Measurement and Analysis of

P. R. Burte Heat Transfer and Friction During

Yong-Taek Im
T. Altan
Department of Industrial
& Systems Engineering
ERC for Net Shape Manufacturing,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH 43210
S. L. Semiatin
Battelle Columbus Division,
Columbus, OH 43201
Hot Forging
An investigation of heat transfer antifriction during hot forging has been performed
using experimental and analytical techniques. The interface heat transfer coefficient
was measured in experiments in which two flat H-13 tool steel dies were heated to
different initial temperatures and brought together under varying pressure levels, or
the two dies were heated to the same temperature and used to upset aluminum alloy
2024-0 rings under both isothermal as well as nonisothermal conditions. The cou-
pling between heat transfer and friction during hot forging has been studied by
analysis of data from the ring experiments and the generation of heat transfer coeffi-
cient and friction shear factor calibration curves derived from finite element simula-
tions. By this means, the effects of forging pressure, deformation rate, and lubrica-
tion on the heat transfer coefficient and the friction shear factor were established. It
was sho wn that, for the geometry studied, the value of the friction shear factor is in-
dependent of the heat transfer coefficient and vice versa, at least to a first order.

Introduction
Heat transfer and friction play important roles in a variety
of metal cutting and metal forming processes. In metal cut-
ting, heat generated by deformation in the chip and friction
between the chip and tool is transferred across a
coolant/lubricant interface, causing heating of the cutting
tool. Such temperature increases have a strong effect on tool
wear and thus tool life [1, 2]. In turn, tool wear influences the
morphology of the chip and surface finish and part shape
tolerances that can be achieved in such operations.
In metal forming, interface heat transfer and friction effects
are of particular importance in conventional hot working pro-
cesses such as forging, extrusion, and rolling. In these opera-
tions, a hot workpiece is deformed using tooling whose initial
temperature is often considerably lower. The workpiece
material in contact with the dies or rolls is "chilled," leading
to an increased flow stress because of the strong temperature
dependence of deformation resistance of most metals in the
hot-working regime [3]. The amount and extent of chilling are
a function of the interface heat-transfer coefficient, the defor-
mation rate and the initial temperature difference, among
other things. Chilling as well as friction have a great influence
on the overall metal flow pattern, the working loads, and the
tendency to form metal flow defects such as laps and flow-
through defects [3, 4]. With respect to the dies, heat transfer
and friction play a critical role in failure mechanisms such as
abrasive wear, thermal fatigue, and plastic deformation [5].
To the present time, the possible interaction of heat transfer
and frictional effects during metal fabrication processes has
Contributed by the Production Engineering Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY. Manuscript received March 1989.
been largely overlooked in both simulative tests designed to
provide quantitative measures of heat transfer or friction coef-
ficients as well as actual forming or cutting processes. This is
surprising in view of the increasing use of analytical tools such
as the finite element method which rely on input data such as
characteristics of the interface to predict metal flow patterns,
temperature fields, and die loading conditions.
An examination of the literature reveals that moderate to
extensive efforts have been taken to investigate heat transfer
and friction individually. For examle, the ring test has been
widely used, and is generally accepted, as a test for quantify-
ing friction [6, 7]. On the other hand, determination of the in-
terface heat transfer coefficient has been investigated to only a
moderate degree, probably because of the experimental dif-
ficulties associated with such measurements. Vigor and Hor-
naday [8] and Kellow et al. [9, 10] designed high-response
thermocouples and measured surface and near-surface
temperatures during nonisothermal upsetting of medium car-
bon steel cylinders. They studied the effects of process
parameters such as lubrication, speed, and percent reduction
on die heating but did not attempt to estimate heat transfer
coefficients from their data. This is primarily because the in-
fluences of deformation heating and heat transport in the
specimen on the one hand and interfacial frictional heating on
the other are difficult to quantify. In similar work, Dadras
and Wells [11] measured both billet and die temperatures dur-
ing upsetting of OFHC copper, 1042 steel, and 304 stainless
steel cylinders. With these data, they obtained estimates of
heat-transfer coefficients by using a two-dimensional finite
difference approach for the analysis of heat conduction,
which however neglected the effects of heat generation.
Dadras, Burte, and Stone [12] and Im [13] conducted exten-
sions to the work of Dadras and Wells. Dadras et al. [12] car-

332/Vol. 112, NOVEMBER 1990 Transactions of the ASME

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 ried out hammer forging experiments and finite difference
simulations for nonisothermal upsetting of the same three test
materials. Using the same heat transfer coefficients deduced
by Dadras and Wells, approximate agreement between
measured and predicted die temperature transients was ob-
tained. In the work of Im [13], a finite element, rather than a
finite difference method of analysis was used to deduce heat
transfer coefficients from the data of Dadras and Wells; the
latter heat transfer coefficients were comparable to the
former.
Work in the area of heat transfer in forging can also be
found in the German literature. Much like the above workers,
Beck [14] measured die temperatures during hot upsetting of
steel and aluminum cylinders. Assuming that the die
temperature field could be fit by a truncated Fourier series, he
was able to estimate heat-transfer coefficients under a variety
of conditions. The most important result of these experiments
was that the heat-transfer coefficient under nominally zero
load was an order of magnitude less than that under high
pressures. In addition, above a certain threshold pressure, its
value was relatively constant. Klafs [15] did similar work, but
interpreted his temperature measurements with a one dimen-
sional heat transfer model which neglected heat transport and
heat generation in the workpiece. Apparently, this approach
gave rise to heat-transfer coefficient predictions which were
substantially higher than those of Beck and which also showed
a sharp increase with time during the deformation.
In recent work by Semiatin et al. [16], the effects of
pressure, deformation, and deformation rate on heat transfer
were studied. Experiments were conducted in which (i) two
dies, heated to different temperatures, were brought together
under varying pressure levels and (2) two dies heated to the
same temperature were used to upset aluminum alloy 2024-0
ring specimens preheated to a higher temperature. Data from
both sets of tests were analyzed to determine heat transfer
coefficients by using calibration curves derived from
analytical and finite difference method solutions.
The present work is essentially an extension of that
conducted by Im [13] and Semiatin et al. [16]. Its objectives
were to deduce the pressure and deformation dependence of
heat transfer coefficients using experimental and
analytical/numerical techniques similar to those used in the
previous two investigations. In addition, and more important-
ly, a parametric investigation of the effects of heat transfer
and friction on metal flow and die temperature changes during
nonisothermal ring upsetting was conducted using finite ele-
ment techniques to establish the possible interaction of the two
different interface effects. Conclusions deduced from this
numerical work were confirmed by experiments designed to
separate the effects of heat transfer from friction.
Experimental Design
Tooling Design. The equipment utilized in the present
Nomenclature
1,2 = subscripts referring to the two m - friction shear factor
dies or the die and the t = time, s
workpiece Tt = instantaneous die
b = V/cpc, mm/s temperature, °C (°F)
c = specific heat, J/g°C Tw = initial die temperature, °C
h = heat transfer coefficient, (°F)
kW/m 2 K To = instantaneous die (or
K = thermal conductivity, W/m°C workpiece) temperature, °C
K = thermal diffusivity, mVs (°F)
Journal of Engineering for Industry
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-DIE SET PLATE
-BASE
-SUPPORT ADAPTER
COLLAR
DIE
INSTRUMENTED DIE
COLLAR
SUPPORT ADAPTER
CERAMIC INSULATOR
BASE
-DIE SET PLATE
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of fixture used in experiments
heat transfer/friction experiments was very similar to that
used in previous studies [16, 17]. A schematic of the tooling is
shown in Fig. 1. The assembly contained a pair of 7.0 cm (2.75
inch) diameter flat H-13 tool steel dies which were ground to a
surface finish of approximateely 0.4 /xm (16 microinch). Each
die was supported vertically by a superalloy support and was
kept radially positioned by a stainless steel collar threaded to
the support. In turn, each support was attached to a stainless
steel support adapter which rested on a ceramic (A1203) in-
sulating block and a stainless steel base with passages for
water cooling. The complete tooling assembly was mounted in
a die set placed in a 580 kN (130 kip) servohydraulic testing
machine.
The instrumentation used to measure temperatures during
the tests consisted of special high response thermocouples
which were located in tight-fitting holes that had been electric
discharge machined in the lower H-13 tool steel die. The holes
were located at several subsurface locations. The data
reported here were from thermocouples located 0.229 mm
(0.009 inch) and 2.46 mm (0.097 inch) from the die surface.
Radially, the thermocouples were located on a circle of
diameter of 30.5 mm (1.20 inch) centered with the axis of the
die. Near each thermocouple hole opening, on the support
face of the instrumented die, an internal thread was machined
so that the mating thermocouple could be screwed securely in-
to place.
The specific thermocouples chosen to measure the rapidly
changing temperature transients in the present work were
manufactured by the Medtherm Corporation of Huntsville,
AL (model designation: TCS-K-18-48-10364A). They were of
a coaxial design consisting of a 0.81 mm (0.032 inch) outer
diameter tube of chromel and a fine inner wire of alumel. The
thermocouple junction is made by abrading its coaxial end
against the bottom of the die hole. This shearing action creates
whisker thin junctions of the chromel and alumel which give
'.20 initial die (or workpiece)
temperature, °C (°F)
X axial coordinate, mm (in.)
6 effective thickness of inter-
face layer, mm (in.)
P density, g/cm3
Z l + (b,/b 2 )
NOVEMBER 1990, Vol. 112/ 333
 the thermocouple its special high response characteristics. For
the present study, each thermocouple was inserted into its hole
and then removed and inspected visually using a low power
microscope. The evidence of the abrasion was visible as cir-
cular striations on the end of the thermocouple. Also, the
technique gave a method for verifying the geometry of the
hole bottom so that a square hole bottom could be assured.
For the final insertion, each thermocouple was seated and then
screwed slightly beyond the seating point to assure that the
thermocouple tip had been abraded and was in intimate con-
tact with the die hole bottom. Since the thermal expansion
coefficients of the thermocouple materials are greater than
that of the surrounding H-13, it was expected that each ther-
mocouple tip stayed in good contact with the bottom of
respective hole. The manufacturer of the thermocouples
estimates that with this seating technique the response time is 2
milliseconds or less.
The temperature of the dies was controlled using in-
dependently controlled 400 watt electric heater bands
manufactured by Chromalox, Inc. of Pittsburgh, PA. Four
bands in all were used; one was attached to the periphery of
each die, respectively, and the other two were attached to the
peripheries of the superalloy supports near the dies. Each
heater band was controlled by a separate PID type
temperature controller that utilized a normal chromel-alumel
thermocouple welded to the periphery of the die near the flat
surface to provide the feedback control signal. By contrast,
the heater bands on the supports used simple variable voltage
power supplies with a range from 0 to 240 volts. The four
band configuration described here was capable of heating the
dies to a temperature of approximately 480 °C (900 °F).
Experimental Procedures. Two types of experiments were
conducted to determine heat transfer coefficients and friction
factors. The first set of tests, or so-called "two-die ex-
periments," was used to establish the dependence of the heat
transfer coefficient, h0, on interface pressure, lubrication con-
dition, and initial temperature difference between the dies in
the absence of deformation. The second set of experiments,
i.e., ring tests, were designed to determine the effects of defor-
mation speed and lubrication condition simultaneously on h0
and the friction shear factor m.
In the two-die experiments, the lower and upper dies were
brought together under a fixed pressure after each die had
been heated to a specific temperature. The closing rate of the
test machine was set at its maximum level which yielded a
loading time (0 to full pressure) of approximately 0.05 s. This
fast loading rate allowed the analysis of the results discussed in
the next sections to assume that essentially all of the heat
transfer between the dies occurred at the preset load value.
Two different initial die temperature differences were used,
namely 50°C/420°C (120°F/790°F) and 200°C/420°C
(395°F/790°F). The pressure levels used were nominally
0,0.85, 14, 85, and 150 MPa (0, 0.12, 2, 12, 22 ksi). The 0 load
was imposed by bringing the two dies together under light load
but keeping them separated by two strips of 0.025 mm (0.001
in.) stainless steel shim stock. The strips were placed on the die
faces near their outside edges (i.e., away from where the ther-
mocouples were radially located) just prior to contact.
Two interface conditions were studied in the two-die tests,
dry and lubricated. The lubricant used was graphite in water
suspension (Renite S28, manufactured by Renite Inc. of Co-
lumbus, OH) diluted in a ratio of one part lubricant to five
parts water. The diluted lubricant was applied to the lower die
just prior to each test using a small hand held airbrush.
The second set of tests, or those designed to determine the
effects of lubrication, die-workpiece temperature difference,
and deformation speed consisted of upset tests on aluminum
alloy 2024-0 ring specimens. The initial outer diameter, inner
diameter, and thickness of the rings were 35.6, 17.8, and 11.8
334 / Vol. 112, NOVEMBER 1990
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mm (1.4, 0.7, 0.466 in.), respectively. These dimensions cor-
respond to a ring ratio of 6:3:2 and were chosen so that points
at the midwall location between the outside and inside ring
diameter would be directly over the thermocouples in the
lower die at the beginning of deformation.
As with the two-die tests, two interface conditions, dry or
lubricated, were used. In addition, ring tests were run under
nonisothermal as well as nominally isothermal conditions to
aid in separating the effects of heat transfer and friction on
metal flow. Nonisothermal conditions were imposed by
heating each ring to approximately 420 °C (790 °F) and then
upsetting it on dies heated to approximately 200°C (395°F).
Isothermal tests were conducted similarly by heating rings to
420 °C (790 °F) and then upsetting them on dies which had also
been heated to 420 °C (790 °F).
Relatively high and relatively low crosshead speeds were
employed during the ring tests. The higher speed, 56 mm/s
(2.2 in./s), was used to provide data for conditions in which
heat transfer occurred throughout the deformation period.
The second, or lower speed, 1.0 mm/s (0.04 in./s), was chosen
to represent cases where most of the heat transfer occurred
early in the deformation.
Analysis Procedures
Two-Die Experiments. As in previous work [16], data
from the two-die experiments were interpreted using closed
form analytical solutions based on one-dimensional heat
transfer models developed by Kellow [9, 10] and Wood [18].
Both models assume that (/) the interface layer has no heat
capacity of its own, and (2) the temperature gradient across
the interface layer has a linear profile. The solution for the
temperature in die 1, Tx, as a function of position x (distance
from the interface) and time t is given as:
where the subscripts denote die 1 or 2, and where T10,
T20 = initial die temperatures, n = thermal conductivity,
p = density, c = specific heat, K = /c/pc, Z=l + (bi/b2), and
b = \fHpc.
Using the Kellow-Wood solution, "calibration" curves
were generated as a function of the interface heat transfer
coefficient, h0. Basically, these curves are plots of (T, - Tw)
versus time for specific locations in the lower die (i.e., the
locations at which the thermocouples were placed) and a series
of h0 values. By plotting the experimental data from a specific
two-die test on such a set of calibration curves for a given ther-
mocouple location and given initial die temperatures, the
values of h0 for that test can be determined. The influence of
interface pressure, lubrication, and initial die temperature on
h0 is easily investigated by this means. In deriving the calibra-
tion curves three sets of thermal properties were used for the
H-13 tool steel dies [19], one for each initial die temperature
(Table 1).
Ring Tests. In contrast to the two-die experiments, the
ring tests could not be modelled with a simple, closed form,
one-dimensional analysis. The coupling between the heat
transfer and deformation phenomenon necessitated the use of
a numerical analysis. To solve the problem, the simulation
package ALPID, developed by Battelle Columbus Division
'under contract to the U.S. Air Force [20-22] and based on the
finite element method (FEM), was selected. ALPID (Analysis
Transactions of the ASME
 Table 1 Thermal properties used in two-die analysis [191 Table 2 Thermal properties used in AL.PID ring test simulations [19, 24]

Initial Die Temperature Material Temperature v: p-c

Parameter
°C(°F) W/m°C J/m3<>C
50°C (120°F) 200"C (395°F) 420°C (790°F)
Aluminum 200 - 420
Alloy 2024-0 (395 - 790) 182.0 2.84 • 106
K (W/m°C) 27.66 28.08 28.40
H -13 Tool Steel 25(77) 27.8 3.50 • I06
c (J/gTO 0.450 0,460 0.472 100(212) 27.0 3.53 • 10"
p (g/cm3)
215(419) 28.2 3.56- 106
7.79 7.79 7.79
350 (662) 28.4 3.65 • 106
538 (1000) 28.4 3.73 • tO6
650 (1200) 28.4 3.90 • 106

of Large Plastic Incremental Deformation) is a ther-

moviscoplastic FEM code that provides a coupled analysis of --TEST oo- 1 X - -TEST DD-3
heat transfer and deformation for metalworking processes. It 1
is also capable of conducting isothermal simulations that do h-OO • ~~„

not require a coupled heat transfer-deformation analysis. In- - / h-20'

' ,'f - 1 0 '
puts to ALPID include the geometry of the bodies involved, 7T <
their thermal properties, the interface conditions between the X ,h - 3
bodies, specification of the die velocity, and certain simulation './/*
o
control parameters. It also allows the user to define a specific -3
material flow law as an individual module independent of the
I
rest of the program through a user entered flow stress -2 Z

subroutine. Outputs from the simulation include temperature, ™ 1

strain, strain rate, and stress fields, FEM grid distortions, and
overall process parameters such as forming load. -O.S •
-0.2

Simulation Conditions. For all of the simulations, the .. .1

undeformed ring mesh consisted of 380 elements comprised of O.OO 0 . 2 4 0.4S 0 . 7 2 0.96 1.20
420 nodes and each of the dies consisted of 133 elements com- TIME ( s )
prised of 160 nodes. Four sets of nonisothermal simulations Fig. 2 Comparison of temperature-versus-time data in bottom die with
were run corresponding to the two die speeds (56 mm/s 2.2 calibration curves from Kellow-Wood analysis at x = 0.229 mm (0.009 in.);
in./s) and 1.0 mm/s (0.04 in./s)), and the two interface condi- unlubricated, forging pressure-150 MPa (22 ksi), r 1 0 = 5 0 " C (120°F)
tions used in the experiments, dry and lubricated. Values of and r 2 o=420°C(790°F).
the friction shear factor m that were used in the simulations
were estimated from geometry measurements from the present -TEST D O - t X-TEST D D - 3
ring tests and friction factor calibration curves derived earlier
from ALPID simulations of the isothermal upsetting of
aluminum alloy 7075 rings [23], The values so determined
were m = 0.8 (dry conditions) and m = 0.2 (lubricated condi-
tions). The die and workpiece temperatures used in the simula-
tions were the same as those employed in the experiments.
Input material properties consisted of thermal data [19, 24]
(Table 2) and the flow stress data for aluminum alloy 2024-0.
The material flow stress behavior was modeled using data
reported for aluminum alloy 2024 [25] for the same strain rate
and temperature regimes encountered during the present ring
tests.
To supplement the nonisothermal ring simulations and to
provide baseline deformation predictions, a pair of isothermal 0 . 0 0 0 . 3 6 0 . 7 2 1 .08 1.44 1.80
cases were run corresponding to the fast die speed, 56 mm/s TIME ( s )
(2.2 in./s), and both dry and lubricated conditions. In these Fig. 3 Comparison of temperature-versus-time data in bottom die with
simulations, no heat transfer between the ring and dies was calibration curves from Kellow-Wood analysis at x = 2.46 mm (0.097 in.);
considered. Additionally, the effects of deformation heating unlubricated, forging pressure = 150 MPa (22 ksi), T 10 = 50°C (120°F)
and frictional heating were ignored. The ring was taken to and r 2 0 =420°C(790°F).
have a constant uniform temperature of 420 °C (790 °F) by
ALPID when determining the flow stress at particular points
in these simulations. determined. The FEM simulations also provided calibration
curves for the friction shear factor as a function of h0 for
Calibration Curves for the Heat Transfer Coefficient and 777 = 0.2 and m = 0.8.
Friction Shear Factor. As for the two-die tests, the outputs
from the ALPID analysis were sets of calibration curves for
the interface heat transfer coefficient ft0. For each set of pro- Results and Discussion
cess conditions, i.e., die/workpiece temperatures, die velocity, Two-Die Experiments. Measured temperature-versus-time
and friction shear factor, the heat transfer coefficient was set data from thermocouples placed either near the surface or
to several specific values, and an FEM simulation as described somewhat farther from the surface were utilized to extract
above was run for each. Each simulation yielded temperature values of the heat transfer coefficient, h0. As in previous work
versus time calibration curves at locations at which the ther- [16], these data were placed on sets of calibration curves that
mocouples had been located in the experimental program. By were derived from the Kellow-Wood analysis for particular
plotting the experimentally measured temperatures 6*n the values of initial die temperatures and die material properties.
complete set of calibration curves, values for h0 could be Typical plots are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. In both figures, the

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 Table 3 Measurements of the heat transfer coefficient h0 from two-die Table 4 Measurements from ring tests of aluminum alloy 2024-0
experiments
Reduction in Height, %/
ho, k W / m : K Interface. Upset Crosshead Decrease in Ring I. D., %
Condition Condinons Speed
Lubrication Interface T20/T10"
Condition Pressure mm/s(tn./s) Low High
Reduction Reduction
MPa (ksi) 420/50°C 420/200°C
(790/120° F) (790/395°F)
Dry Isothermal 56(2.2) 26.6 / 19.2 50.6 / 57.4

Dry 0 0.75 0.9 Dry Isothermal \.Q (0.04) 24.6 / 16.9 52.0 / 61.5

Dry 0.85 (0.12) 1.8 2.5 Dry Nonisothermal 56 (2.2) 24.9 / 20.8 48.4 / 56.8

Dry 14. (2.) 7.5 7.0 Dry Nonisothermal 1.0 (0.04) 245 / 16.3 48.4 / 52.0

Dry 35. (12.) 8.5 7.5 Lubncated tsothermai 56 (2.2) 25.4 / 14.2 50.4 / 58.1

Dry 150. (22.) 9.0 7.5 Lubncated Isothermal 1.0 (0.04) 2 2 8 / 13-5 5 1 5 1 60.7

Lubncated 0 1.5 1.5 Lubncated Nonisothermal 56 (2.2) 21.5 / -3.9 48.0/-1-6

Lubncated 0.85 (0.12) 6.0 11.0 Lubricated Nonisothermal 1.0 (0.04) 25.0 / -7.0 4 9 2 / 3.2

Lubncated 14. (2.) 15.0

Lubncated S5. (12.) 19.5 16.0

Lubncated 150. (22.) 18.0 12.5 properties of the tool steel dies in the determination of the
calibration curves. Further work is needed to verify this.
Nevertheless, based on the work in Reference [16], it is unlike-
ly that refinement of the analysis to include variable thermal
results suggest that the heat transfer coefficient varies little properties would substantially change the predicted values of
during a given experiment and that essentially the same value K
of h0 is predicted by both the near-surface and deeper ther-
mocouple measurements: the latter observation adds credibili- Ring Test Results. Results from the ring tests consisted of
ty to the measurements. This general behavior was mirrored measurements of the changes in the dimensions of the rings
by all of the other results as well. and temperature-versus-time data from the thermocouples
placed in the lower die.
Values for h0 from all of the two-die experiments are sum-
marized in Table 3. The magnitude of these heat transfer coef- Friction Observations. Dimension change data (Table 4)
ficients from tool-steel die experiments are very similar to were examined in the raw form to get a general idea of the ef-
previous ones obtained with IN-100 dies [16]. Moreover, the fects of deformation rate and lubrication on friction. The
effects of pressure and lubrication on h0 deduced in the pres- results reveal basically two friction regimes. Conditions of
ent work are very similar to those found previously. These high friction, or the first regime, can be inferred from the data
trends may be summarized as follows: in Table 4 for all of the experiments conducted without
• The heat transfer coefficient increases with pressure for lubrication, irrespective of deformation rate and whether the
both lubricated and unlubricated conditions. experiment was conducted under nominally iosthermal or
• At all pressure levels, the hQ values for lubricated condi- nonisothermal conditions. In each case the percent decrease in
tions are slightly higher than for dry conditions. ring I. D. was between 15 and 20 percent (at approximately 25
• Above a certain pressure, the value of h0 remains un- percent height reduction) or between 50 and 65 percent (at ap-
changed. This critical, or threshold, forging pressure is ap- proximately 50 percent height reduction). Thus the presence or
proximately 14 MPa (2 ksi) for dry conditions and between absence of substantial heat transfer between the ring and dies
0.85 and 14 MPa (0.12 and 2 ksi) for lubricated conditions. does not appear to influence the gross metal flow pattern, at
• Under light pressures, typical of a workpiece resting freely least not for the present geometry and test conditions.
on a die, the heat transfer coefficient is an order of Moreover, as will be discussed further below, the time scale
magnitude smaller than under high-pressure conditions. over which heat transfer takes place (i.e., during the entire
The above trends can be readily explained qualitatively with deformation for the rapid tests or primarily at the beginning
resort to the simplified model of an interface consisting of an of the test for the slow tests) does not affect the apparent fric-
interface layer of a certain (unknown) thermal conductivity tion characteristics.
and certain (unknown) thickness. As the interface pressure is Frictional behavior similar to that observed for all the dry
increased, the size of asperities on the die surfaces is de- experiments was also found for lubricated tests under isother-
creased, and the effective interface layer thickness is dimin- mal conditions (Table 4). This finding can be deduced to be a
ished, thereby increasing the heat transfer coefficient, as is result of the fact that the water-based graphite lubricant used
observed. Similarly, the use of a lubricant increases the ther- was ineffective at the die temperature employed, i.e., 420°C
mal conductivity (in comparison to dry conditions), thereby (790°F), resulting in an interface behavior analogous to dry
also increasing ha, a trend in line with observations as well. At conditions. In fact, it was observed that when the lubricant
a given pressure level, lubricated conditions may also be more was sprayed onto the dies at this temperature, the water carrier
effective than dry conditions in promoting the microscopic evaporated rapidly leaving a rough or irregular appearing
metal flow required to reduce asperities; with this assumption, coating of powdered graphite.
it might be concluded that the critical pressure level under The other, or lower, friction regime observed in the present
lubricated conditions would be less than that under dry condi- work was found in lubricated, nonisothermal experiments
tions. This behavior is indeed observed as shown by the data in (Table 4). Here, the percentage decrease in ring I. D. was con-
Table 3. siderably less at each reduction level in comparison to the high
The results in Table 3 also reveal a rather small or negligible friction cases described above. It is also seen from the data
effect of initial die temperature and temperature difference on that the friction results for lubricated. Nonisothermal tests
the value of h0 for given values of pressure and lubrication. were essentially the same irrespective of test speed. Thus, as in
Part of this effect may be a result of the assumption of fixed 'the dry, nonisothermal tests, the time scale over which heat
values (i.e., independent of temperature) for the thermal transfer takes place does not affect the friction behavior.

336 / Vol. 112, NOVEMBER 1990 Transactions of the ASME

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 O.OO 0.24 0.48 0.72 0.96 1.20
TIME (1/10 s)
Fig. 4 Comparison of measured temperature-versus-time data at
x = 0.229 mm (0.009 in.) in the bottom die with ALPID calibration curves
for the nonisothermal ring tests of aluminum alloy 2024-0: unlubricated,
ram speed-56 mm/s (2.2 in./s), initial die temperature T 10 = 200°C (395°F)
and initial ring temperature 72o = 420°C (790°F).
TIME (s)
Fig. 5 Comparison of measured temperature-versus-time data at
x = 0.229 mm (0.009 in.) in the bottom die with ALPID calibration curves
for the nonisothermal ring tests of aluminum alloy 2024-0: unlubricated,
ram speed-1 mm/s (0.04 in./s), initial die temperature T 10 = 200°C (395° F)
and initial ring temperature T2Q =420°C (790°F).
From these results, it appears that the frictional effects are in-
dependent of heat transfer, and therefore friction and heat
transfer can be decoupled in the analysis of nonisothermal
metalworking processes.
Temperature-Versus-Time Data. The temperature-
vs.-time data also suggest that heat transfer effects can be
decoupled from (i.e., are independent of) frictional in-
fluences. Sample near-surface temperature measurements
from the nonisothermal ring tests are shown in Figs. 4-7. Note
the differences in time scale between Figs. 4, 6 (rapid tests) and
5, 7 (slow tests). If the data for t-Q s to f = 0.12 s are exam-
ined in each case, a remarkable similarity among the
measurements is found. To be specific, the heat transfer
trends are almost identical irrespective of lubrication condi-
tion (i.e., high or low friction) and the time scale over which
heat transfer takes place relative to the time over which defor-
mation takes place. In both the rapid and slow tests, the major
heat transfer took place in the first 0.1 s. By contrast, the total
deformation time was approximately 0.11 s for the rapid tests
and 6 s for the slow tests.
The above behavior suggests that, as in the two-die ex-
periments, interface pressure is the prime variable controlling
the heat transfer rate. In all the ring tests the average pressure
was on the order of 70 MPa (10 ksi). This pressure is above the
critical pressure found in the two-die experiments, i.e., the
Journal of Engineering for Industry
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0.00 0.24 0.48 0.72 0.9S 1.20
TIME (1/10 3)
Fig. 6 Comparison of measured temperature-versus-time data at
x = 0.229 mm (0.009 in.) in the bottom die with ALPID calibration curves
for the nonisothermal ring tests of aluminum alloy 2024-0: lubricated
(Renite S-28), ram speed-56 mm/s (2.2 in./s), initial die temperature
T 10 =200°C (395°F) and initial ring temperature T 20 = 420°C (790°F).
o
o . . i
0.00 0.08 0.18 0.2* 0.32 0.40
TIME ( s )
Fig, 7 Comparison of measured temperature-versus-time data at
x = 0.229 mm (0.009 in.) in the bottom die with ALPID calibration curves
for the nonisothermal ring tests of aluminum alloy 2024-0: lubricated
(Renite S-28), ram speed-1 mm/s (0.04 in./s), initial die temperature
T 10 =200°C (395°F) and initial ring temperature T20 = 420°C (790°F).
pressure above which the heat transfer coefficient reaches a
maximum value and becomes insensitive to further increases
in pressure.
Ring Test Simulations. The ring test FEM simulations
confirmed the hypothesis that frictional and heat transfer ef-
fects can be decoupled, at least to a first order. The simula-
tions described below are for two values of the friction shear
factor, m = 0.2 and m = 0.8, two crosshead speeds, and values
of h0 ranging from 0 to 40 kW/m2K. Several isothermal
simulations, in which deformation and interface frictional
heating were neglected, are also included. As mentioned
before, the values of m selected for the parametric study were
based on a comparison of the measured ring data for percent
decrease in I. D. vs. reduction with friction factor calibration
curves derived previously for 6:3:2 rings [23]. During the pre-
sent nonisothermal forging parametric studies, however, it
was found that the choice of m = 0.2 indeed modeled the low-
friction behavior well, and that m in the range of 0.8 to 0.9
modeled the high-friction flow behavior to a reasonable
degree.
Simulation results for the friction calibration curves are
summarized in Figs. 8-9. The major features of these curves
are as follows:
• At a given deformation speed and friction factor, the ef-
fects of the heat transfer coefficient h0 on the friction fac-
NOVEMBER 1990, Vol. 112/ 337
 ' ' I • ' ' I ' ' • I ' ' ' I • ' ' I ' '
^.- O R Y - ISO. TESTS #»• • X-LUBE-NONISO. TEST
a - - O R Y - NONISO. TESTS • 4 - - D R Y - I S O . TEST 3"
fc? o O -LUBE - I S O T E S T S • — DRY —NONISO. TEST,
- X -- I . U 8 E - N O N I S O . TESTS

IrmQ-^O? .

—* - h
ISO-s.
10
^ -
~ \v2^'
haa *.o**47 z
Z - o
O « - ^ <r H
,m =o.a h-O, O
D
So h i l O >^L "
ISO* > '
a , y m - 0 . 2 ^ n - O ^ , X
Q O • n—nOj^-^JSV
Ul
K
^ m ~ 0 .2 h—10'' ^ I S O
u
— • x • i . . . i .'.' . i
o r 1 ' ' .* . . 1 . . 1 1 . . .

0. 10. 20. 30. 40. SO. 60.

I O.O 11.0 22.0 33.0 4*.0 SS.O
REDUCTION IN HEIGHT (%)
REDUCTION IN HEIGHT {T.)
Fig. 9 FEM calibration curves for the shear friction factor, m, as a
Fig. 8 FEM calibration curves for the shear friction factor, m, as a parametric value of the heat transfer coefficient, ft0, for ram speed-1
parametric value of the heat transfer coefficient, hQ, for ram speed-56 mm/s (0.04 in./s).
mm/s (2.2 in./s).

tor calibration curve is small to negligible. This is true for a used in the present experiments. The following conclusions
wide range of hQ values from 0 to 40 kW/m2K, as well as can be drawn:
for isothermal conditions. • The heat transfer coefficient increases with pressure under
• At a given deformation speed, the effect of the friction both dry and lubricated conditions. At a given pressure,
shear factor on the friction factor calibration curves is though, and in the absence of deformation, lubrication
much greater than the effect of h0 on the calibration raises the value of h0 slightly.
curves. • Above a threshold pressure, the heat transfer coefficient is
• For a given friction shear factor, the friction shear factor insensitive to forging pressure. This threshold is slightly
curves are relatively insensitive to deformation rate, and lower under lubricated conditions than unlubricated
hence the time scale over which the majority of the heat conditions.
transfer takes place relative to the deformation time. • The heat transfer coefficient is an order of magnitude
The FEM predictions for the heat transfer coefficient smaller in low pressure and unloaded cases than under the
calibration curves (Figs. 4-7) also show a decoupling of m and high forging pressure conditions encountered during
h0; viz., the temperature-time curves are a strong function of deformation.
h0, but at most a very weak function of m. This is seen by • The die chilling effect on friction measurements in the ring
comparison of the h0 calibration curves at a given deforma- tests is small to negligible.
tion rate but for different friction conditions (e.g., Fig. 4 and • The effect of friction shear factor on the friction factor
Fig. 6 for high speed tests under different friction conditions calibration curves is much greater than the effect of heat
or Fig. 5 with Fig. 7 for low speed tests under different friction transfer coefficient on the friction factor calibration
conditions). The hQ calibration curves are also very insensitive curves. Likewise, the effect of friction shear factor on heat
to deformation rate as comparison of Figs. 4 and 5 or 6 and 7 transfer coefficient calibration curves was found to be
reveals. small. These simulation results and corroborating ex-
With the measured temperature-time data placed on the h0 perimental observations lead to the conjecture that heat
calibration curves, it is seen that values of approximately 25 to transfer and friction may be decoupled in the analysis of
30 kW/m2K for the heat transfer coefficient are obtained ir- hot-working processes with similar geometry and process-
respective of lubrication condition and deformation rate. ing conditions. Because the scope of this study was limited,
These values are approximately twice those found for the this hypothesis should be studied further under a wider
critical h0 in the two-die experiments (Table 3). As in previous range of processing conditions.
work, the higher values can most likely be ascribed to the
beneficial effects of deformation, in conjunction with high Acknowledgments
pressure, in smoothing interface asperities. The higher values
may also be partly a result of the fact that the ring tests were This work was carried out as part of the program of the
run on the dies after the two-die tests in which the starting Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing at
roughness of the dies was slightly reduced. the Ohio State University in conjunction with Battelle
Memorial Institute, Columbus Division. The assistance of
Messrs. N. Frey, W. Sunderland, M. Oliver, L. Taggart, D.
Summary and Conclusions Rider, and P. Vieth, all of Battelle's Columbus Division, in
conducting the experiments is gratefully acknowledged. En-
Interface heat transfer coefficients that pertain to couragements from and technical discussions with Dr. R.
metalworking conditions were determined by comparing Shivpuri and Messrs. G. Shen, J. Kim, Y. Chen, and J. Fan
measured temperatures with calibration curves generated are also sincerely appreciated.
analytically or numerically (using FEM techniques). These
calibration curves describe the temperature history at specific
subsurface die locations as a function of initial temperature References
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mal and nonisothermal friction calibration curves were also 1977.
generated during the finite element simulations. These later 2 Loewen, E. G., and Shaw, M. C , "On the Analysis of Cutting-Tool
curves were developed as a function of parametric values of Temperatures," Transactions ofthe ASME, Vol. 76, 1954, pp. 217-231.
f 3 Semiatin, S. L., "Workability in Forging," Workability Testing Tech-
the heat transfer coefficient in order to investigate possible niques, G. E. Dieter, ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
coupling between heat transfer and friction for the conditions 1984, pp. 197-247.

338 / Vol. 112, NOVEMBER 1990 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 04/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 4 Lake, F. N., and Moracz, D. J., "Comparison of Major Forging
Systems," Technical Report AFML-TR-71-112, TRW, Inc., Cleveland, May
1971.
5 Kannappan, A., "Wear in Forging Dies," Metal Forming, Vol. 36, No.
12, Dec. 1969, pp. 335-343, Vol. 37, No. 1, Jan. 1970, pp. 6-21.
6 Altan, T., Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications, American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, Chapter 6.
7 Schey, J., Tribology in Melalworking: Friction, Lubrication, and Wear,
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983.
8 Vigor, C. W., and Hornaday, J. W., " A Thermocouple for Measurement
of Temperature Transients in Forging Dies," Temperature, Its Measurement
and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Part 2, Rheinhold, New York, pp.
625-630.
9 Kellow, M. A., Bramley, A. N., and Bannister, F. K., "The Measurement
of Temperatures in Forging Dies,." Inter. J. Mach. ToolDes. Res., Vol. 9, No.
3, 1969, pp. 239-260.
10 Kellow, M. A., "Transient Temperatures in Hot Forging Dies," M. Sc.
Thesis, Birmingham University, 1968.
11 Dadras, P., and Wells, W. R., "Heat Transfer Aspects of Non-Isothermal
Axisymmetric Upset Forging," ASME JOURNAI OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY,
Series B, Vol. 106, 1984, pp. 187-195.
12 Dadras, P., Burte, P., and Stone, B., "Thermal Effects in Hammer Forg-
ing," Proceedings of NAMRC-XIV, University of Minnesota, Vol. 1, 1986, pp.
332-339.
13 Im, Y. T., ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, in press.
14 Beck, G., "Thermal Conditions in Tool Steels in Hot Upsetting and Forg-
ing Between Dies," StahlundEisen, Vol. 78, 1958, pp. 1556-1563. (In German)
15 Klafs, U., " A Contribution to the Determination of the Temperature
Distribution in the Tool and Workpiece in Warm Forging," Doctoral Thesis,
Technical University of Hannover, 1969. (In German)
16 Semiatin, S. L., Collings, E. W., Wood, V. E., Altan, T., "Determination
of the Interface Heat Transfer Coefficient for Non-Isothermal Bulk-Forming
Processes," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, Vol. 109, 1987,
pp. 49-57.
17 Semiatin, S. L., and Lahoti, G. D., "Deformation and Unstable Flow in
Hot Forging of Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1 Si," Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 12A,
1981, pp. 1705-1717.
18 Wood, V. E., Upublished Research, Battelle's Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, Ohio, 1981.
19 Metals Handbook, 9th Edition, American Society of Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, Vol. 1, pp. 652.
20 Wu, W. T., and Oh, S. I., "ALPIDT: A General Purpose FEM Code for
Simulation of Nonisothermal Forming Processes," Proceedings of NAMRC-
XIII, University of California-Berkeley, 1985, pp. 449-455.
21 Oh, S. I., Lahoti, G. D., and Altan, T., "ALPID—A General Purpose
FEM Program for Metal Forming," Proceedings ofNAMRC-IX, State College,
Pa., 1981, pp. 83-88.
22 Rebelo, N., and Kobayashi, S., " A Coupled Analysis of Visco-Plastic
Deformation and Heat Transfer," Inter. J. Mechanical Science, Vol. 22, 1980,
pp. 699-705.
23 Udagawa, T., and Kropp, E., Private communciation, 1988.
24 Lyman, T., Metals Handbook, Vol. 1: Properties and Selection of
Materials, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1961.
25 Charpentier, P. L., Stone, B. C , Ernst, S. C , and Thomas, J. R., Jr.,
"Characterization and Modeling of the High Temperature Flow Behavior of
Aluminum Alloy 2024," Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 17A, 1986, pp. 2227-2237.

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