 ,..., tn)
sao cho
al 3 tI L t
2
la hau han.
Chting mink G oi L
la tap hop hat han g6m cac s6 tonhien
0, 1, ..., a,
. Hign nhien L^ hvu han vft M C L^ , dodd M
Witt han.
BS d6 5. Gia sa g(51 dn
) let mat da Mac caa cac da
the& ddi xang co ban
us) =di e21 11
trong d6 c; x 0 ; i =1, m, vet ,ain) m taw ...,
i x. j. Thd thi an) = 0.
120
Chang mink. Thay 61 bang x1 + x2 + + xn , 6n bang
x1 x2 ... xn trong g(op ..., on) ta dude met da thdc cua citc an
xi X2 xn
g(xi + x2 + + xn , xi x2 xn) =f(x1 xn
=E
f, (xi
x)
i =1
vat
n
=ci (x, + x2 + (xi x2 .
= 1, 2, ..., m.
Hang tat caonhat caa da thdc f (x1 , xn) theodinh li 2 la
ci alc. (xi x2)12,2 ... (x1 x2 Xjain = ei
vat ail + a2 + + am = ku
ai2 ain = ki2
ain
= kin
Hang td caonhat cUa mai da thee f. (x ,

xn) chota phan

tit (kit ,k12 kin) E Ta co
k2 kin)
m
(k11 k12 ,

kfr,) khii # j
vi ndu
(kit,
ki2 ,
thi a
il
= k kit =kJ, kj2 =
ail =
kit kin = ki2 ki3 = ai2
=
ajn
kin) =(k11 , k.
2
, kin) vet i m j
121
vai i # j, matt thuan via gia thi(t. Vi N'1 sap the to than phan
nen be phan hriu han O m the plain t' ,km) i = 1,
2, m c6 phan tit km nhat, clang han
(k
11 k
12 ,kin) la
phtin tit I an nhat. Theohe qua elm dinh li 1, c
i tets xji ;I I PI la
hang tit can nhift cua f(xt , xn) V 2y
g(51 , ..., on) =f(x1 xn) la khitc O . n
HO quit. Gid set
x) = cm4o1
h'(xl , xn) =+ +
, a
xn
um
mx
I
to x
n
um
itt hat da Mite trong d6 am) # am) khi i # j,
sao cho
on) = h'(op on);
thd thi
Cluing mirth. G ia sit #el D id
g(op..., on) = on) ..., an) =
(c1 C /21n (cm ern) 07.1

61rit mn
Vi c # c'
1
nen e' 1 #0. Theobd (I S 5
an) #
0
.
Nhung theogia thiet g(op ..., on) =0, mem thuan. n
D inh li 4. Gid srt f(xl , x2 , xn) E Alxi , x2 , ..., mot
da thee dot sung khac 0. Thd thi co mOt vet chi mot da lilac
h(xp x2 ,..., xn) E Afxl , x2 ,..., x
n)
sao cho f(xi , x2 ,..., ;) = hasi,
62,
trong do an 62, ..., an la cdc da Mac d6i xang co ban.
122.
Cluing mink Ta hay sap xep f(xi , xn) thee 161 to'dign, gig
sit
ax73 xa2zxn"

la hang tit caonhat tha f(xi , xn) . Theo66 de 2, ta th

a3 a an
B6 de 3 chota bids da fink
a 61; 1- az lei - (13 6nn 1
ciing cd hang tit cao(that la
a tE t
'C at hieu
fl (xi
n) =f(x, , 6
2
2 a3 C a nn
Ngu fl (x1 , x,,) m 0, ta hay sap xep notheo161 din
va gia sit
la hang tit caonhat oda n6
Theoclink li 3 : f
l
(x1 , ..., cling la mot da thde del xiI ng,
va dodd thee be de 2
61 62 bn .
M at M ade, tobigu M ule cua hieu hai da thac (m0c 1), ta cci
(al
, a2 , an) >(bi
, 62,",
dod6
Xet hi0u
12 (x1 , . xn) =(xi ,
123
Ngu f2 (x1 xn) #
0, ta hay sap xep n6 theolei tit diet)
Ira
gia sit
y xit . ynn
la hang tit caonhgt cim nci ; M ing li luan nhtt del veil
fi (xi ,xn) ta ductc
c 3 e2 3 3 c
vie
(b1 , b2 , bn) >(c1 , c2 , ..., en)
Qua trinh d6 kheng the dai ra vO tan vi the Win tit
(al , an) , (bi , bn) , (e1 , ., cn)
ma todude la nhung phan
tit cim tap him M nun
han trong be de 4. Vay qua trinh M tn
phai them dill,
We la sau mat se M u han Jou&ta
se phai dupe

0
= Tx
(xi
x) A CI? 12 4-13
Ta suy ra tit dd rang
f(xi , x2 , " xn) =a a e22.

1 1 / 1
Cnn 6.11 2 C 22 3 ... Unn .
Vay da thee h(xi , x2 , .. xn) can tim la da fink
11.(2C i , .X2 , 2., x,) =et / a1 a3 x,2 41,
xb b 2 xb z 6 3
2
1 I I 1 1
G ia sit comot da flute
le(xi , xn)
hit; , otn) =f(xi ,
an) =
an).
tip dung he qua dm b'O ' de 5 ta co
h(xi xn) =h'(xi , xn). n
saocho
TM thi
124
Phep chdng minh coa
dinh
I i 4!M ang nhitng chota bigt stt
ton tai Na duy nhgt ciut da thtic
h(x , xn) , nd don chota
mat phuong phtip thuan tin de thitnh lap
h(xi ,.:., xn). Vide tim
da thlic h(xi , xn) saocho f(xt , xn) = h51 ,..,an) got la
bidu thi da thug diti ring xn)
qua cac da thile d61 ring
coban C 1 , ..., dn.
Vi du. Trong vanh da tittle Z[xi , x2 , x3] trig ha s6 nguyen
hay bidu thi da thac ddi ring
x3 + x2
X3 + 2x
1
x
2
+ 2x x + 2x
2 3
1 3 2
qua the da tittle d61 ring coban 6
1 , 62 , 43 .
Truoc hgt ta nhan xet rang
2x
1
x
2
+ ?x
i
x
3
+ 2x
2 x3=
26
2
\ray chi can xet da tittle dai ring
f(xi , x2 , x3) =+ .32 +x3.

Hang tit caonhgt cua nd la x

i x3 x x
3
- Theodinh li 4

t 2
ta lap da thug

/3 (xi , x2 , x3) = f(x1 , x2 , x3) Oro -0 a(3)

=+ + x33 _ (x, + x2 + x3)
3
(3x2i x2 + 3x2i x3 + 3x1 x2 ,2 + 3x1 x2 + 3x2 x3 + 3x2 xj + fix, x2 x3).
Van theodinh li 4, ta lai sap
xgp nd theolot tit dign va
tim hang tit caonhgt elm 11 (x1 , x2 , x3) . Nhung trong trUting
hap C u the' nay ta nhan xet
rang
xj x2 + xi r3 + xl r22 + + x
x3 + x2 .3 =
=
(x1
+ x2 + x3) (x, x2 +xl x, + x2 x3) - 3x1 x2 x3
D odofi (xi ,
x2,
x3) = 361 62 + 3a3 .
25
D uel cling
x3
) =61 36162+363
2x
1
x
2
+ 2x1 x
3
X3

2x2 =
va
=
6
2 + 3153 + 252
Trong thgc tign ngdO i ta con (I da ra mat s6 nhan xet de
viac bigu din dirge nhanh clidng hon. Ta hay xet try&M t mat
da Vide dgi ximg clang cap xn) EA [x1 xnl cd hang
td caoM I &la
a a
a X
I
l X
2
2
Vay bac dm /(x, xn) la + a2 + + an . VI cac da thilc
dal ring ca ban al, 62, ..., 6 la Bang cap cd bac theothd ta
la 1, 2, ..., n, nen da thdc tieh
a
- 012- 43
M ing clang cap va cd bac la
al
- a2 + 2(a2 - a3) + + nan =al + a2 + +
D odd
11(X1 , X2 , ...; xn) =fix]. 7 x2 , d - a bai l 42 012 -43
M ing (tang cap va ed bac la a1 + a2 + + an ngu nd khac O .
S ap xap
fl
(xi ,..., xn) theo161 td din va gia six /34xi nn la
hang tit caonhat cua nd thg nil
61 + b2 + + bn = al + a2 + an
va (a1 , a2 ,.., an) >, 62 ,.
Theodinh li 4ta cd mat day hdu han phan td cna lc"
(6) (a 1 ,..., an) > ton) >(c1 , c 2i) >.
126
thent man tinh chat
a1
et. an
(7) bi bn
va trong truing hop 6 day
(8) al + + an =61 + + b =
D ocd them tinh chat (8) nen s6 phtin tit aim day (6) giam
di nhieu. Tap hop can phetn tit aim day (6) la met be phttn cot%
tap hop him han
M =,tin) , (tmi , tmn)}
trong dci
>
va.
iii + ti2 + + tin = cti + a2 + + an
vet i =1 , 2, rn. Theodinh 11 4f(xi , xn) via dyed clang
E
f(Xi
3Cn) =
upr
i -1
vet ti e A vet ti =0 nen (tti , , tin) khO ng cd mat trong day (6)
hay quay lai da thee
f(xi , x2 , x3) = 4 +
Tap hop M d day la
= {(3, 0, 0), (2, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)1
D odd
fix, , x2 , x3) =t1 61- 0 602 - 0 + r2 621 -1 621 - 0 6-03 +
r3 ' 621 =6-;
2
2 61 62 + C 3 ;
127
ti
la lig tit eim hang tit caonhat tha
/Oil , x2 , x3), dodO
gi 1. M utin cor2 , r3, ngubi tothay x1 , x2 , x3 theothd to
bang 1, 1, 0 ta M ale
2 =8 + 2g2
dodo r2 =-3. S au dothay x1 , x2 , x3
theothe tobang 1, 1,
-1 ta co
1 =1 + 3.- 13
hay

a3
=
3
Vay x2 , - x3) =- 36162 + 363
Pinning 'tip vita thing goi lit phoong phap vgri
h6 td M t dinh.
Chit 9 :
Khiing phiti baogibpinning phap nay clang cohigu
lye M u A
la mat vanh hay M tn nila la mat min nguyen, nhung
hitu han.
Trong truang M p da that
xn)
khang phai la clang
cap thi ta nhan xet rang the hang tit ding mot cap cos. nolap
thanh mat da tilde d6i xting clang cap dodota co
f(xi , xn
) la tang dm nhung da Hide d6i ring ding cap, chang
him trong vi da tren
4
+ YZ+ x3 2,12 2.1x3 2x2x3
la tang aim da thde dal
xdng (tang cap bac 3
x3 + X3 X x3
1 2 3
va da th e dgi ming ding cap.
be 2
2 T
1
z
2

2t1i3 + 2%2'3
ling dung. Tim the s6 nguygn a, p, y saocho
a p y = 6,
a3 p3 + y3 =
36,
a + fi + y =6.
Theovi du tren ta co
128.
P3 + Y3 =+ P + y)3 3(a + + (a,8 ay + PO + 3a/3Y
'Pa suy ra co + ay + fly = 11 .
M at khac xet da thdc f(x) E Z[x]
f(x) =afixfifix r).
G M sit a E Z, ta c6
f(a) =(a a)(a (3)(a y).
Vi f(a) =0 khi va chi khi mat trong the thus 86
a a, a p,a y bang 0, chonen the nghiam cua f(x) la
a, p, y. Khai trign f(x) ta M tge
fix) =x3 + fi + 11)? + (a/3 +
ay
+ fiY)x afiY
=x3 6x2 + th -6
vi a + /3 + y =6, 4 + ay + fly =11, apy =6.
D a thtic f(x) co tang cite hO sd bang 0, dod6 f(x) co mat
nghiem la 1. Theohe qua dm dinh li 4trong (1, 4), f(x) chia
het chox1. C hia f(x) cho x 1 ta duce
f(x) =(x 1)(x2 5x+ 6).
D a thtic x2 5x+ 6 chota hai nghiem la 2 va 3. Vay C ite
s6 nguyen a, p y can tim la 1, 2, 3.
BA I TA P
1. Trong vanh Zix1 , x2 , x3] biau din da thiic xi +4
3
qua the da thdc deli ming coban.
2. Prong vanh Z/2Z[xl , x2 , x3] biau din da thdc
l x i + 1xZ+ 1x3 qua the da thdc dgi rung C O ban
3. G UI h@phuong trinh
x +y +z=3
x3 + y3 + z3 =27
xd yd z4=
113
O ld 09

129
cHUONG V
VANH CHI NH VA VANH OCLI T
A l. VA NH C HI NH
1. linh chit sit hoc trong vA nh
Trong chttang nay cluing tonghien cau the tinh chat s6
hoc cda vanh, nghI a la cac tinh chat deli yeti quan he chia
hat (ch I I I , 1, 2).
C A A ml A la mitt ratan nguyen ma phtin tit dan vi ki hiau
la
1. C ac it&cda dcin vi con goi la cac phan td khd nghich,
chdng
ldp thanh mat nhdm nhan U ma 1 la phan tit don vi. C hang
han
trong vanh Zcae sit nguyen cac phan tit M ilt nghich la 1
va
-1 ; trong vanh da thtic K [x] vdi K la mitt Hitting, cac da
thee be 0 nghia la cac phan tit khac 0 cda
K la the phan tit
khA nghich.
S au day la mot s6 tinh chat ye ehia het trong mitt mien nguyen
ma
viac chting minh khang c6 gi khd khan.
B6 de 1. (i) a I a.
(0) e I b va b I a keo theo c I a.
(iii) u khd nghich, u I a yen mai a.
(iv)
Nati b I u obi a khd nghich, thi 6 khd ?which.
(v)
Quan h S xac dish nhu sau : xS x' khi x' =ux obi u khd
nghich, la mitt quan he W ang &tang ; x va goi
a lien kit.
V i du. 1) Hai phan tit cda Wham nhan
U la lien kat.
130
2) Trong vanh the
nguyen Zhai s6 nguyen a
vb. -a I A
lien kat.
'3) Trong vanh da thde
Kix/ voi K I A met *tieing, hai da
tilde f(x) irk af(x), a E K va.
a m 0, la lien kgt
B6 de 2. x ua x' C a lien kit khi vet chi khi x I x' ua x' I
x.
G ia sit a E A, tap hop cac bet xa, x E A , czia A la met idean
dm A kg
hi0u A a hay aA idean nay . la idean sinh ra bai a,
ngubi ta goi n6 la met idean chinh (oh I I I , 1, 4).
B6 de 3. a I
b khi utt chi khi Aa
D Ab.
140 quit. x utt x' itt
lien kit khi va chi khi Ax =Ax'. Dac
bigt u la khci nghich khi utt chi khi Au =A.
D inh nghia 1. C tic phan tit lien kat vO i xva cac plain tit
khA nghich la
Mc detc kheng thtic skt
eta xcan cac ubc khac
eta x 1a cac uetc thus sic eta x.
V i du. 2
3 la cac 1.10c tilts su eta 6, can 1 va 6
I A the the kheng thoc stt.
D inh nghia 2. G ia sit xI A met phan tit khan 0 vA kheng
. kha nghich eta A ; x gel la met plan ta bat khd quy eta A
ngu x kheng e6 ude thus so.
V i du.
1) G azs6 nguyen tova cite se del A im S ang la S e
phan tit M t klia quy cua vanh Z.
2) D a tilde x2
+ 1 I A da Niue bat kha quy cua vanh R
[x],
R I P truhng sothou Nhttng trong' vanh C [x] v6i C I A trubng
s6 pink thi x2 + 1
kheng phai la bat khA quy vi nu
.
S ti6c
tharc svchang han x + i va x i.
D inh nghla 3.
Neu c I a va c I b thi c got udc chung
eta a va. b. Phan tit c goi la ubc chung !Ott nhtit cunt
a v2t b
ngu c I A S e chung eta a va b va neu moi tide chung S it a
_va b la utic cua c
Tit b6 de 2 ta c6 hai 06c chung I on nhat eta a
va b la lien
kat, dod6 c6 thg coi la bang nhau neu kheng M nhan tit M a.
131
nghich. Ta cling dish nghia Wong 01 vac chung lan nit&dm
nhigu pit 0'1.
2. Vanh chinh-
Dinh nghia 4.
M et mien nguyen A goi la
yank chinh nau
mot idean cua nola idean chinh.
V z da. 1
Vanh Zcac s6 nguyen la vanh chinh. That vay, gia
sit I
la mat idean cim Z. Neu.
I = {0}thi I la idean sinh bat
0. W u I #
(0), gia su a la s6 nguyen during be nhgt cda
I
va b
la mat phgn tothy g clia.
I.
Ta c6 the gia sit 6 3 0, vi
ngu 6 < 0 thi -b >0 I ra -b
M ing thuac I , dode ta M y
-.b.
Lay 6 chia choa, ta dugc
b = aq + r
vat r la du, nen 0
r <a. M at khac r =
b - aq E L Nth)
r
0 thi a kheng ph&la s6 nguyen
during be nhgt cast I, mau
thugn. D odo r = 0 va
6 =aq, tde la I =
aZla idean sinh ra
bat a.
M ign nguyen A a day dude gia su la mat vanh S tith C am
phan toma ta set la thuec
A.
B6 d6 4.
Lldc chung lon nhdt caa hat plain hi a va b bdt
ky ton tat.

Cluing mink. GO I
la idean sinh ra bat a I ra
b. C ac phan to
/ ed. clang ax+ by vol x, y E A (ch I I I ,
41, 4, dlnh I I 6). M at
khac vi A
la vanh chinh nen I
sinh ra bai mat phgn tv
d nao
dd, phan to d
cling thuec I nen d coclang
(1) d = ax + by, x,
y E A
Ta hay &dug minh d
la vac chung clia a va
6. Vi
a,bEI=dA, nen
a = da', b =db' , a', 6' E A.
D o dd d la tide
chung cast a va b. Them naa ngu c lb met
talc chung cita a va
6, W e la cd a", b" E A saochoa =
ca",
b =cb",
thg thi (1) tra thanh
d = c(a"x b"y)
132
Vity d la ubc chung I on WI &caa a va b. n
He qua. Neu e let mat ubc chung lein nha caa a at b, thi
co r, s E A sao cho
e = ar + bs
Cluing mink. Xet doe chung I on nhat d rim M de 4. d va e
la lien kit (muc 1), tile la ce mot phiin tit kha nghich u sao
cho
e= du
Nhan hai vg rim (1) vdi u
e = du = alit + byu = ar + bs, r = xu, s = yu.
n
D inh nghlit 5. a na b la nguyen t6 cling nhau melt cluing
than I lam lute chung lOn nhdt.
Tit
he qua coa bei de 4ta suy ra
B6 de 5.
Allu a, b nguyen t6 cling nhau thi cd r, s E
sao cho
I = ar + bs.
He qua. Neu c J ab vet c, a nguyen t6 cling nhau, thi ci 6.
Cluing mink. VI c, a nguyen t6 rung nhau nen theob6 de 5
ce r, s E A saocho
1 = ar + cs.
Nhan hai vg rim ding tilde voi b
b =abr + Ms.
Vi c I ab nen c6 q E A sae cho ab =cq. D ode,
b =e(qr + bs)
tdc la c I b.
B6 de 6. aid sit x Ca mat plain tit Mt khd quy viz a la mat
plan tit bit ki. The thi Mac x I a hoac x ua a la nguyen to
geng nhau.
Cluing minh. VI x
la bat kha quy nen the tide cua x la cac
plait tit lien kgt vai x
va the phgn tokha nghich, dode met
133
t ube chung kin nhat coa x va a chi S thg la m0 pit til lien
kat via xhoac met phan tit UM nghich. Trong trubng hop thit
oh&ta cd x I a, trong truing hop thit hai xva a la nguyen
US M ing nhau. n
Be de 7.
Gici sg x let mat phan tit kheic 0 ea khOng khd
nghich. Cdc menet de sau day, Id twang duang :
a) x Id bat khd quy
b) x I ab thi x I a hock x I b.
Cluing mink a) keotheob). Theolog de 6 ta cohoac xI a
hoac x
va a nguyen tocimg nhau. Neu xva a nguyen toM ing
nhau theohe quit eta b6 de 5 ta cci x1 6.
b) keotheoa). G ia sit a la mot itac eta x, thg thi cd
b E A saocho
x = ab.
VI x I x, nen x
I
ab= x. Theob) xI a hoac x I b. Ned
x I a thi kat hop vbi a I xta cd x va a lien kat. Neu x I b
thi kat hop yin b I x ta eo x = ub, u la kith nghich. D odo
x = ab = ub.
Nhung xz0, nen b m 0, dodota suy ra a =is vi A la
mien nguyen. C honen mot thin a eta x chi S thg halm la lien
kat veil x hoac lit kita nghich, vay x la bat kha. quy. n
Be de 8.
Trong mOt ho Ix/Ong rang bdt ky F rduing W ean
caa A sap the ta theo quan h bao ham, co mOt idean M caa
hp F la tot dai trong F (ch I , 2, 3, dinh nghia 7).
Cluing mink. G ia sit /0 lit melt idean eta F. Hoak lo 11 tei
dai trong F va nhu vay la xong, hoac cd mO t idean ;eta
F
saocho71 z/0 vii. I t D I . Nati /1 la t6i dal trong F thi thg
la xong, neu khong ta lai cd mbt idean /2 eta F saocho
/2 zh va /2 D I l . Tigp lac qua trinh nay, hoac la ta &rye mot
idean M eta F t60 dai trong F, hoac lit ta duoc mO t day ve
han nhang idean phan. bigt trong F :
Ia C; C I
C.1
C
134..
Ta gia sit tinting hop sau thy ra. G qi I la hop
I = U
neN
D e dang thgy I la met idean caa A . VI A la met vanh chinh
nen 'dean I chtoc sinh ra bai met phan tit x e I. Theodinh
nghia dm hop mi met s6 tit nhien n saochoxE
In. D M u nay
keotheoI C I , va dodo1 = In +p
matt thuan vol gia thiet
the M ean cita day la phan Wet. n
D inh li 1. Giti sit xliz mOt ',han tEl khac 0 oh khOng khd
nghich. Thu thi x co the viet docii Ong
(2) x =
pip2 P
uoi cdc pt ,
i = 1, ..., n, C nhitng gilt tit bdt khd quy.
chthig mirth. G oi Fla tap hop the plain tit Hieing kha nghich
x x 0 saocho x
kh6ng viet chicle duet clang (2). 'Pa hay chting
minh F =0. G M sU F xpj. Ta H hieu bang j he the 'dean
Ax vai x e F. Theobd de O , F c6 met plaint to In saocho Am
la t6i dai trong Trude het m kheng bgt M I A quy, vi nen m
M t kha quy thi m coclang (2). in kitting M t kill', quy thi in
ed tide thue su, hang han a la met tide thoc sti cim
m, dieu
chi cci nghia la ed b E A saocho
m = ab
Nhu fly b
cling la met ttdc cua m, b kheng thd la lthii
nghich vi se keep theoa lien ket vat m, 6
kheng the lien M t
vai m vi se keotheoa kha nghich, dod6 6 plied la tide title
soeim m Vi a va 6 la nhfing Ude thoe su ena m nen theobd
de 3 va he qua caa ng toco
A m C A a, Am x Ad
va
Am C Ab , Am mAb
D oA m la tai dai trong T nen A a va
Ab kheng thuee 1 do
doa va b kitting thuec F ; a va b den khac 0, khac kha nghich
va khO ng thuee F, nen a va b phai viet throe dud' clang (2)
135
PC
b =P1+1
diet' nay keotheo
m = ab =p1
Ppi+l P
mkt thuan vdi m E F. n
D inh li 2. Gid ad
X =P1P2
Pm = qiq2 qn
cat pi ,pm , qi ,a
nhiing phan hi bat khd quy. The
thi m = n,
rid wit niqt at dank ad thich hop ta ca
qi = ups
, i = 1, ..., m.
Chang -mink.
Theobd de 7 nhan toM t kha quy p
i cfia x
phai I A ude mia mot
q, nit() dd. VI A
la giaohaat nen ta
the gia thigt rang p1
la ubc ciut
Nhung q1
la M t kha quy
nokhO ng c6 vac thuc su, dodop
1
lA ude khO ng thuc su
cua
qr
Them nila pi khong kha nghich, ohonen phai c6 p
1 va
lien kgt the I A q
i =
voi ul
kha nghich. Nhu vA y ta dude
P1P2 Pm =biPlq2 qn
Vip1 m 0 ta suy ra
P2 " Pm =1102 qn.
Theobd de 7,192 I A WI C Caa mot q,
nap dovO i'i 3 2. lh cci
the gia thigt rang
p2 la tide cua q
2
. D odd ta dirge q2 =u2p2
voi u 2
kha nghich. Nhu vay ta thole
P2P3 Pm =
bib2P2q3 tin*
VI p2
#0 ta suy ra
p3 4.. pni =u1u2q3
S au khi da lap la! qua trinh dd m I an, ta dojom
n va
1 =u1u2 . umqm
ne=
khang nghich nen ta phai co' m =n. n
Nhvfly dinh li 1 chota bit moi phan tit x # 0 kheng kha
nghich aim met vanh chinh d@u cd the phan tich thanh tich
nhUng O len tobat khit quy va dinh I f 2 chota bier sit plan
tich lit duy nhgt aeu kitting ke den cac nhan tokha nghich.
V i du. Trong vanh cac sit nguyen Zta cd
18 =2 . 3 . 3 = (-2)3 (-3) =
G oi K la trubng cite thticing (ch I I I , 2, 3) cim vanh chinh
A , the thi mai philn thaEK deu cd the vial chubdang a =a/b
viri a, b E A nguyen t6 thug nhau. Thgt vey giit sir a = a76',
vid a', b' E A . G oi d E A la uec C hung lirn nhgt eim a' va
b' ; ta c6 a' =ad va b' =bd, via a, b e A . Hien nhien a,
b nguyen td M ing nhau va a = a/b.
Bay gibta hay chitng minh met tinh chat se-hoc quan trong
khac aim Nth chinh ngoid tinh chat da chod dinh 11 1.
D inh li 3. Gia sd K la trztang cac thuang caa vanh chinh
A , a E K la my nghiem eint da fink.
f(x) =x" + ark?' I + aix+ (cti E A )
.
The thi a E A.
Cluing mink. TheoWhit tren ta ea the via a =a/b, vol a, 6 EA
nguyen tocling nhau. Vi f(a) = 0 nen ta Buy ra, sau khi thay
a bhng a/b va nhan yeti :
d' + tqctrian-1 + + aice 2 + ctobr = O .
Nhu vgy b chia het ; vi b nguyen toveil a nen itp dung
lien tip he qua cim b6 de 5 ta chive b chia ha a. D od6 6 la
met phan tit kha nghich M a A , tle la 6 1 E A , digit nay key
theoa =a6-1 E A . n
tinh chat dm vanh chinh chobeg dinh I t 3 ta dinh nghia :
D inh nghia 6. G UI sit K la trueng cac thltang eita met mien
nguyen A. Neu moi a E K lit nghiem dm met da tittle c6 dsng
137,
f(x) =x^ + an_ixn-1 + .. + aix + a (ai
E A )
thuO c A , till. A gal la bane
clang nguyeh.
Khai niem vanh ddng nguyen thing vai tre quan trong trong
if thuyat s6.
C hung ta mbi chi dva ra met vi du ve vanh chinh, dola
vanh the s6 nguyen Z, trong khi cac tinh chat the vanh chinh
rat phong phti va dude sit dung nhieu trong than ; kh6 khan
chovi du ye vanh chinh narn bch6 cluing ta chi mai nam doge
nhung khai niem ban dau eim men D ai sa. Bay gibta hay c6
gang (I va ra met vi du Hui hai va vanh chinh.
V i du 2.
Xet vanh the s6 nguyen G aoxa :
A =ZVI =a +
bi j a, b E Z)
C hung ta hay cluing minh A la vanh chinh. M uan fly, chting
ta hay nhite lai khai niem m6 dun &la mot s6 pink
z = a + pi,
a, /3 R., ki hien I zl : I zI =4a
2 + p2 , (14 =0
as = fl = 0)
ma trong trttbng hop z
E A,
thi I zj 2 E N
nghia lit 142
lit met s6 tonhien. Them rata, ta they ngay
Q[i] =
+ O il a,
fi
la trubng can thaw:1g tha A . Then frac s6, ta ming they ngay eho
met s6 him ti
a,
baogibta M ing tim thewmet s6 nguyen a sao
choa - al 42. D od6 toth th6 khang dinh dttoc rang :
(*) YxE Q D I , 3 zE A , I x- z12

1<1.
Bay gibta hay lay met idean
I
khang tam thttang tha
A
Tap hop
X= 1142 0 #zEll
I A met be pia 'M ac rang caa
N
va khO ng theta O . Vi
N sap
thu ta tat, nen
X co
M ien tit be nhat, goi
u
lit s6 phitc thuec
I
sao
eho 11(12 la so
ttt nhien be nhat the.
X.
Xet mot phtin tit thy
138
y oe I. Hign nhien e Q M . Theokhang dinh (*) tan tai
zE A sac cho
2
z 1
hay I v- zuI 2 <1u1 2
.
Nhung u, v e ze A , vay v- zu El. M at kluge I u 1 2
la phgn tobe nhgt mitt X, nen v- zu = 0, hay u =zu, hay
I = A u. Vay A la vanh chinh.
BA I TA P
1. Trong vanh da than R [x] vii I t la truong se that, chting
minh cac da O nto axe +bx + c vii b2 4ac <0 la nhang da
thde bgt kha quy. D ieu doca con dung naa khang ngu coi can
da thdc dothuO c vanh C [x] Nal C la trudng s6 fait ?
2. Xet vanh da thite K [x] vii K la mot G utting.
a)
C hting minh rang moi da finkbac nit ciut deu la bat
M gt quy. Ngu K
la mot mien nguyen thi dieu ck5 can dung khang ?
b)
C luing minh rang cac da Untobac hai va bac ba eita
K[x]
la M t kha quy khi I ra chi khi chting khO ng conghiam trong K.
3. Trong Nth Z[x] vii Zla Wirth can s6 nguyen, xet xem
cac da thdc sau day cophai la M t kha quy hay M ilting
f(x) =
2x+ 8,
g(x) =x2 + 1,
'h(x) = z2 + 2x- 2 ?
4. G ift sit' a, b la hai phan tit' cda met vanh chinh A , nguyen
toding nhau. C hting minh idean sinh ra
bat a va 6 chinh la A .
5. G ift sit p la
mat phan tit khan 0 cua mot vanh chinh A.
C hang mink p da
bat kha quy khi va chi khi Ap la idean
dal (eh I I I , 1, M i. tap 14).
39
6. 'Prong mat vanh chinh chting minh S c idean nguyen
(eh I I I , 1, bai tap 14) khac WI la cac idean tai dai
7. C hung minh met trdeng la met vanh chinh.
8. Vanh thuung dm mat vanh chinh cd phai la met vanh
chinh ltheng ?
9. Venh con east mot vanh chinh cd phai la mat vanh chinh
kO ng ?
10. Vanh Z[x] cd phai la mat vanh chinh kheng ?
11. G U sit A la tap hap the sd phtic cd dang a + bC-73 vol
a, bE Z.
a) C hang minh rang A ding ved phap O ng va phep nhan
cac se phdc la mot mien nguyen.
b) C hting minh rang 2, 1 + t,
1 - f 3, la nhang phan
tit bat kha quy dui A . Tit (I d suy ra A killing pile( la vanh
chinh.
12. C hdng minh vanh
A = a + bi / a, b Z1
la chinh
13. G ia sit a va b la hai O len td dm met vanh chinh cd
dang phan tich nhu sau :
a =pZi pp
Pe
b =141 p1:2
trong dd the pi la nhang phgn tit bat kha quy, the a. pi la
nhang se td nhien, i =1 ..., rt. C hfing minh phgn to
d = prntr(c),, Pi) pinisetz . (32) pnmi n(an fin)
la mat thee chung I dn nhgt etla a va b, trong domin( / 3,) la
phgn tit be nhat cua atp PO , i 1,...,
2. VA NH C UT (EUC LI D E)
1. Vanh O clit
D inh nghia 1. G ia sit A la mat mien nguyen, A t la tap hop
cac phan tO khac 0 dm A . M ien nguyen A cling vet mat anh
xa (goi la filth xi) Oclit)
: A* N
tit A* den tap hop cac s6 tvnhien N thea man cac tinh chat :
1 Neu bPa va a #0 thl 6(b) 5 6(a) ;
2 Voi hai phan toa va b thy 3.1 dm A, b x 0, co q Ira r
thubc A saochoa = bq + r va 6(r) <5(0 ndu r m 0 ;
goi la mat vanh Oclit.
Phan tit r goi la du. Neu r =0 thl b chia M t a va theo1
ta co 6(b) d(a).
Nhu vay dieu kiO n can de mat phan to b
la vim ctia mat S ian t* a * 0 la 6(b) s 5(a),
Ngodi ta baomat vanh O clit la mat vanh trong d6 c6 phap
chia vat du.
V i du. 1) With cac s6 nguyen Zcling vdl anh xa
Z* 0 N
n n
la mat vanh O clit.
2) Vanh da thdc K [x], via K la mat trudng, la mat vanh
cant. A nh xa d a day la anh xa choWong O ng voi mat da dole
f(x) x 0 bac dm no.
3) Vanh cac se nguyen G aoxola vanh O clit vO i 6(z) =I zi 2 .
Tinh chat 1 cim D inh nghla 1 nhin that' a clang con tinh
chat 2 c6 the dua vaocluing minh trong vi do2 ctla (1, 2).
D inh li 1. Net A Id mat 'iamb Oclit thi .A la mat vanh chink.
Ch'ing minh. Ta hay ching minh mpi idean cim A la chlnh.
G ia sit I la mat idean cue A. Ndu I. = {0}thi I la idean sinh
ra hot 0. G M sit I m 101. G al a la phan toM ule 0 cA a I sao
cho6(a) la be nhat trong tap hop 6(C), I. la tap hop cac plain
141
td klatic 0 M a 1. G ia sit xla met phan t8 tuy y cua I . Theo
tinh chat 2 ta co q, r E A saocho
x= aq + r
Vi a, xC I , nen r =x - aq C I. Neu r m 0 ta co 6(r) <
6
(a),
mart than vdi gia thin 6(a) la be nhat trong 6(/*). Vey r = 0
vb. = Aa. n
Ta da biet trong met vanh chinh, chung I an nhgt cua
hai Win ter a va bM t ky ten tai (o, 2, b6 de 4).
Neu A la met Nth O clit thi khO ng nhfing tide chung 16n
nhat cim hai phan toton tai, ma ta con cothe thus hien nhung
phep chia (vdi du) lien UM de coudc chung I on nhat. D ieu de
clua tren b6 de sau day :
B6 de 1.
Gid sit A la mot blintz chinh, a, b, q, r la nhzing
'than tit cart A W ei man quern h4
a = bq + r
The" thi ark chung tan nil& czia a ua b lei talc chung Ian
!theft cern b viz r.
Cluing mink. Gci I I A idean sinh ra bdi a, b va J la Wean
sinh ra bai b, r. Tn a = bq + r, ta suy ra a e J, dode I C J.
Td r = a - bg, ta suy ra r I, dodo J C I. fly I = J. Nhttng
A la met vanh chinh, nen ton tai d E I saocho Ad =I. Theo
be de 4M a (l, 2), d la uhc chung 16n nhgt cila a va b. Nhttng
I = J nen d clang la udc chung nhgt cua b va r. n
By gib gia sit A la
met vanh O clit va ta dat van tie tim
uoc chung I lan nhtit cua hai phan tit a, b E A. Neu a = 0 thi
r6 rang tide chung ldn nil&M a a vit b la b, vi very ta hay gia
sit ca a l&n 6 dart khac 0. Thte hien phep chia a cho b ta dada
.a = hqo + ro vdi d(ro) <5(b) nM ro #0
Neu ro #0 ta lai chia 6. cho
b roqi + rj vdi 6(r1) <d(ro) neu r1 #0.
NM r1 #0 ta lai chia ro cho 1. 1 :
ro = riq2 + r2 vdi 6(r2) <6(r1 ) neu r2 #0.
142
Qua trinh chia nhu vay phA i cham M it sau mot se heal han
bit&vi day' cac so' tur nhien
5(b) >5(ro) >6(r1 ) >6(r2)...
khong thd giam vii han, tile I a sau met s6 len chia, ta phhi di
tdi mat phep chia ma du bang 0
r
k - I = rkq k t 0.
4dunk- bti di/ 1 ta cd rk =item chung len nhat cua rk va
0 =udc chung I on nhat cua rk _ I va rk =utI c chung I on nhat
caa r
k - 2
va rk _ I ==vac chung I dn nhat O da rI va r2
=tide chung len nhat cua r va r =ttoc chung ldn What mla
b vb. ro = ueic chung len nhat dm a va b.
V i du. Tim toic chung lon nhat caa
f(x)
=x6 - 22 + x4 - x2 + 2x- 1
va g(x) =x5 - 3x3 + x2 + 2x - 1.
Traffic khi thtte hien cac phep chia lien tiep ta hay nhan xet
r&ng ttdc chung ldn nhat cfm a va b bang tide chung kin nhat
cim a' va 0, voi a' lien ket dm a. Bay gibta chia f(x) cho g(x)
X
6
- 2x
5
+ x
4
- x
2
+ 2x - 1 x5 - 3x3 +X2 2x- 1
X6 - 3X4 + x3 + 2x2 - x x - 2
-2x5 + 4x4 - x3 - 3x2 + 3x- 1
-2x5 + 6x3 - 2x2 - 4x+ 2
4x4- 7x3 - x2 + 7x - 3
Ta nhan thay rang nett chia g(x) cho
ro(x) =4x4 - 7x3 - x2 + 7x - 3 ta se bi he s6 phan, dode hp
dung nhO n 'tat trern ta chia 4g(x) cho ro(x).
4x3 - 12x3 + 42 + 8.x- 47 - x2 + 7x - 3
7x4 x3 + 7x2
7x4 - 11x3 - + llx- 4
x
143
Thee be dg 1 item chung I an nhgt rim 4g(x) va ro(x) bang
dim chung I an nhat caa 7x4 - 11x3 - 3x2 + I lx-4ye. ro(x). Nhung
neu this 7x4 - 11x3 - 3x2 + I lx-4choro(x) ta se bi he sg phan, do
doElp dung nhan xet tren ta chia 4(7x4 -11/3 -3x2 +1a - 4)
choro(x).
28a4 - 44x3 -12x2 + 44x-16 4x4 -7x3 -x2 +7x - 3
28x4 - 49e3 + 49x- 21
5x3 - 5x2 - 5.x+ 5
Bang le chia ro(x) rho r2(x) =5x3 -5x2 - S i 5, ta chia
ro(x) cho
1
ri (x) d4tranh he sill phan
4x4 -7x3 - x2 + 7x - 3
4r44x3 4x2 4,
3 2
x- - X - + 1
4x-3
-3x3 +3x2 +3x-3
-3x3 + 3x2 + - 3
0
Vay uric chung I an !M gt cua f(x) va g(x) lb. x3 -x2 -x+1.
2. Ung dung
Bay gibta hay rip dung cam kgt qua da thu chide ye vanh
chfnh va vanh O da dd nghien cdu vanh da tilde K[x] yid K la
met triteing.
Trude M t cam phan tokha nghtch cast K[x] la the pliant to
khac 0 cua K. C ar da thtic lien M t caa da thdc f(x) la cat da
thus ed clang af(x) vai 0 #a E K. C ac da thdc betc 'M gt ax + 6
b
lit M t M I A quy, C hung ed met nghiem duy nhgt - -
a
trong K.
7
144
D d la the da thdc M t kita quy duy nista ed nghiam trong
K.
C ac da thdc M t UM quy khgc nghia la the da flute M t kha
quy cd bac I an han 1 kitting cd nghiem trong
K. That vay gia
sit p(x)
la mat da tilde bgt kha quy
ad bac Ion hon 1 I ra cd
mat nghigm c E K.
Theo(C huang I V, 1, 4, ha qua dm dinh
11 4) p(x) chia M t chox- c
p(x) =(x
-
c) q(x).
Vi bac (p(x)) >1 nen bac (q(x)) D 1, dodo x - c la vac thtte sV
eim p(x), mku
thugn vat gilt thigt p(x)
bat kha. quy. Theo(1, 2,
dinh li 1) moi da thde fix)
ed bac >1 cd thg vigt dval dang
sau sal khac mat nhan tit khit nghich.
f(x) =(aix + (akx+ bk)mtpi (x)ni
pi(x)
el
trong dd the air + bi , i = 1, k,
la nhang da thdc bac nhgt
khong lien ket, the pj(x), j = 1, 1, la
nhting da thde bat khit
quy cd bac >1 khO ng lien kgt the m
i va la M iring so41
nhien. Ngu them dgu hang 0 ta rang f(x) kh6ng chda
nhan tit tuygn tinh. Viec chda hay khong chda nhan tit tuygn
tinh khign cho f(x)
ad nghiam hay khong trong
K. That S y gift
sit c E K, ta ad
f(c) = (aic (akc bk)'"kpi(c)W I
pkri.
Vi the pi(c) x 0, j = 1, ..., 1,
nenf(c) =0 khi va chi khi
c
bi
la mat trong the phgn tit -
a.
, i = 1, k. Them nita tip
dung dinh 11 2 (1, 2) vg svduy What dm dang phan tick ta
ad : nen f(x)
chda nhan tit tuygn tinh bi vai lily thita
bi
thi fix) chia M t cho
(x + )
m
vat f(x)
khong chia M t elm
ai

b t
bi
(x + + . D odo- la nghiam beg cap nti tha f(x). D ao
Lai gia sit c
la mat nghiem bat cap in mitt f(x), the thi vi f(x)
146
C hia hat cho (x -
khang C hia hat cho
(x - * 1 nOn
trong clang phan tich aim
f(x)
phdi conhan tit tuygn tinh
x.- c
veil M y thita la m. Kat Juan : the nghiem cua
f(x) trong K
eUng vat s6 bat cast chting dude cung cap bat cat nhan tit
tuy(n tinh vit lay thus cua thong trong clang pilau tich
f(x)
thanh tich nhting da thtic bat kha quy va dholair Vi
bac (f(x)) n mi + m2 + +mk
n4n ta 'co
D inh li 2.
Cid sit f(x) la mot da thac bac n >1 can uanh
Kfxl, wit K la mot truang. The thi f(x) co khang qua n nghiam.
trong K, cite nghiqm co the' phan Net co tiding nhau.
Ngu clang phA n tich eda f(x) chi chtia nhang phA n tit tuygn
tinh
f('x) =(a1x +
(akx + bk)mk
thi M e do
=bac f(x) =/7 1k
s6 nghigm cart f(x) trong K bang so' bac caa f(x) G ia sit ta
trong truing hap nay, got al, a2, ..., an la 7 1 nghi9m aim f(x) trong
K,
age nghigm ea thg phan biet c6 the' tiding nhau, va gia sti
(1) f(x) =cce + eixn-1 + + ck_kx + en
f(x)
phai ed clang phari tich lit
f(x) =co(x - ad(' - a2) (x - an).
sau khi nhan cite da thdc x-
=1, n, ta dude
(2) f(x) =co- 1 (ai + a2 + + an) +
+ 2 (aia2 + aia3 + + an_ lak) + + (-1rala2 aki
S osanh (1) vit (2) tochive
cOng thac V ista
ai
a
l
+ a2 + + a
n
= -
co
146:
C
2
Co
cria2a4 +

+ a
n

C o
C 3
C o
ala2 ... an = (-1)"
c
.
Ta
o

nhan thay rang the vg trai etla the thug than tren citing
qua la cat da thdc &S i ring coban dm the phan tit al, a2,
an (ch I V. 2, 3).
Bay gibta xet mgt da thdc bat kith quy p(x) e6 bac len hem
1 dm vanh Mx]. Theonhu tit da nth, p(x) khO ng c6 nghiam
trong K. Ta hay dat van de thy dung met trubng E ehtla K
nhu mot trubng con saocho p(x) c6 nghiem trong E.
D inh li 3. Old set
p(x) =ao + aix + + art
> 1)
la mgt da thdc Mt Ma quy cita vanh KN. The thi co mgt tnamg
E zeta ctftth duy nhdt (ly tai mOt ding cdu) no cho
1) K Ca mOt trubng con act E.
2) p(x) co mgt nghiem 0 trong E.
3) Mai phan tit a E E Met duy nit& du& Bang
a = bo +,b10 + + bo_10"-1 , bi E K, i = 0, ..., n - 1.
Chang mink. Goi I la M ean sinh ra bed p(x), I la tai dal (1,
bai tap 5). lihtt vay vanh thtiong E =Kfx.711 la met trttang
(chili, 1, bal tap 14). T1 cling c6 the cluing minh E la met
trubng mO t each true Hap nhu sau. E torang la met vanh giao
hoan cri don vi lit 1 + I khac ph&n to0 + I ; ta hay cluing
minh Mai phan tit' f(x) + I # 0 + I co righich deotrong E. VI
f(x) + I # 0 + I , nen f(x) kheng phai la 1301 ola p(x), dod6 f(x)
va p(x) nguyen t6 ming nhau (1, 2, b6 d46). Theo(1, 2, b6
de, 5), ten tai r(x), q(x) E K(x) saocho
nts6... 10

147
f(x) r(x) + p(x) q(x) =1.
Ta suy ra (fx) +
I)(r(x) + I) =f(x) r(x) + L= I + I.
Bay gibtoxat toan S u chinh S c
K[x] -- K[x]/I

f(x) f(x) + I.
Thu hop cda h yea K la mO t clang eau
h : K >K[x]/I
ma 4
hay chung min h n6 lit don cau That fly, gia sit
a, b E K saocho
a + I = 6 + I.
fly a b E I,
tdc la a -bla mot bO i oda p(x), dieu nay
chi S thg thy ra khi a - b = 0. h la
mO t don cau, elm nen
ta hay don oh&cac phin tit a E K vol N(a) E
Akin = E.
D odd K la mO t trubng con S s. truang
E. 1h ki hieu
h(f(x)) =f(x) + 1 =
Vtli ki hieu nay ta rb
Trij =+ + . + En
.? =0.
Hitting ta da (tang nhat cac p hen tit a E
K v6 i
h(a) = h(a) =
elm nen ta c6 the' vigt
an + a10 + ... + atiO n =0
trong dd 0 = x. fly 0 E E la
mO t nghiO m cda p(x). C udi dung
mO t phan thy y caa E c6 clang Jlij v6i fix) la mO t da thdc
oda K[x]. Lay f(x) chia cho p(x), ta dole
f(x) =p(x) q(x) + r(x)
Vol r(x) =bo + bix + bo , e K, khong
nhdt thigt khac 0 Lay anh aim
f(x) bai h
fri)=p(x)q(x) + Frig =0 + =
50 51 ' ' 5n-1?1 = bo

610
Hai p M a tit
148
1
bo + 610 + +
vh= co + c10 + + co_yr
bang nhau khi va chi khi ==0, n - 1 That fly
gigt sit frx7 =Ta cci r .
(bo - co)
+(b
i
- ei)0 + + (bo_ i -
613-1 = 0
tdc la da thdc
(bo - co) +(6i - cl)x + ... + (bo_i - crox"
la bai eta p(x). D ieu dochi thy ra khi va chi khi the ha tit eta
da tilde bang 0, nghla la =c =0, , n - 1.
Nhu vay ta da ehting mink xong sat tan tai cua trtibng E.
G ia sit bay gibcci mat trubng E' eiing cd the tinh chat 10, 2,
3. G 9i 8' la mat nghiem eta p(x) trong E'. Ta hay xet (tang
eau p xet trong (ch. W1, 5, dinh I t 5)

p : Kix]E'

f(x) 1(0)
Ta cd p(x) e Kenp. M at M ute K[x] lit mat vanh chinh nen
Kerp sinh ra bai mat da tilde p'(x). Vi p khang phgti la dong
eau 0 nen Ker yo # Kix], dodti p'(x) kh6ng khgt nghich Kat
Juan p(x) va p'(x) phai la lien kat, dod6 Kerr = I. Them nda
dotinh chat 3, E' C Imp =KW %fly E' =I mp, vit ta ed p
la toan eau. 4dung dinh I t 13 eta (eh I I I , 1, 5) ta comat
don eau W: K[x] lI ->E' saochotam gitic

M x]E'
P
K[x]/I =
giaohoax'. Nhung a day vi c la mat town anh nen co- clang la
town anh. dodoC oI A mat dang thin Bang cau
W
duce the dinh
bdi :
14,9
by + 6
10 + + tin_1 60-1 n - bo + 610' + . +
n6 gift nguyen cac pilau tvcim
K va M en 0 thA nh 0'. Ta eta
thong minh xong firth duy nhat caa truang
E. n
4
dung dinh I f 3 choK la truang s6 time
R, p(x) I A da
th/c x2 + 1, ta duet E
la tniang set pluic C trong
dcl M ic O len
toc6 clang a +
bi, vat a, b E R I ra
i I A met nghiem
cua
x2 + 1. VI C =
RixilI, I
la Wean sinkra beii x2 + 1, nen phep
O ng va phep nhan time hiO n nhu plat) cling vA p'hgp nhan da
thuc vdi eh/ y I A i2 =- 1.
Toco
(a + +
+ di) = a + c + (6 + d)i ;
+ bi)

+ di) =ac + (ad + bc)i + bdi

2
=ac- bd+(ad+bc)i.
Ta cothe xay dung fruiting sd ph/c C bang cach M y dell de
clic R2 va xac
dinh hai phep M an cling va nhA n trong R
2 nhu
sau :
(a, b) + (c, d) =-lie, b + ;
(a, b) . (c, d) =(ac bd, ad + bc).
D 6 dA ng cluing minh rang R
2
M ing vdi hai pile)) toan trail
la mO t trUnng.
S au d6, bang don eau
,_ ,, K2
a (a , 0)
ta clang nhat a We (a,
0) va Oat i =(0, 1), ta came
t2 =(-1, 0) =-1.
Vay i
I A Wit nghiA m cfia da th/c x
2
+ 1 =0. C utii M ing ta
tim thgy clang quen thulm dm ode s6 ph/c bang
each via

(a, b) =(a, 0) + (0, b) =(a,
0) + (b, 0) (0, 1) = a + bi.
114 qua.
Old sr[ f(x) la ntOt da thac co bac n >1 caa vanh
da that
Thd thi bap gib cling co mat &Jiang chi& K rilut
150
met trubng con aao cho f(x) c6 dung n nghiem trong do, cho
nghiem c6 the phan biet hay kitbag.
Chang mink. Gui p(x) I A met nista' tit M t kha quy M a f(x)
cd bac I bn han 1 (nen the nhan tit M t kha quy dm fix) dell
M e 1 thI f(x) c6 cac nghiem trong K va van de titian giai guy&
xong). Ta fly clang trotting E nhotrong dinh I I 3, da thile p(x)
cd nghiem trong E, dodo f(x) cang fly. Ngu f(x) co it nghiem
trong E thi van de dune giai guy&xong, nalu M O O -1g f(x) phai.
S clang
f(x) =(x c)
m1 ... (x ti(x)
via e1 E E, i = 1, ..., k, va f1(x) e E[x] vet 1 <bac f1(4 <
bac f(x). Ta lai me rang trubng E thAnh trubng E1 f1 (x) co-
nghiem trong El. VI bac dm the da thile la hitu han nen eau
met sS buboheti han me rang tophai dude met trubng E1 trong
do f(x) rb it nghiem. n
C hu 9. G ia sit f(x) E K[x] la met da thdc ca bk rt I bn bon
1 I ra E la met trubng mbrang S o. trubng K (nghia la K la
trtiting con eita E) saocho f(x) cd n. nghiem, phan biet hay
khO ng, trong E. C ac nghiem al , thueic E, nhung theo
oiling tilde Viet, citc da thde dfii 'cling coban dm eac O len tit
a1 , an baogibel-M g thuee K. Vi M y nen g(a1 ,..., an) la
met da that &S i ming etla cite"O lin tit al , . . , an , thi
g(a1 ,..., an) 11 met phan tit thuec K theodinh 4dm (oh
I V, 2, 3).
V i du. da thfie f(x) E Q[x], Q la trubng sohal.' ti.
f(x) =
x4x2
2 =(x2 + 1)(x2 2).
Ede da Unite x2 + 1 M . x2 - 2 I A nhung da-thate M t M I A quy.
cua Q[x]. Ta hay ma rang Q theophuong phap aim dinh 11 3
de x2 + 1 cd nghiem. G oi Q(i) la trubng ma O ng dd via i la
met nghiem eim x2 + 1. VI e Q (i), nen Q (i) chtla hai nghiem
151
aim x2 + 1. Bay gibta lai ma rO ng Q(i) de' x2 . 2 cd nghiam.
G oi 4la mO t nghiam ctla x2 2 Va ki hieu bang Q (i) (G )
tniting ma rang d6, ta ducic hai nghiam cim x2 2 trong
Q (i) (a). Nhu vay trong trvong Q(i) (a),f(x) co ban nghiam
la
k
i, a,-a
BM TA P
1. C hUng minh rang vanh gam C 1C s6 plulc cd dang
a + bid vai a, b E Zla mO t vanh O clit.
2. C hung minh mO t trubng la mO t vim]) O clit,
3. G ia sit A la mat vanh O clit. C hang minh A la mO t trtlang
khi I ra chi khi 6(x) la hang via moi x e A .
4. G ia sit A la mat vanh O clit vai anh xa O clit
: A ` n N.
C hung minh tan tai mO t anh xa O clit 5'
saocho(5'(A ) =0, it) , n 0
hay d'(A) =N.
5. G ib. sit A la mat vanh O clit via anh xa O clit . C hang
minh a(u) plain to be nhat cua a(A ) khi va chi khi u kha
nghich trong A .
6. G ib. sit A la mO t mian nguyen. C hung minh dial) kian can
da A O clit la tan tai mO t phan t8 khO ng kha nghich x E A
saochomai lop dm A /(x) cd mO t dal dial) hoac kha nghich hoac
bang 0 (dua anh /la O clit d ciat A ye anh xa O clit 5' trong bai
tap 4va kat hop vai bat tap 5).
7. C hung minh vanh
Z
[1 + 1 +
a + b ( 2 ) I a, b E Z
2
'152
khong phai la vitnh dclit bang each
4dung bid tap 6. (Ngadi
1 + iir9
]
toc6 thg C hung minh Z[
2
la vaaa chinh, nhangday

thong ta khO ng lam vi thigu qua nhigu khan M ain caa dal s6).
8. G ia sit fix) = x5 +x3 +x2 + x + 1
g(x) =x3 2X2 + x 1
a)
Tim tide chung I dn nhgt cost
f(x) ud g(x) trong Q/x1
b) Tim udc C hung I O n nhat magi
f(x) va g(x)
trong Z/3Z[xJ
trong doQ la truang so` hint ti Z/3Zlit trmang cat so' nguygn
mod 3.
9 G ia sit
R(I r3) =a bli-251 a, b E
Q(1=3-) ={a + b1,1 I rz,b e Q}
Q(a) ={a bm
a,bE Q}
trong dd R la truZing cat s6 thac, Q la trotting S c sohilu ti.
C hung minh thug :
a) R(rS 3), Q(,), Qom
la nhang trudng voi (M ap O ng
ta phdp nhan thong thuong cat
s6.
b) = R[x]/(x2 + 3) v61 (x2 + 3) la idean sinh ra bat
X2 + 3 trong KW.
Qom
=Q[x]/(x2 -
2) vdi (x2
2) la idean sinh ra bat
x2 2 trong Q[x].
10. G M sit E
la mot halting and rang dm tntO ng
K, u la
mat phgn tothuac E, f(x)
mat da thtic bgt kha quy trong
K[x]
nhan u lam nghlam vit gia sit rang
g(x) E K[x] tong nhan
it lam nghiam. C luing minh rang trong
K[x]
a) f(x)
la da attic cd bac th6p nhgt nhan u lam nghiam ;
b) g(x) chia hgt cho f(x)
11. G ia sit X =Q2. Trong X
ta xac dinh cac phap than O ng
vh nhan nhu sau
153
(a, b) + (c, d) =(a + c, b + d)
(a, b) . (c , d) =(etc + 2bd, ad + bc)
a) C hung minh rang
X cang vol hai
town doI A mat
truang.
b)
C hung minh rang X'' Q(4-2-)
c)
Tim tat ca cac todang cau cia
X. lit
dosay ra rang
tap hop cac todang c&u cua
X
I tt mat nhdm xyclic dui v6i phep
nhan anh xa.
154
CHLIONG V I
DA THUGTREN TRUONG SO
1. D A THUG VoI He 436 THUG VA PI TO C
1. Tnstmg so phtic
C homot da thdc v6i hg s6 th0c thi chtia chA c da than do-
conghigm trong trubng ad th0c, cu th6 da thdc x2 + 1 kh6ng
co nghigm trong trubng s6 thorn D ual day ta se thgy moi da
tilde bac n vol hg s6 phac codung n nghigm phdc. D 4chting
minh ra hay dua vaocat 66 de sau day :
Be de 1. M oi da thdc yea 114 sd thgc co bac le co it nhdt
mot nghient Sec.
Chong mirth. G ia ad
f(x) =a/ + an_r1 + + an an m 0, n 14.
Qua giaotrinh giai doh ta bigt rang vol nhting gia tri dining
va am mitt x kha 16n ye gia tri tuygt d6i, ham s6 f(x) co can
dgu trai nhau. Vgy rbnhang gia tri thge S o, x, a va b chA ng
han, saocho
f(a) <0, f(b) >0.
M at khan ham so f(x) la lien tuc, vi v&y co. mgt gift tri c
cua x/nam gicia a va b, saocho f(c) =0. n
Ta chug rang phep cluing minh cfia b6 de 1 khong dai sd,
noda 14nhang kat qua dm giai tfch. Them naa ye ngen ngil
ta da goi anh xa
155
R - R
c
la ham s6
f(x).
B6 de 2. Mpi da thetc bec hai ax
2
+ bx + c, ooi he s6 phdc,
bao gia cling co hat nghiem phetc.
Cluing mink. Gni col va co2 la hai can bac hai cue. b
2 - 4cic,
-b +
1
-la + co
2
ta cd hai nghigm cda da th/c la

va
. n
2a
2a
B6 de 3. Mot
da the& b4e ldn han 0 Si he a trate co it
nhdt met nghiem 'plate.
Cluing mink. Mof sd tonhien it >
0 dolt cd the via duel
dang it =
in la met se to
nhien va n' la met s6 tp
nhien le. Ta hay cluing minh bang quy nap theom. V6i m =0
khgng dinh la dung theobe de 1. Ta gia sit khgng dish I A dung
chom - 1 I ra chang minh nd dung chom. M urin vgy, ta hay
xet met da th/c f(x) cd bac n =
(m >0) veil he s6 thoc.
C oi f(x)
nhu met da thdc cita vanh
v6i C la trobng se
ph/c, ta hay xet met trurbng m6 O ng
E cua C saocho f(x) cd
dung it nghiem al , a2 ,..., trong E
(ch V, 2, 2, ha qua cim
(huh I f 3). G ia sit c
la met se time tuy
j, at
(1) pi; =+ e(ai cei), i s j.
Ta cd C n2 phan tit
thanh lap boi cac t6 hop chap 2 dm n
phan tit at , , an. Xet da th/c
(2)
g(x) =
fit) - fits).
=+ atxt 1 +
int
Vi bac cast g(x)
bang se M c nhan ti x -
nen ta cd
n(n - I )
- 1) _ 1
/ =C n - 2 -
- 2n1
2
vei q = n'(en' - 1) ; vi re'
va. en' - 1 la nhung se I d nen
q
la met se le.
156
Ta hay cluing minkthe he tit al , ...al tha g(x) deu la that
ca. Trude het the he Wdd la ciic da thuc el&sung coban cunt
the A i Vey theo(1) chung la nhting da thtic eua ai, ..., an vtli
he s6 Wye, vi c
la met s6 thee. Han naa cluing con la nhting
da thitc d61 icing cart a1 , ..., a. That thy nett ta thay ai bang
aiai bang ai thi pl. van gift nguyen con the Phi va Ai; thi
tin del chonhau (h i va j), dieu nay chat than khang
lam thay del the he toat, ..., a1 . D odci theo(ch V, 2, 2, chid
3I ) C A C he tit dola nhung se thne. Vey g(x) la met da thdc veii
he s6 thac ed ben 2v`-1q, vol q la 14. Theogia thiet quy nap
g(x) ed it nhat met nghiem phdc dang (1), We la cti I t nhat
met cap chi se (i, j) saochophan to
pii = cticej + c(ai + ai )
thuen truting se phde C .
Neu togan cho c met gia tri them kluic thi ta se dude met
da thde g(x) khan loaf (2), thata nhan met nghiem phdc dang
(1), nhung n6i chung voi met cap chi se (i, j) khac. Tur
n6u ta gan choclan luot C n + 1 gia tri phan M et thi nhat
dinh phai chicle hai nghiem pinkdang (1) vO l ding met cap chi s6
j) vi ta chi th td hop chap 2 tide n phan tit. Vay the nao
thug cohai se tilde ci va c2 khac nhau saochothe phan to
a. a + c
I
(a. + a.)
an) + c (a. + a.)
ling
2
ved cling met cap chi s6 i, j deu la pink. D at
a =anal + ci (ai +
b = a.a. + c,(a. + a)).
Ta cd a, b E C . Ta suy ra
a - b
a. + a

j
c C
2
a - b
a
I
a
)
t
ieI C2
157
Vey a + a. erai dell la
Ta suy re ai ai a nghiem
cim da thdc hec hai r
x2 (ai adx+
voi he s6 phlic. Theo14de 2, a
i va ai
la O nto. Nhu fly toda cluing
minh de thdc f(x)
khong nhung S met, ma cd hei nghiem phtic.
D inh li 1.
MQi da thdc bee tun hen 0 ()di he 86 phitc co it
nit& met nghiem phdc.
Cluing mink.
D ia sit f(x) la
mot da thdc bezn >0
veil he sti phdc. D ar
Fx7 =
+ +
vai cat ai
la cat lien hop rim M c a. i =0,

, n. X6t da thdc :
g(x) =f(x)f(x).
Ta cd
g(x) =bo + bix + . + b2nx2"
voi
bk =E
k 0,1, 2n
i+j=k
vi
Slc = I EPj = bk
bv=k
nen the he ad bk
la thuc. Theob6 de 3,
g(x) co it nhgt met
nghiem phfic z= s + it
g(z) =f(z)
,(17 = 0.
D od6 hoar
f(z) = 0 hoer irj z=0. NOu F27 =0
= "do + z
+ =o-
thi ao + atz +
+ anzn = no + + + anr =0
We la
fq) 0
Nhu vey hoc z hoar a
la nghiem cua f(x) n
158
114quit 1. Cdc da thuc bdt khd quy cat' yank Chi), C la
twang ad phdc, l cac da thzic bac nhdt.
Cluing mink. Theo(C h V 2, 2), cac da thee bac nhgt la M t
kha quy. D ia sit f(x) la met da th/c cfia C [i] cobac lon han
1. Theodinh H 1, f(x) co met nghiem phdc c. fly f(x) ca met
u6c thuc au x - c, dodo f(x) khong bgt kha quy n
114quit 2. Mot da Mac Mc n >0 vat Mad phac co it
nghilm
Cluing mink. G ilt sit f(x) la mat da th/c bac n > 0 yea M s6
ph/c. TheoM qua 1 dang phan tich caa f(x) thanh 'Lich nhang
da th/c M t M I A quy phA i la

f(x) = u(aix + bi)mt (ars + b2)mz + bkrk

trong A 6 u la met ad phdc khac 0 vb.
7712 Ink =Th.
Theo(C h. V, 2, 2), it nghiem phdc caa f(x) la m. 1 nghi@m
b t b
k
trong yea -
ai
,mk nghiem v6i n
ak
Clui 9. Ngu fix) la met da th/c vdi he s6 there c6 met nghiem
phdc z=a + it (t # 0), thi f(x) cling (than lien hap i cac z
lam nghiem. That vay, gia sit
f(x) =ao + atx + +
vlt f(z) =ao + aiz + . +a/Z" =O.
Ta suy ra
ac, + air + =a
o
+ a + + an? =0,
M kla f(z) =0
D e dd tosuy ra f(x) chia hgt choda auk M c hai
g(x) = (x - z) (x - 7 = x2 - (z + zix + zi,
z + I va ri la nhfing s6 dup.
159
116- qua 3.
Citc da thac bdt khd quy cua Rfx.7, R
l a
truane.
so thuc, la cite da tin& bac nhdt cac da that bac
hai axe + bx + c sot biat sd b2 - 4ac <0.
Chang mink.
C fie da thee bac nhat va the da thee the hai
ved biat 56 am re rang la nhung da thec bat kha quy ciut
R/4.
G ia sit p(x)
mist da thee bat M R, quy cua R[x] v6i bac lon
hen mat. Theo(oh V, 2, - 2), p(x) kheng c6 nghiam time. Theo
dinh I t 1, p(x)
comat nghiam phile zva theochti y trail
p(x)
chia M t choda thee bac hai veri he s6 thoc
g(x) =x2 - (z + .1)x +
g(x)
kh6ng ltha nghich va la I t&cua nhan tit M t kha quy
p(x),

fly g(x) phiti la lien kat cna
p(x), tee la
p(x) =ug(x), 0 x
u
C R. n
Tit ha qua 3 ta suy ra mai da thee
f(x) C Rix] ed bac
hen 0 deu coth6 vie%dual clang
(3) fix)=u(cti x(ak x ak
)'"t (ai x2 +13i x+ydni
...(at x2 + fit
s + y,fi
,
trong dou mat s6 thuc khac 0, cac at x+ b la nheng da thec
bac nhat, the a) x2 + /3j x + yi la nheng da thee bac hai vbi bit
s6 am, cac mt va ni la nheng s6 tonhien,
i = 1, ..., k ; j = 1,
., 1. C ate nghiam thee cim f(x) duo sung cap bed cac M ein td
thy&tinh ai x+ bt va
the nghiam phut M i the nhan tit bac hai
a. x2 + x + y. .
nhan tit tuyan tinh x+ 1)1 chota mat'
1 1
bt
nghiem Rive - Tit , m6i nhan tit bac hai a1 x2 + f
i
x+ yi chota
hai nghiam phde lien hop
s.
J
+ iti I ra s.
l
- it.
l
- #
vei
s = vat. - "
2a I 2ci
160
Vay nen sj + iti lit nghiem bO i cap cite f(x) thi iti M ing
I a nghiem liO i cap ni caa fix).
D a thdc f(x) khong cd nghiem thac (nghiem pik) nau cac
lay thita mi (cac lay thilit ni) trong dang phan deb(3) cila f(x)
clau bang 0.
2. Phuong trinh bac ba via b6n
Theonhu trail mai da thdc vdi he s6 phtic va c6 bac I on
hcn 0 deli cd cac nghiam trong trotting s6 pink
D di voi cac da tilde bac hai ax2 + bx + c, ta cd cac nghiem
I A
6 + rut b + cu
2
2a
va
2a
trong d6 col va io2 la hai can be hai cit'a b2 tat Nhu vay ta
da bigu thi cac nghiem cua phuong trinh
ax2 + bx + c =0
qua cac he -socfm phuong trinh bang cac phep tinh cong,
nhan, chin, M ing lily thiM , khai can. Nguia ta ndi ngmed ta da
gidi phuong trinh bang can th,Zc. Ta sothay duel day ta cd the
giiti mat phuong trinh bac ba hay bac bon bang can thdc.
Phuong trinh bite ba. Ta hay net phuong trinh bac ba vai ha
sophtic
x3 + ax2 + bx + c= 0.
Phuong trinh nay tr6 thanh
(4)
y3 +py +47= 0
nau ta dat
a
y=x +a.
D O giai phuong trinh (4) ta dat
161
(5) y =u + u,
ta doe sau khi thay vie (4)
(6) u3
3
+ + (U +
u)(3uv +p) + q =O.
V an
66 caa chang ta bay gib
. la tirocite s6 phtic
It Nth vtheft
. man
(6). Ta chti y Uri S ic s6 phuc u I ra vc6 tinh chat
(7) 3uv+ p = 0, hay uv =
Baogibming S nhcing s6 pink u va vthem man (6) vi (7).
That vay nau u va vthem man (6) thi u + vla mot nghiO m
caa (4), vay ta S (5) voi y la mot nghiam phdc eta phuang
trinh (4), dod6 kat hop vat (7) ta c6 u
va v la hat nghiem
oda phuang trinh bac hai
z2
yz=
0
Nhu vay r6i tit (6) va (7), ta &M c
3 ,
u 3 = q, a
3
U3 =
3
Ta nhan thay rang u3 0, v3
lit S e nghiem tha phuang trinh
bac hat
(8)

t2 + qt =0

u3=

= q
92 + p3

2 4+ 27
3
q11 q2 p3
2 4 r7
q p
3
2
p
3
trong 66
4
+
27
la mot can bac hai
eta T
la mot can bac ba caa
G al al
2 3
1
2
+ -
4
141
27
162
va u la mot can ba cua
2 427 qqP
3 2
saochou1u1 thda man (7), thi tocling e6 u2u2 va u
33
this
man (7) veil
u
2
= 4
3 =
g2u
1
va V
2
=E2 v
a ,a
trong dd z=+ i 2, = i --2
la hai can be ba philc cna don vi. M ini fly todugc ba cap
s6
phdc (u1 , u1 ), (u2 , 02), (u3 , u3) thda miin (6) va (7). 'I h dat
yi
= VI + VI
1 a
Y2 = EVI + E2 V -i = - (111+ VI) +
h
2 (1st lit)
1 in
Y3 =E
2
u1. + Evi =-
2
(ui + u1) - 2 (a1 u1) .
town va cha 3? rang u1 , u thda man
(6) va (7), ta duct
YI
+Y2 +Y3 =
Y1Y2 + YI 313 + Y2Y3 =
3 3
Y1Y2Y3 ut = q.
=p
Vay
Yi)(YY2)(YY3) =Y2 (y1 + y2 + y3) +
A n Y2 Y1Y3 + Y2Y3) YiY2Y3 =+ PY q.
D a thlic + py + q da duct phan tich thanh tich nhting
nhan td tuyeh tinh, va ta dude cac nghiera cos. nd l a
y2 , y3 (9). NgLidi ta throng vial tat (9) dual dang
(9)
Tit 9), sau khi tinh
163
y u + u =
2 ( 2) 2 + (3) 3
goi la rang thee C ac-da-n6 (C ardano). Nhu vay ta da giai duet
phuong trinh bac ba (4) bang can than
D id D = -4p3 - 27q2, (8) va (9) chota
0'l - 3,2)2 (V1 -
y3)2 (y2 y3)2 = _ 10804_ vb2. =
D.
D odei (4) S nghiem bO i khi VA . chi khi
D =0.
V i d4. G iai phuong trinh bac ba

1 01-3-

x3 - 3 +

\ 2 2
x + 2i =O .
D at x = is + u, ta dune

u3 + u3 + 30z+ -
Ta you eau u va u than. man
(10) uv = 2 +i 2
a
D od6 u3 va u3
la hai nghiem tha phuong trinh bac hai

t2 + Zit - 1 =+ z12 =0.

Phttong trinh nay S mat nghiem kap

3 3
mat can bac ba la i. D at u
l =i, ta any ra tit (10)
a
a
_ I
2
2
2
( + (12 3) 3
2 )1
+ 2i =O .
u -
I u1 2 2
164
Vay then (9) cac nghiem cua phuong trinh la
a
x
2
u
1
+ u
1

+
2 '
1 a
- (ui + ut) +
i
2 (u1 u1 ) =
1 ia i
(ui u1) 2 (u1 u1)
trong do
i
=x3 , vay + la nghiam kep coa phuong trinh.
Bay gibta hay Kat phuong trinh (4) trong trubng hop p va
q la nhang s6 thuc. Ta dot
3 2
A =P T
vay D =4p3 27q2 =108A .
Ta hay nghien oliocac nghiam ctla (4) theoA .
a) A >0. (8) chota bigt u3 va u3 la thuc. G al ul la can
bac ba thUc cua u3 . The (7), ul la thuc va theo(8),
zi t m lit . Theo(8), phuong trinh (4) comO t nghiam that
yt
va
hai nghiam pink lien hop y2 va y3 .
b) A =0. Theo(8), ta cou3 =. u3 va I A thuc. G ig a t la can
bac ba thuc coa u3 thl theo(7), u1 tang plati la can bac ba
thuc O a u3 va ta c6 lit =ul . Vay theo(9), ta cd ba nghiO m
thuc y2 , y3 yeti y2 =y3 .
c) A <0. Theo136 de 1, phuong trinh (3) ad mO t nghiam
thvc, goi nghiam time dolit
yt
. Theo(8), u3 va u3 la hai so
phdc kitting phA i lit thvc, dod6 cac can bac ba cua thong phai
la pheic (othvc). M at khac theo(7) I ra (9), ta cd
165
fly u1 va ui la hai nghiem pinning trinh bac hai
2
2
Y1 2 =
vdi he s6 thoc, dodd it, va ul la phtic lien hop. Ta suy ra, trong (8),
ode nghiem y1 , y2 , y3 M . that. Prong true:mg hop my vi A * 0
nen D * 0, dodo 5/ 1 , y2 , y3 I &ba nghiem phan M et. C ac s6
Yt
y2 , y3 la thoc, nhung muon tinh cluing theocling ante
C ac-da-n6 thl lai phai lay can bac ha cna nhung sophtic. Ngubi
ta da thong minh dude rang, trong trtiO ng hap A <0, khang
thd bidu thi the nghiem cua phuong trinh (3) bang M c can thUe
vai luring that duoi can.
Phuong trinh bGc b6n. Phep giai. mot phuong trinh bac ban
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + ex +d = 0
vO i he s6 pinktoy 3, se dtta ve phdp giai mat phuong trinh pho
bac ba goi la phuong trinh giai bac ba. 1a flan hanh nhu sau :
a2 x2
C huydn ba hang tit cudi sang vg phai rdi ceng
4
vaoca
hai vd, ta duoc
2
(x2 + a try ( x2 cx d
S au dd ta O ng vaohai vd cua phuong trinh nay tong
( x2
ax
+ 4
trong dd y la met an mth, ta dttoc
2
(x
2
ax Y2 a
(11) (X +
+ =( + y x2 +
4
ay y2
+ - = x + - d
2 4
166
'Pa hay I tta chgn an phu y saochovg phai lh mat chinh
phuong. M ien thg thi chi vide lam trial tieu bide sd dm tam
thitc bac hai din voi x6 vg phhi

a2
Y
( a-g- 2 4
(4
b Y) (-4- - =
hay
Y3
- by2 + (ac - 4d)y - [d(a2 - 4b) + c21 =0.
D O la mat phuang trinh bac ba, gal la phuang trinh gidi cita
phuang trinh da cho. G ia sit yo la mat nghiem cua phuong trinh
de. D ien yo van phuong trinh (10), ta dugc vg phai elm phuong
trinh la mat chinh phuang
n de
2 ax
(x
+ 2)
= (ax 0)2
x2 + ax p,x2 + aX
Yo

-2- -2- - 2
Hai phuong trinh bac hai d6 se chotat ca bon nghidm elm
phuong trinh bac ban. Vay phep giai mat phuong trinh bac bO n
da dugc dua ye phep giai mat phuong trinh bac ba vit hai
phuong trinh bac hai. Ta say ra tit dorang phuong trinh bac
bon gihi dvtgc bang can thdc.
V i dg. D ial phudng trinh bac bon
x4_ 3x3 ax2 _
+2
C huyan ba hang tit cute sang vg phai
_ 3x3 _3x2 + 3x _ 2
9x2 -

S au de cang vitohai vg , ta dude

(x
2
3x 2 3 2
(x = x- + 3x- 2.
167
Y
2

C uai cang O ng vitohai

ve t ng
+ 7
(12) (x2 - 2 + )' ) 2 =
3

=2 (y - -4) +3x( 1 + =42 -2.

Ta flu eau y lam that flan biet s6
3 y2
9 ( 1 -
4( y ( - 2) =0,
hay sau khi khai trien
.Y2 - 3) + 3' - 3 =
3)(Y2 1 ) =O .
C hon y =3, phuang trinh (121 tra thanh
3x3 2 3x1 2
( X2 T
T
2 3x
3 3x1
2 2 - 2 2 '
3x3 3x1
2
2
hay
x2
- 3x+ 2 =0 , x2 + 1 =- 0
Hai pinning trinh nay chip ta ben nghiem 1, 2,
i, -1.
S u thuc ra trong &tieing hop cu the nay ta nhinthay ngay
nghiem 1 cart phuang trinh bac ben da chovi tang s6 cac he
s6 bang 0. D o&I ta co' the vier M lam n6i bat nghiem 1.
x4 - 3x3 + 3x2 - 3x+ 2 =
(x - 1)(x3 - 2x2 + x - 2) .
Vay van de bay gibla giai.phuang trinh
x3 - 2x2 + x- 2 =0
ma ta cei the yin
x(x- 2) + x -2 = (x - 2)(x
2
+ 1) =0
Ta
d6,7 ta suy ra cac nghiem cfut phuang trinh.
Tir d6
168
Nguiri tochdng minh rang khong the giai bang can tilde cac
pinning trinh tdng quest bac I on hon bon (A ben, G aloa). Hon
the nda, G aloa da tim ra &toe ties chufin dd. Nat mot phuong
trinh da chogial dugc bang can tilde hay khO ng.
BA I TA P
1. Trong vanh C rxl (C la tniang s6 M lle) hay plan tich cac
da thdc : x2 + x 1 x2 4i + 3, x7 1 i5 thanh
met tich nhfing da thdc M t kha quy.
2. Bidu din hinh hoc cat nghiftm cues da thdc
f(x) = xP 1 ,
g(x) =(x b. (a x0)
Tit dd suy ra rang f(x) va g(x) cd khong qua hai nghiO rn
chung.
3. Tim cac nghi6m plate cua da thim
f(x) =(1 x2)3 + 8r3 .
Phan tich da thdc f(x) thanh debnhttng da thdc M t UM
quy vei M s6 thy.
4. Trong vanh C [x] chting minh rang da thdc f(x) chia hat
choda thdc g(x) khi va chi khi moi nghiO m eta g(x) dau la
nghiO m cna f(x) va mcd nghiO m bO i cap k eta g(x) cling lit
nghiam boi cap I on hon k eta f(x).
5. Trong vanh Q[x] (Q la trubing s6 hitu ti), chtI ng- minh
rang da tilde f(x) =x31` +
x3/+I
X312+2 ehia hot choda thdc
g(x) =x2 + x + 1 vdi k, 1, n la nhting s6 tu nhian thy y.
6. Trong vanh Q[x], chiing minh rang da thdc f(x) =x3 -
- 3n2 x+ n3 , vdi n la mot ad tonhien khac 0, la mot da thdc
bat M A . guy:
169
7. G M sit a = 1 +i.
a)
Bigu din a dual clang Wang giac. Tim madun va ae-gu-men
dm a"W. a'.
b) Vigt an va a-fi dual clang a + bi.
c)
Bigu din hinh hoe can gia tri
a" va vol n 8.
d) C hting mirth rang M O so
phtle ztuy yd@u c6 thg bigu
din (Wan mot each duy nhat dyed clang z=x+
ya vat x, y la
nhang so thgc.
e) C hung minh rang anh xa
f : C M
z=x+y al o[x Y 1
2y x + 2y
Wvanh s6 phtie clan vanh the ma trap than vuO ng cap 2 la mot
Bang eau Tit dosuy ra rang tap hap the ma
trail, thge,vuO ng
cap 2 clang [
-2y x + 2y
] la mat tniong.
f) TI nh
[ 0 1
2 21
8. G iai the phuang trinh bac ba sau day :
a) 4y3 36y2 + 84y 20 =0.
b)
x3
. x6 =0.
c) x3 + las + 15 =0.
d)x3 + 3x2 6x+ 4=0.
9. C h'ing mink (bang da thdc xang) :
(xt _ x2)2 (x2 _ x3)2 (xi _ x3)2 =_4p
vai xt , x2 , x3
la the nghiam caa phgung trinh
X
3
px +q = 0.
27q2
170
10. G iai the phuong trinh
a) x4 - 3x3 + x2 + 4x-6 =0
b) x4 - 4x3 + 3x2 + 2x- 1 =0
c) x4 + 2x3 + 8x2 + 2x + 7 =0
4) x4+ 6x3 6x2
8 =0
2. D A THO C VI %HE S O HO U Ti
1. NghiO m hUu ti ctia mot da thtic
ved h0 s6 hem ti
Trade S t ta nhan xet rang S u
f(x) = anxn + + an (an m 0)
la met da than vol he s6 hdu ti thi
f(x) cd the vial (lured clang
f(x) = tri (an ? + + cto) = 6 1 g(x)
trong dd b la man s6
chung cua the pilau s6 ai va the ai la
nhung s6 nguyen. Vi f(x) va g(x)
chi khan nhau met nhan tobac
0 nen cac nghiem M a
f(x) la M c nghiem M ut
g(x) Vay viec tim
nghiem eila met da tilde vdi he s6 him ti dude cliia ve viec tim
nghlO m mla met da
thdc vdi he s6 nguyen. M at khac ta tong
nhan xet rang S u a la nghiem cim da thdc
g(x)
a di +
a
n
ce
1-1
+... + a a + a = 0
ta cd sau khi nhan hai ve yea a:
1
+ + a: -2 (an

(an at' + _ I (an - I

a) + ao
7b. cd #=ana la nghiem thewda thdc

h(x) + an _i x' + + ann 2x+ ao

171
veil he stS
nguyen va he s6 caonhat bang 1. D odd mudn S the
nghiem
etag(x)
ta chi vies tim eac nghiem eta
h(x).
Ta dal van de a day lit tim cac nghiam hau
ti etaeac da
thac f(x) cri clang
f(x) =+ an _i xn I + +
ai x + ao
vdi the ai nguyen. G ilt sit a
la mat nghiem hitu ti eta f(x), the+hi
theo("nth I I 3 eta (C h V, 1, 2),
a phki a
nguyen. M att !chive, to
+ an_ian + + aka + an = 0
ta co thg
vi
a(an1 + an_ian-2 + + =
dodd al a.. Rini vey the nghiem nguyen aka
f(x), neu cd, phai
la nhang I t&eta ao.
C honen muen tim the nghiem nguyen etc
fix) ta xet the tide eta s6 hang
us doao
, va sau dd, thit xem
the tuft de S phai la nghiem eta fix) hay khang. D e hart the
se lan th8. nguea ta chia the then xet sau day.
G ia sit
a la mat nghiem nguyen aim
f(x). The thi f(x) C hia
het cho x - a
f(x) =(x - a)q(x)
va
theoad de Rode ne (C h I V, 1, 4),
q(x) la mat da thde
vai
he se nguyen. D odoq(1) va q(-1) la nhang
s6 nguyen vb.
1
/(1)
a
(1)

= q(1)' 1 + a Cr( 1)
-
ngu a
klthe 1 va -1.
Vi thy trade het ta tinh f(1) va f(-1) ctg xem 1 va -1 ed
phai lit nghiem eta f(x), sau dota xet the vac a -1 S a a.
saocho
f(1)
1 - a v- 1 + a
la nhang songuyen de tha xem chUng ed phai la nghiem aka
f(x),
va dodose I an thit eta tobat di mil C hung.
172
V i du. Tim nghiem hitu ti M ut da thile
f(x) =x5 - 8x4 + 20x3 - 20x2 + 19x- 12
Trude het ta ed tong cac he se eiut f(x) bang 0 nen 1 la
nghiem cda f(x).
Bang sode Hodc ne (C h I V, 1, 4), ta tinh
eat he s6 cua da thtie thuong g(x) trong phep chia f(x) cho
x - 1
1 -8 20 -20 19 -12
1 -7 13 -7 12 0
dodd eac nghiem con lai caa f(x) la cac nghiem cua g(x)
g(x) =x4 - 7x3 + 13x2 - 7x + 12.
'Pa nhan xet rang g(c) >0 v6i m9i c c 0, nen g(x) khO ng
cd nghiem am. Vi vay ta chi xet cat u6c thing dm s6 hang
tti do: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. Ta cd g(1) = 12, g(-1) = 40. VI
eat s6
40 40 40
3' 7' 13
khO ng phai la nguyen, nen 2, 6, 12 khO ng O laf la nghiem
cua
g(x). Cite s6 3 ye 4deulam cho
g(1) va g(-1)
1 -a 1 + a
nguyen, nen clung ed the la nghiem cult g(x). M u6n their xem
clung cd phai la nghiem cent g(x),
ta chi viec tie') tau vaobang
tie)) nhu sau :
-8 20 -20 19 -12
1 1 -7 13 -7 12 0
3 1 -4 1 -4 0
173
Vey ta co
f(x)
= (x - /)(x - 3)(x - 4)(x2 + 1)
C ae nghiem nguyen cua f(x) la 1, 3, 4.
2. Da thee bat aridquy ads vanh
Q[x]
D 6i vdi trifling s6 thvc
I t va tntbng
s6 phdc C , van de xet
xern met da tilde da chocfia vanh FtkJhay C [x] coM t kith
quy hay khang rat don glint (01, 1) ; nhvng trong vanh Q[x]
Q la trttling s6 hdu
ti thi van d4phdc tap him nhieu. D 6i
vdi cac
da thdc bee hai va ba cua 411[4, viec xet item S M t
kith quy hay kitting &roc dtta ve viec dm nghiem hUu ti gda
cac da thdc do(eh V, 1, bill tap 2) : C A C da thdc bec hai va
bee ba cim Q[x] la bat kha quy khi ya chi khi ehting kh6ng S
nghiem hUu ti. D 6i veri cac da tilde M c I an hon ba thi van dg
phdc tap M in nhigu. C hang him da t
hdc x4 + 2x2 + 1 =(x2 + 1)2
ril rang )(hong conghiemhitu ti new, nhting nocomet WC
thvc sit x2
+ 1, vey khang phai la bat kha quy.
Trong mac 1 ta da nhen set ring mci da thde fix) vdi he
s6 hdu ti deu S the vigt dudi clang
f(x) = 6-1 g(x)
trong dci 6 1Ft mot s6 nguyOn
M ute 0, g(x) la met da thile veil he se
nguyen. Trong vanh Q[x],
f(x) va g(x) la lift M t vity f(x) la M t ad
quy khi va chi khi g(x)
lit bat kha. quy. D odri tieu chum A idenstaind
ma
ta dim m chafe day dg xet met da thdc cua Q[x] coM t kha quy
hay khang la tieu chum chocac da th1e veil
he se nguyen.
D e chuan bi choviec chting minh tI eu chuifn ay, trout M t
ta gidi thieu khai niem da D ixie nguyen ban va ehtI ng minh hai
b6 de.
D inh nghla 1. G ia sit f(x) la mot da auk vol he
sec nguyen,
f(x) gal I A nguyen thin
ngu S e he se oda f(x) khdng covdc
C hung nail khdc ngoai 1.
C homot da thdc vdi he s6 Nguyen f(x) C z[x], I d !lieu bang
a vac chung I dn nhat S it cdc he s6 cda f(x), ta cel
174
f(x) =ac(x)
vdi ((x) e Z[xl va
the he se cda r(x) kh6ng ed Lida C hung nit
khac ngoal 1, the la r(x) nguygn ban.
Ndu f(x) E
Q[x] thi toed thg vigt f(x) dttdi dang
f(x)
=b
COO
trong do fa(x) nguygn ban va a, b E Z nguyen t6 ding nhau.
2x2 15 1

V i du. f(x) =6x

3 1
-2- + - = 1 7) (60x
3
+ 24x
2
- 75)
3

=176 (20x3 8x2 28) '

C ac se 20, 8, -25 I theng S doe chung naokinkngthi 1 va. -1.
Be de 1.
Tick cua hai da thdc nguyen ban la mat da thdc
nguyen bdn.
Cluing mink. G itt sit
f(x) = a. + aix + + amxm
g(x) =b. + bix + + brix"
la hai da axle nguygn ban. 1kchi can e.hting rainh rang chomet
se nguyen td p thy 3,,
p khang chia het the he s6 cita da thtic
tich f(x)g(x).
136 rang p khong chia M t the he se eita
f(x) va g(x).
G ia sit p chia M t cte,..., as_ i , be..., bs_ i va p Elblag ehia M t
as
va bs. 11kxet h@s6 cs+e cua da thile tich f(x)g(x).
crvs
=(... + ar_ib.E1) + arbs + (arkibri + ...) trong dop chia
M t the tdng trong cad dgu ngoac, nhvng Wing chia M t fiat
arbs vi p la nguyen to. D ochi p khO ng ehia M t cm.
116 de 2.
Neu f(x) la mdt da tilde yea he se nguyen co bac
Ian hon 0 utt f(x) khong bdt khd quy trong
Q[xl, thi f(x) phdn
tich duos thiznh mat tick nhung da Hale bac kluic 0 yeti he
ad
nguyen.
Cluing mink G ih sit fix)
khong bat kita quy trong Q[xl, thg
thl f(x) ed thg vigt
175
f(x)
w(x)y(x)
voi p(x) va 7;tax) la
nhang talc M ac sa coa f(x) trong Q[x]. Theo
nha tren da nhan xet, tocd thd
viet

w(x)=
b
g(x), y(x) =h(x)
trong dd g(x), h(x)
lit nhang da thac nguyen ban va
a, b, c, d la
nhang s6 nguyen. D odci
f(x) =g(x)h(x)
P
_ =
q bc1
va p, q
nguyen toding nhau. Ta H hiau cache se
caa da thac tich g(x) h(x) bang
the thi theobd de 1,
g(x) h(x)
la
nguyen ban, the nen cite khO ng cd utdc chung nitokhan ngoai
Pei
1. M at kluic vi f(x) E Z[x] nen the s6
phal I A nguyen, dodo
q chia het vi q nguyen vdi
p. Ta suy m q =1, M c la
f(x) =-p g(x) h(x).
V i p(x) va ydx)
la nhang udc there set ona
f(x) trong
nen g(z) va h(x)
la !M ang da tilde bac khan 0 dm Z[x].
n
Tien chutin A idenstaina.
GM sd

f(x) =ao + aix + + aorn (n >1)

Id mOt da th,Zc obi M s6 nguyen, oh girl sit c6 mOt s6 nguyen
t6 p sao cho p khang chic) hit
he s6 cao nit& ate, nhung p chin
hat Mc he ad con IM p2
khOng chia s6 hang ht do a
o.
Tha thi da th,2c f(x) l bat kid quy trong Q[4.
Cluing mink. Gib s8 f(x)
cd nhang adothy sa trong Q[x].
Theobd de 2, f(x) od the vier
f(x) =g(x) h(x),
trong dd
g(x) =bo bix + +
b E Z, 0 r <
h(x) =co + crx + + csx'
c, E Z, 0 <s c n
176
ta cd a = b c
0 0
a
t
= b
l
c
o
+ b
o
c
I
a
k
= b
k
C
o
b
k-I
C
I
+
"
+
a
n
= b
r
e
Theogilt thigt p chia M t a. = bee ; vay vi p lit nguyen t6,
nen M ac p chia M t bo hoac p chia hgt c_ G ia sit p chia ha
b 0, the' thi p khO ng chia co, vi neu th0g thi p2 se chia M t
a. =boco, trai vii gia thigt. p
khO ng thg chia. M t myi he s6
coa g(x), vi ngu thg thi p se chia M t a = bre , trai via gilt
thigt. Vay giA sii bk la he s6 dau tign cum-
g(x) :hong chia hgt
cho p. Ta hay xet
a k = bkco +bk_ICI + bock,
trong doak, bk_ 1 , ..., 60 deu chia het chop. Vay bkco phai chia
ha chop. Vi p lit nguyen t6, ta suy ra hoac 6
k chia chop,
hoac c.
dila M t chop, may than A tli gia thigt ye b
k va co.
V i du. 1) D a thdc x4 + 6x3 18x2 + 42x+ 12 la bat kha
quy trong Q[x]. That fly ta cd the ap dung tigu than A idenstaind
vdi p = 3.
2) D a thdc
xn + + + +p
yea p la met s6 nguygn to' thy yr,
lit bat kha quy trong Q(x].
BA I TA P
1. Tim nghigm hitu ti cart cac da thdc
a) x3 6x2 + 15x14
b) 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x4
c) x6 6x5 +11x4 x3 18x3 + 20x8
..
d)

x5 + 2x4 + 6x3 + 3x2 42x48
177'
2. G i/t sii - vdi p, q E Z
nguyen t6 citng nhau, nghiam
q,
cua da thdc
an.xn + + + ao
vol ha s6 nguyen. C hung minh rang
a) p I aq I ra q
I. a
n
b) p - mq la M c cim f(m)
voi m nguyen ; dac M et
p - q lit M c cua
f(1), p + q la
M c ctia
f(-1).
3. 4
dung bai tap 2) de
tinh nghiem hvu ti cda da thdc
10x5 - 81x4 + 90x3 - 10212 + 80x- 21
4. C hung minh rang da tittle
f(x)
vet he sg'nguyen kheng
cu
nghiem nguyen ngu
f(0) va f(1 ) la nhilng s6 le
5. G ia sit p(x) la
mat da tilde vol he s6 nguyen va
p(x) bat
kha quy trong Zhcl. C hung minh rang, trong Z[x], M u
p(x)If(x)g(x),
thl huge p(x)I f(x) hoc p(x)I
g(4-
6. Trong vanh Z[x] clidng minh ring mai da thitc, M ule 0
va khan 1, dgu cd the vigt dud) dung M ich acing da thdc M t
quy.
7. D ung Heti chugn A idenstaina dg cluing minh rang cac da
thdc sau day la M t kha quy trong QM .
a) x4 - 8x3 + 12+2 -fix+3
b) x4 -x3 + 2r + 1
c) + xP-2
+ + x+ 1 vati p nguyen tg.
FluOng don : dgit x =y + 1.
8. Tim digu kian can va du da da tilde
x4 + px2 + q la M t
kha quy trong (Hal
9. G ia su fix) = (x - cti)(x - a2)...(x- an) - 1, vat cac a1
la M itng s6 nguyen plan blot. C hung minh tang fix) lit bgt kha
quy trong QD cl.
178,
MUC .LUG
Trang
Lai n6i

3
Chiterng I - TA P 1-10P VA QUA N Ht
I - T4p htyp va S oh o
1. 1C hai themtap hop
2. BO phan caa met tap hop

5
3. lieu cua hai tap hop 6
4. T0p hop rang
7
5. Tap hop met, hai phin to
7
6. Tap hop cac N) phan ctla mot tap hop 8
7. Tich a cac caa hai tap hO p
8
8. Hop va giaocaa hai O p hop
9
9. A nh xo
10. A nh va tooanh
13
11. D on anh - Toan anh - S ong anh
14
12. Tich anh o15
13.Thu het:, va and O ng anh
17
14. TO p hop chi so18
15. flO p, giao, Lich de cac caa met hotap hO p
19
Bai tap 20
2. Quan hf
I . Quan he hai ngdi
23
2. Quan he lilting &king
24
3. Quan he O il I I I

25
M I tap 28
0. S crcac nen de au I f thuyit tap hqp
179
Chuang -
NUA NHO M VA NHO M
1. Nfra /them
1. ?hop Loan hai ng61
37
2. NO M rthem
39
Bai tGp

42
2. alham
1. Nhom

43
2. Nh6mcon
47
3.
NhO mcon chuO n lac va D ion, thI ldng

52
4. D Eng cdu
58
5. D 6i 'ding NM
64
BM tap
68
Chuang Ip - VANTI VA TRUONC.
1. Vanh va mien nguyen
1. Vanh
78
2.
D oc cua khang. M ien nguyen
80
3. Vanh con.
S I
4.
M ean va vanh thtiong
82
5. D 6ng
85
BM tap

87
2. Tnr&ug
I . Traang
91
' 2. TnI dng con
91
3. Trttong c&c thUong
92
Bai tap
94
Chuang IV -
VA NH D A Tale
1. Vanh da that mat ho
I .' S I M da M ac met A n
97
2. Bac caa mO t da thilc
100
3. Phep chid vii cht
101
4. NghiemNa mO t da M ac
105