Acqua Nel Sottosuolo

Evaporazione
Bilancio idrologico medio del globo terrestre, in migliaia di Km3/a

Porosità delle rocce
(i clasti e i vuoti)
Porosità efficace delle rocce
(il tema della «interconnessione»)
Volume non
interconnesso
Volume non
interconnesso Volume non
interconnesso
Porosità (totale) = Vv / Vt
Porosità efficace = Vvi / Vt
dove: Vt è il volume della roccia

Vv è il volume dei vuoti presenti nella roccia
Vvi è il volume dei vuoti interconnessi presenti nella roccia
Porosità primaria è funzione dei meati singenetici

Porosità secondaria è funzione dei meati generati dopo la formazione della
roccia (es. fratture)
Tipi di roccia Porosità Tipi di roccia Porosità
efficace (%) efficace (%)
Ghiaie 20 ÷ 30 Dolomie 2 ÷ 5
Sabbie e ghiaie 15 ÷ 25 Calcari 2 ÷ 10
Sabbie 5 ÷ 20 Craie 2 ÷5
Limi 1 ÷ 5 Rocce intrusive e 0,1 ÷ 2
Depositi alluvionali 8 ÷ 10 metamorfiche 8 ÷ 10

recenti 5 ÷ 10 Lave 1÷3
Sabbie argillose Calcari marnosi
Ordini di grandezza medi della porosità efficace di alcune rocce
Porosità «primaria» trascurabile o nulla
Calcare
Argilla
Porosità «primaria» nulla
Wim Wenders, Il cielo sopra Berlino

Porosità «secondaria» elevata
(le fratture)
Porosità «secondaria» elevata
Nick Arjolas, Stratified ruins (2009)

Distribuzione dell’acqua nel sottosuolo
(alla scala microscopica)
La capacità di ritenzione di una roccia è la proprietà di trattenere acqua, allo stato liquido,
sottraendola all’azione della forza di gravità.
L’acqua di ritenzione è costituita da 3 componenti:

- Acqua igroscopica
- Acqua pellicolare
- Acqua capillare
La capacità di ritenzione si esprime mediante il coefficiente di ritenzione (R), detto anche

ritenzione specifica = Vr / Va
dove: Vr è il volume di acqua di ritenzione

Va è il volume totale (o apparente) della roccia, nella sua interezza
Tipi di acqua nel sottosuolo.

(1) Acqua igroscopica;
(2) Acqua pellicolare;
(3) Acqua capillare;
(4) Acqua gravifica
L’acqua igroscopica (0.1 μm) è acqua adesa (adsorbita) alle particelle solide e può essere
estratta riscaldando la roccia a temperatura >105°C (calcinazione).
L’acqua pellicolare (1 ÷ 2 μm) è acqua adesa alla precedente, mediante forze più deboli, e
può essere estratta mediante centrifugazione
L’acqua capillare è rappresentata da menischi d’acqua, non soggetti alla forza di gravità, che
si collocano in meati di piccole dimensioni (<2.5 mm)
Disponibilità
Forze Metodi di
Tipi di acque Per la Per l’evapo-
agenti estrazione
captazione traspirazione
Igroscopica Calcinazione Non disponibile
Pellicolare Non disponibile

Interazione
(acqua di
Sospesa molecolare
Centrifugazione ritenzione)
Capillare
Disponibile
Continua
Gravifica Gravità Per gravità Disponibile

Il fenomeno di capillarità è legato all’azione combinata delle forze di coesione (interazione
molecolare tra molecole identiche) e di forze di adesione (interazione molecolare tra
molecole diverse)
Legge di Jurin: h = 2 τ cosθ / r ρ g
dove:
h è l’altezza a cui risale l’acqua per capillarità [L]
τ è la tensione superficiale [M T-2]
θ è l’angolo tra la superficie dell’acqua e la parete del capillare
r è il raggio del capillare [L]
ρ è la densità dell’acqua [M L-3]
g è l’accelerazione di gravità [L T-2]
(alla scala macroscopica)
Zone di
Direzione Verso Fenomenologia umidità
interessate
Percolazione
Discendente
verso la falda Zona di
Ascenzione aerazione
Prevalentemente Ascendente
capillare
verticale
Oscillazioni del
Fascia di
Alternato livello
oscillazione
piezometrico
Prevalentemente Zona di
-
orizzontale saturazione
Movimenti dell’acqua nel sottosuolo
Ripartizione dell’acqua nel sottosuolo

(gradiente idraulico e deflusso idrico sotterraneo)
Conducibilità idraulica e legge di Darcy
La permeabilità è la capacità delle rocce di lasciarsi attraversare da un fluido
Il coefficiente di permeabilità o conducibilità idraulica (K) delle rocce è dato da:
K=kρg/μ
dove: K è la conducibilità idraulica [L T-1]

k è la permeabilità intrinseca o specifica [L2]
ρ è la densità del fluido [M L-3]
g è l’accelerazione di gravità [L T-2]
μ è la viscosità dinamica del fluido [M L-1 T-1]
Grado di permeabilità Coefficienti di

Tipi di rocce
relativa permeabilità (m/s)
K > 10 -2
Alto Ghiaie
10-2 > K > 10-4
Medio Sabbie
10-4 > K> 10-9
Basso Sabbie fini; Silt
10-9 > K
Impermeabile Argille
Correlazione tra il grado di permeabilità relativa di alcune rocce e gli ordini di grandezza dei coefficienti di permeabilità
va = Q / S
dove:
va è la portata specifica attraverso il cilindro [L T-1]
Q è la portata che attraversa il cilindro [L3 T-1]
S è la sezione interna del cilindro [L2]
va è detta anche velocità Darcyana
Gli esperimenti condotti da Darcy dimostrano che:
va è direttamente proporzionale alla perdita di carico idraulico (Δh) tra due punti di
osservazione [L]
va è inversamente proporzionale alla distanza (Δl) tra i medesimi due punti [L]
va è indipendente dall’angolo di inclinazione (θ)
Quindi:
va = K (Δh / Δl)
Da cui:
Q=KiS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cjvSShfdtvk
Dove: i è il gradiente idraulico
Il Carico Idraulico = Altezza di Pressione + Altezza Geometrica
L’Altezza di pressione in un determinato punto P è la pressione dell'acqua nel punto

P, misurata in metri di colonna d'acqua
L'altezza geometrica in un determinato punto P è la quota del punto P rispetto ad un

piano orizzontale preso convenzionalmente a riferimento come quota zero
Usando il tratto rosso come piano orizzontale di riferimento, il Carico idraulico nel
punto P è pari a 4 metri
In ambito idrogeologico, il Carico idraulico viene riferito al livello del mare (m s.l.m.)
I caratteri idraulici della roccia: Omogenea vs. Eterogenea
La Legge di Darcy è una legge empirica ricavata da un esperimento condotto su un

mezzo continuo, omogeneo ed isotropo.
Un mezzo si definisce omogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è la

medesima in ogni punto del mezzo
Un mezzo si definisce eterogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è diversa in

punti differenti del mezzo
a) Layered heterogeneity
b) Trending heterogeneity
c) Discontinuous heterogeneity



a) Layered heterogeneity



b) Trending heterogeneity



c) Discontinuous heterogeneity
(Il fattore «scala»)
La porzione caratterizzata dalla presenza dei punti bianchi delinea una componente
«omogenea» all’interno di un insieme «eterogeneo»
Roy Lichtenstein, Modern painting with clef (dettaglio), 1967

Olio, polimeri sintetici e matita su tela
(Eterogeneità «discontinua» [«discontinuous»])
Alberto Burri, Cretto bianco, 1974 – Tecnica mista su cellotex

(Eterogeneità «discontinua» [«discontinuous»])
K1
K2 K1
Alberto Burri, Cretto bianco, 1974 – Tecnica mista su cellotex

(Eterogeneità «progressiva» [«trending»])
Alberto Burri, Grande cretto nero, 1977 (dettaglio ruotato)

Acrovinilico su cellotex
(Eterogeneità «progressiva» [«trending»])
K1 < K2 < K3 < K4 < K5 < K6 ….
Alberto Burri, Grande cretto nero, 1977 (dettaglio ruotato)

Acrovinilico su cellotex
(Eterogeneità «stratificata» [«layered»])
Sport Pavillion, Burriana, Spagna

I caratteri idraulici della roccia: Isotropo vs. Anisotropo
Un mezzo è isotropo, in un determinato punto, quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è

indipendente dalla direzione di misura, in quel determinato punto
Un mezzo è anisotropo, in un determinato punto, quando la sua conducibilità idraulica

varia al variare della direzione di misura, in quel determinato punto
Limiti di validità della Legge di Darcy
(Flusso laminare vs. Flusso turbolento)
Al di là delle condizioni sperimentali in cui la Legge di Darcy è stata ottenuta, è

stato accertato che essa può essere valida:
1.In condizioni sature ed insature
2.In rocce porose e fessurate
3.In acquiferi ed in mezzi a bassa permeabilità
4.In sistemi omogenei ed eterogenei
5.In mezzi isotropi ed anisotropi
Tuttavia, è necessario che il flusso sia laminare, in un mezzo continuo
Il Numero di Reynolds viene

utilizzato per determinare il
campo di validità della Legge di
Darcy
Hydraulic gradient
(Flusso laminare vs. Flusso turbolento)
Il Numero di Reynolds (Re) è dato da:

Re = ρ U d / μ
dove: Re è il Numero di Reynolds, adimensionale

ρ è la densità del fluido [M L-3]
U è la velocità media del fluido [L T-1]
d è il diametro medio delle particelle o l’apertura media dei meati [L]
μ è la viscosità dinamica del fluido [M L-1 T-1]
La Legge di Darcy è valida se Re è inferiore a 10, perché il flusso è laminare
Se Re è superiore a 100 ci si trova in condizioni di flusso turbolento
Se Re è compreso tra 10 e 100 ci si trova in condizioni di flusso laminare non-

lineare
Il flusso è laminare quando è lento e le molecole d’acqua si muovono lungo linee

di flusso parallele
Il flusso è turbolento quando la velocità è elevata e le particelle d’acqua si

muovono caoticamente lungo linee di flusso non parallele
(a) Flusso laminare
(b) Flusso turbolento
(c) Flusso laminare
(d) Flusso laminare
(e) Flusso laminare
(f) Flusso laminare non-lineare
(a) Linee di flusso parallele

(b) Linee di flusso non parallele
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OzAx1bPGD4
(Rocce fratturate vs. Mezzo «poroso equivalente»)
Spesso si ritiene che la Legge di Darcy non possa essere applicata in mezzi
fessurati, in quanto questi presenterebbero una distribuzione discontinua dei meati
In realtà, in alcuni mezzi fessurati la Legge di Darcy può essere applicata se il

flusso viene analizzato in un Volume Elementare Rappresentativo tale per cui il
mezzo fessurato possa essere trattato come un “poroso equivalente”
Il Volume Elementare Rappresentativo è il volume di roccia al di sotto del quale la

porosità della roccia stessa varia al variare del volume esaminato ed al di sopra del
quale la porosità resta pressoché costante al variare del volume esaminato
(Rocce fratturate vs. Mezzo «poroso equivalente»)
Il Volume Elementare Rappresentativo è il volume di roccia al di sotto del quale la

porosità della roccia stessa varia al variare del volume esaminato ed al di sopra del
quale la porosità resta pressoché costante al variare del volume esaminato
n1 < n2, ma n2 = n3
n1 n2 n3
Volume Elementare Rappresentativo

Velocità di Flusso
La velocità di flusso della falda è data da:
vr = K i / p e
dove: vr è la velocità di flusso della falda [L T-1]

K è la conducibilità idraulica del mezzo [L T-1]
i è il gradiente idraulico della falda [adimensionale]
pe è la porosità efficace del mezzo [adimensionale]
Questa velocità di flusso è detta velocità di advezione
L’advezione (dal latino advehere [“condurre verso”]) descrive il flusso (e

l’eventuale trasporto di sostanze in soluzione o in sospensione) lungo linee di
flusso ideali
Nella realtà, sussistono altri processi, quali la dispersione idrodinamica, che

determinano uno spostamento di massa anche lungo traiettorie comprese tra le
linee di flusso ideali
Porosità Efficace & Permeabilità della Roccia
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Esistono fattori biologici che influenzano le caratteristiche idrauliche di una roccia?
Tali fattori sono in grado di indurre modificazioni in tempi relativamente rapidi?
Queste eventuali modificazioni sono reversibili o irreversibili?

Geo-Congress 2014 Technical Papers, GSP 234 © ASCE 2014 3959
Quali sono le conseguenze di queste modificazioni?
Bacteria, Bio-films, and Invertebrates…

the Next Generation of Geotechnical Engineers? DeJong, J. T. et al. (2013). Géotechnique 63, No. 4, 287–301 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geot.SIP13.P.017]
1 2
Jason DeJong , M. ASCE, Clayton Proto , S.M. ASCE,
Matthew Kuo3, and Michael Gomez4, S.M. ASCE Biogeochemical processes and geotechnical applications: progress,
1
Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California: Davis,
opportunities and challenges
3101 Ghausi Hall, One Shields Ave. Davis, CA 95616; jdejong@ucdavis.edu,
J. T. D E J O N G 1 , K . S O G A 2 , E . K AVA Z A N J I A N 3 , S . B U R N S 4 , L . A . VA N PA A S S E N 5 , A . A L Q A BA N Y 2 ,
www.sil.ucdavis.edu A . AY D I L E K 6 , S . S . BA N G 7 , M . B U R BA N K 8 , L . F. C A S L A K E 9 , C . Y. C H E N 1 0 , X . C H E N G 1 1 , J. C H U 1 2 ,
2
Graduate Student, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California: S . C I U R L I 1 3 , A . E S NAU LT- F I L E T 1 4 , S . FAU R I E L 1 5 , N. H A M DA N 1 6 , T. H ATA 1 7 , Y. I NAG A K I 1 8 ,
Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, One Shields Ave. Davis, CA 95616 S . J E F F E R I S 1 9 , M . K U O 2 , L . L A L O U I 1 4 , J. L A R R A H O N D O 2 0 , D. A . C . M A N N I N G 2 1 , B. M A RT I N E Z 2 2 ,
3 B. M . M O N TOYA 2 3 , D. C . N E L S O N 2 4 , A . PA L O M I N O 2 5 , P. R E N F O RT H 2 6 , J. C . S A N TA M A R I NA 4 ,
Lecturer, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom E . A . S E AG R E N 2 7 , B. TA N Y U 2 8 , M . T S E S A R S K Y 2 9 a n d T. W E AV E R 3 0
4
Graduate Student, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California:
Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, One Shields Ave. Davis, CA 95616
Consideration of soil as a living ecosystem offers the potential for innovative and sustainable solutions
to geotechnical problems. This is a new paradigm for many in geotechnical engineering. Realising the
ABSTRACT: potential of this paradigm requires a multidisciplinary approach that embraces biology and geochem-
The long-standing assumption in the geotechnical community that geotechnical istry to develop techniques for beneficial ground modification. This paper assesses the progress,
opportunities, and challenges in this emerging field. Biomediated geochemical processes, which
systems are purely abiotic and free of biological influence has been misleading. In consist of a geochemical reaction regulated by subsurface microbiology, currently being explored
recent years this notion has been challenged by overwhelming evidence that include mineral precipitation, gas generation, biofilm formation and biopolymer generation. For each
biological processes occurring at microscopic scales can influence macroscopic of these processes, subsurface microbial processes are employed to create an environment conducive
to the desired geochemical reactions among the minerals, organic matter, pore fluids, and gases that
geotechnical properties, even in environments as controlled as man-made fill
vs.
Organismi Viventi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=k443Wmvgktw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3wsUYg3XV0
M, soil grain size d, pellet size pand tunnel diameter D tunnels or chambers.
Excavation in fine-grained clay KC is limited to short
tunnels near the upper boundary of the sediments. On the
Porosità Efficace & Permeabilità della Roccia other hand, a widespread tunnel network in all directions is
observed in silt SF at low-to-medium water content. Excava-
vs. tion in dry sands, F110 and OS 20/30, causes granular sliding,
therefore ants transform level-ground into a sand pile at the
Organismi Viventi angle of repose. Yet, moist sands are stable at the tunnel scale
and can support extensive tunnel networks.
Excavation in dry fine gravel CG 10/14 is prone to granular
Granular Matter (2010) 12:607–616 sliding, as in sands. Occasional short and intricate small size
DOI 10.1007/s10035-010-0202-y “passages” can be seen in the coarser CG 6/10 gravel; tunnels
size D > ∼ 6 mm are built occasionally in moist gravels. In
all cases, particle removal in these coarse soils takes place
from the base of shafts or even the top face in upwards exca-
vation rather than lateral grabs from walls. Therefore, vertical
Ant tunneling—a granular media perspective shafts are more frequent than horizontal tunnels. Instability
always threatens particle excavation in both dry and moist
Fig. 2 Particle removal strategies as a function of relative mandible-
to-grain size M/dand capillary forces in terms of water saturation S% gravels, and tunnel collapse often leads to ants becoming
D. Nicolas
or suctionEspinoza J. Carlos
s. a Single ·grain. Santamarina
b Few grains held by friction, augmented trapped.
610 by capillary effects. c Capillarity is critical for the effective excavation D. N. Espinoza, J. C. Santamarina
and transport of multiple particles. d Loose conglomerates formed by
raking with legs. e High attractive forces limit excavation to small blocks
followed by pellet formation for effective transport does not exceed the mandible size (see similar observation
with P. occidentalis in Ref. [9]).
water content increases, particle removal in fine soils con-

3.3 Tunnel patterns
sists of successive grabs that are grouped to form bigger and
Received: 1 July 2009 / Published online: 10 September 2010
more stable pellets (Fig. 2). Wet pellets can reach p≈ 3 mm
© Springer-Verlag 2010 Figure 3 shows sketches of observed excavation patterns as a
in diameter. Cutting blocks with mandibles is a strategy used
function of degree of saturation and grain size. Tunnels paral-
in clays and silts near saturation.
Abstract lel to the transparent wall are of regular thickness and height,
Ants Laboratory and field
can successfully grabdata showdry
several thatsand particles at 1 Introduction
the digging
habits of ants and the resulting nest architecture vary withand those that depart from the wall are nearly circular. The
soil
once: the transport of dry coarse soils is limited by the max-
Fig. 1 Geometric characteristics—size
conditions, yet, theof definition:
geomechanical ant mandible size limited dimensions of the nest boxes do not allow flattened
imum number particles that understanding
M, soil grain size d, pellet size pand tunnel diameter D
can be grabbedofand held by Evolution has lead to adaptable, multifunctional, self-healing
ant tun-
neling is lacking. We study theshow excavation strategiesfor tunnels
used by OSorand
chambers.
recyclable organisms [1]. Biomimesis seeks to under-
friction; our observations three particles sand
harvester Excavation in fine-grained clay KC is limited to short
20/30 ants
and ainmaximum
clay, silt, of
sand, and gravel
13 particles foratthe
water F110 sand. stand nature’s design and to imitate it in renewed and
finercontents
thatYet,
range fromstable
dry tosand
saturated. tunnels near the upper boundary of the sediments. On the
a more pellet isThe studywhen
formed focuses on isthe
water pres- enhanced engineering concepts for the built environment.
conditions at the other hand, a widespread wetunnel networkbecause
in all directions is
ent. Ants usetunnel face that
their beard determinethe
to facilitate particle removal of In this
transportation Fig. study
3 Tunneling consider
patternsants
as a function of of grain
their size
unique and
and capillary
methods, digging observed in silt SF at low-to-medium water content. Excava-
both sandy andrate,
siltythesediments.
development of branches, and tun- efficient
forces tunnel
in termsexcavation abilitiesSin
of water saturation % granular
or suction media.
s—harvesterAnts ants
neling As patterns. Analytical and numerical models tion in dryadapt
provide sands,
under
toF110
a wideandrange
laboratory OS 20/30,
conditions.
of causes
soils.Ants
They granular
start
aredigging
foundsliding,
on
in the top
fine boundary.
grained
particle size increases and reaches gravel size, e.g. CG
particle-level insight consists
into the experimental observations therefore soils
antsExperiments
transform
with highinlevel-ground
fine sand F110into
clay contentpresent a sand
similarpile at thetoand
features those in silt SF
6/10, excavation of single particle removal andregard- at intermediate saturations.
[2–10],
Particle sliding
silty soils
dominates in
loess
air-dry sands
helpless
identify angle of repose. Yet, moist sands are stable at the tunnel scale
of thethe causal
water links that
content. Antsrelate
chooseantsparticles
diggingby size and (P. occidentalis,
perfor- [9]), sands
and gravels. Boundary [2,5,6,9,11–16],
conditions limit tunnel and even gravels
topologies to a narrow
mance and nest and can support extensive tunnel networks.
identify the geometric patterns
smallest section to with
grabthethemproperties of
so that the width [9,17,18].
the region—we In fact, different
anticipate richersoils
tunnelare often found
topologies in 3Din the same
settings
granular medium such as grain size, moisture, and packing Excavation
nest in dry fine
[9,19], gravel CG
implying 10/14 isnest
adaptable prone to granular capabili-
construction
density. Results highlight ants’ exceptional ability to sense sliding, asties.
in sands.
Physical Occasional
as well asshort and intricate
chemical smallofsize
properties the soil may
123
the prevailing geomechanical conditions in tunnels, and to “passages” can be seen in the
be altered in nests [20]. coarser CG 6/10 gravel; tunnels
size D > ∼ 6 mm are built occasionally in moist gravels. In
vs.
Organismi Viventi
PUBLICATIONS
Water Resources Research
RESEARCH ARTICLE Evidence of an emerging levee failure mechanism causing
10.1002/2015WR017426
disastrous floods in Italy
Key Points: Water
Stefano Resources
Orlandini Research
1, Giovanni Moretti1, and John D. Albertson2 10.1002/2015WR017426
! Animal burrows are demonstrated to
1
be a serious threat of earthen levee Dipartimento di Ingegneria Enzo Ferrari, Universit!a degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy, 2School of Civil
failure and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
! Internal flow and erosion around a 44°41’57.85"N
Mirandola Bondeno
den can cause the collapse of the
4970000
levee top Santa Bianca

! Internal flow may initiate due to
Abstract A levee failure occurred along the Secchia River, Northern Italy, on 19 January 2014, resulting in
Pioppa
Medolla
direct inflow into the den or den wall flood10°56’41.68"E
damage in excess a of $500 million. In response
San Felice sul Panaro to this
Finale failure,
Emilia immediate surveillance of other levees in
r
failure ve
the region led to the identification of a second breach developing Ri on the neighboring Panaro River, where
c ch i a R iv er
o
n ar
rapid mitigation efforts were successfulCamposanto a
in averting a fullPlevee failure. The paired breach events that occurred
Northing, m
4960000
San Prospero
Supporting Information:
along the Secchia and Panaro Rivers provided an excellent window on an emerging levee failure mechanism.
! Supporting Information S1
Se
In the Secchia River, by combining the information content of photographs taken from helicopters in the early
! Figure S1
Ponte Bacchello b
! Figure S2 stage of breach development and 10 cm resolution aerial photographs taken in 2010 and 2012, animal bur-
BastigliaBomporto
rows were found to exist in the precise levee location where the breach originated. In the Panaro River, inter-
San Matteo
4950000
Correspondence to: nal erosion was observed to occur at a location where a crested porcupine den was known to exist and this
S. Orlandini, Ponte Alto
erosion led to the collapse of the levee top. This paper uses detailed numerical modeling of rainfall, river flow,
Rubiera
stefano.orlandini@unimore.it
and variably saturated flow in Viathe
Tronco
levee to explore the hydraulic and geotechnical mechanisms that were trig-
Modena
gered along the Secchia and Sant’Ambrogio
Panaro Rivers by activities of burrowing animals leading to levee failures. As hab-
Citation:
Orlandini, S., G. Moretti, and itats become650000
more fragmented 660000
and constrained
670000
along river
680000
corridors, 690000
it is possible that this failure mechanism
J. D. Albertson (2015), Evidence of an could become more prevalent and, therefore,
Easting, m will demand greater attention in both the design and mainte-
emerging levee failure mechanism
nance of earthen hydraulic structures as well as in wildlife management.
causing disastrous floods in Italy,
Water Resour. Res., 51 , 7995–8011,
5 10 20 30 40 50
doi:10.1002/2015WR017426.
Elevation, m asl
Figure 1. (a) Map of the land flooded after the levee failure occurred along the Secchia River at San Matteo (Northern Italy) on 19 January 2014. (b) The delineation of the flooded areas
Received 21 APR 2015 is based on aerial surveys carried out by the Civil Protection as part of the emergency response plan for the occurred disaster. A volume of water of about 363106 m3 (Figure 3a, area
Accepted 27 AUG 2015 under the breach loss hydrograph) left the Secchia River by flooding (red arrows) an area of about 52 km2. Topographic gradients and barriers are shown by the 1 m resolution digital
elevation model reported1. in theIntroduction
background.
Accepted article online 18 SEP 2015
Published online 12 OCT 2015 Burrowing 2.2. animalsWildlifeareImpact acknowledged
on the Levee by agencies responsible for earthen dams and levees to have an
Evidence of wildlife impact on the failed levee was derived from the analysis of 10 cm resolution aerial pho-
vs.
Organismi Viventi 10.1002/2015WR017426
A
I H G F E D C B
T1
T4
T2
01-19-2014 10:11
T9 T8 T6 T5 T4 T2
T7 T1
A I
E F
B G L
C D H
01-19-2014 12:22
Figure 4. Photographs of the breach formed along the Secchia River at San Matteo taken from helicopters at 10:11 (Figure 4a) and 12:22
(Figure 4b) of 19 January 2014. Relevant geometrical features of the land surface close to the breach (trees T1–T9 in the riverbed and tree
rows A–L in the landside plain) are identified on the photographs to allow the breach configuration to be georeferenced and transferred
to relevant aerial photographs (Figures 5b and 5c).
First, the hydroclimatic conditions were very similar in the two cases, with both the failed levees directly
I
H
T5
10:11 G
F
: 22
Porosità Efficace
T6
T7
& 12Permeabilità della Roccia
C
D
E
T8 B2
T9 vs.
A B3
B4 B
0 10 20 m Organismi Viventi
B1
10:11
c A
Istrice
B
Tasso
C
Volpe
D
0 20 40 mm Nutria
Figure 5. Evidence of burrowing animals in the location of the Secchia River levee that failed on 19 January 2014. Long parallel lines mark the
top and landside bottom boundaries of the levee. Figure 5a shows animal burrows appearing in the 10 cm resolution aerial photography taken
on 27 March 2010. Figure 5b indicates that on 29 March 2012, animal burrows were further developed. Figure 5c shows the footprint of a wild
animal (probably a badger or a crested porcupine) observed on 24 February 2014, along the repaired levee.10.1002/2015WR017426
The burrowing animals that have
impacted the levees of the Secchia River include those shown in the insets of Figure 5c: (a) crested porcupine Hystrix cristata (Linnaeus, 1758),
(b) European badger Meles meles (Linnaeus, 1758), (c) red fox Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758), and (d) nutria Myocastor coypus (Molina, 1758).
40
ORLANDINI ET AL. AN EMERGING35.70
LEVEEmFAILURE MECHANISM
asl at 4:20 B1 (36.3) B2 (37.1) 8001
Elevation, m asl
35 B4 (35.1)
B3 (34.8)
30
25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Distance, m
Figure 6. Geometrical relationship between the elevations of burrows B1, B2, B3, and B4 observed (in 2010 and 2012) in aerial photographs
(Figures 5a and 5b) of the Secchia River at San Matteo and the river stage reconstructed from hydraulic modeling for the same levee location
on 19 January 2014 at 4:20 (Figure 3). Direct river inflow into the den system can be considered possible if an uncertainty of 0.3 m in the
determination of both burrow elevations (uncertainty bars) and river stages (light blue band) is acknowledged (hypothesis 1 and section 4.1).
4. Possible Triggers
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Figure 6. Geometrical relationship between the elevations of burrows B1, B2, B3, and B4 observed (in 2010 and 2012) in aerial photographs
(Figures 5a and 5b) of the Secchia River at San Matteo and the river stage reconstructed from hydraulic modeling for the same levee location
on 19 January 2014 at 4:20 (Figure 3). Direct river inflow into the den system can be considered possible if an uncertainty of 0.3 m in the
determination of both burrow elevations (uncertainty bars) and river stages (light blue band) is acknowledged (hypothesis 1 and section 4.1).
4. Possible Triggers vs.

Organismi
levee include (1) direct rainfall on the levee surface, (2) river stage, and (3) Viventi
The justification for attributing the Secchia levee failure to the same mechanism as that observed on the Panaro
biological disturbance of the levee.
These factors are combined by advancing the three competing hypotheses for failure triggers.
Water Resources Research 10.1
a
a 4.1. Hypo
Only
direct rainfall on the levee The first h
O the presen
of direct in
A tem as sim
den tunnel raising. Fr
and terrain
b O that the e
01−19−2014 16:01 burrow B1
riverside w
stability analysis of an
b 1 undisturbed levee segment
above sea
elevations
Wi
B2, B3, an
Ti
2 Ti
levee land
Ni Ni Wi from 34.8 t
From river
c O found tha
January 20
burrow el
stability analysis of a 2012) on t
levee segment disturbed they signi
by an animal burrow burrow el
01−19−2014 19:48
2012) on t
ure 3b).
Figure 7. Observational evidence of the levee failure mechanism occurred along the Panaro River at Via Tronco (Figure 1) on 19 January Figure 8. Sketch of the slope stability analysis performed to assess the impact of animal acknowled
2014, under hydroclimatic conditions similar to those occurred along the Secchia River at San Matteo (Figure 2). An internal erosion pro- burrows on equilibrium conditions (hypothesis 2 and section 4.2). The bold line in Figure
cess was observed at 16:01 as documented in Figure 7a. This internal flow process developed around a crested porcupine den that was 8a indicates the levee portion on which the analysis focuses. The equilibrium of green seg- the order
observed and filled with earth in the past. The collapse of the levee top over the gallery formed by internal erosion was documented at ments shown in Figures 8b and 8c is evaluated: O is the center of the circular sliding sur- reconstruc
19:48 as reported in Figure 7b. The picture reported in Figure 7b was taken from the top of the levee close to the collapsed portion high- face, Wi is the weight of the ith element composing the sliding segment, Ti and Ni are the
lighted by the arrow directed downward. The failure mechanism consisted therefore of two stages. In stage 1 (Figure 7a and sketch
and river s
shear and normal components of Wi to the sliding surface. The blue vertical arrows indi-
labeled ‘‘1’’ in Figure 7b), the internal erosion develops around the animal den. In stage 2 (Figure 7b and sketch labeled ‘‘2’’ in Figure 7b), cate the direct rainfall on the levee. The blue horizontal line indicates the river stage. The cluded tha
the levee top collapses by filling the gallery in the eroded levee and by exposing the collapsed material to further erosion and overtop- two cases in which the animal burrow is not present (Figure 8b) or is present (Figure 8c) the positio
ping. The collapsed levee was rapidly repaired, preventing a second disaster. are considered.
rows obse
flow may
pietrame.

vs.
Organismi Viventi
Figura 1.8.12: Fase di posa di

geostuoia tridimensionale
rinverdibile a difesa di una
sponda.
Capitolo introduttivo 21 Classificazione interventi

vs.
Organismi Viventi
Soil Biology & Biochemistry 46 (2012) 33e40
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Soil Biology & Biochemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soilbio
The role of the exopolysaccharides in enhancing hydraulic conductivity of

biological soil crusts
Federico Rossi a, Ruth M. Potrafka b, Ferran Garcia Pichel b, Roberto De Philippis a, *
a
Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 24, 50144 Firenze, Italy
b
School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Pedology
Article history: Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are highly specialized topsoil microbial communities commonly found in arid
Received 23 June 2011
Biological Soil Crusts in the Mojave Desert, USA:
Received in revised form
and semiarid environments, permeated by a polymeric matrix of polysaccharides. BSCs can in principle
influence edaphic properties such as texture, pore formation and water retention, which in turn deter-
Micromorphology and Pedogenesis

6 September 2011
mine water distribution and biological activity in dry lands. This paper investigates the influence of biotic
Accepted 23 October 2011
Available online 29 November 2011
and abiotic factors on BSC hydraulic conductivity, a parameter gauging the ease with which water can
move through the pore spaces. Texture, phototroph abundance, microbial composition, and extracellular
carbohydrate content were considered as potentially relevant parameters in a correlational study of BSC
Keywords:
Biological soil crusts Biological
samples that soil crusts1.5(BSCs)
spanned orders are
of bio-sedimentary complexes
magnitude in hydraulic that playA criti-
conductivity. newly developed,
Amanda J. Williams*
North American deserts non-destructive
cal ecological extraction
roles inmethod enabled us to
arid landscapes; directly the
however, quantify the specific
interactions role of extracellular
between
formerly at polysaccharides
Exopolysaccharides component on soil and
biota permeability
sedimentson a are
variety of samples.
poorly Hydraulic
understood. A conductivity showed a strongest
detailed micro-
Dep.
Hydraulic of Geoscience
conductivity correlation with texture (positive with sand content, negative with silt and clay). A weaker negative
currently at
morphological investigation of BSC development and crust microstructure in
Soil texture correlation with carbohydrate content, especially with polysaccharides having a molecular weight
School
Microbial of Life Sciences
community the Muddy Mountains Wilderness Area, Nevada, examined features in thin
< 100 kDa, was also detected. In multiple regression analyses texture (silt content) was sufficient to
Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas section using petrographic microscopy, light microscopy, scanning electron
explain most of the variation in hydraulic conductivity However, experimental removal of polymeric
4505 S. Maryland Pkwy. microscopy,resulted
carbohydrates, and energy dispersive
invariably x-ray spectroscopy.
in a substantial decrease in The >1800 microscopic
hydraulic conductivity for any given
Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004 observations
sample (betweenwere linked
1.7 and 3.3to crustOur
fold). macroscale features
results suggest thatand soil soil
while geomorphology.
texture determines overall
hydraulic conductivity in BSCs, the presence of exopolysaccharides can significantly histo-
Complex bio-sedimentary structures of BSCs reflect a dynamic genetic enhance it, likely by
Brenda J. Buck ry and adiverse
conferring spongyformative
structure toprocesses,
a BSC thusincluding:
increasing (i)
thestabilization and authigenic
number of waterways within it.
Dep. of Geoscience mineral precipitation; (ii) wetting–drying and expansion–contraction;! 2011 Elsevier (iii)
Ltd. All
dustrights reserved.
Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas capture; (iv) microscale mass wasting; and (v) vesicular (Av) horizon forma-
4505 S. Maryland Pkwy. tion. A new conceptual model for hot deserts illustrates how these processes
Las Vegas, NV 89154-4010 co-develop with BSC succession, during countless wet–dry cycles, to build up
1. Introduction One of the potentially important factors is the presence of
pinnacle microtopography while simultaneously forming Av horizons in the
Mengesha A. Beyene surface crusts, which may originate as evaporitic or sedimentary
bio-rich and bio-poor zones. Complex surficial and internal bio-sedimentary
Water movement
formerly at is a critical process in the shaping of arid deposits, or as a consequence of rain-mediated disintegration of
structures, which vary as a function of crust morphology, trap surface water
landscapes,
Dep. ofwhere, as a consequence of the water retaining capacity
Geoscience soil aggregates (Hillel, 1998). Such physico-chemical surface crusts
for uptake by crust organisms, while dust influx provides a source of nutrients.
of dryUniv.
soils,ofnutrient-poor
Nevada, Las Vegas
and nutrient-rich patches characterized can severely diminish water infiltration. Biological soil crusts
4505differences
S. Maryland Pkwy. These phenomena influence landscape-scale water dynamics and biogeochemi-
by large in biological activity typically alternate in (BSCs), organo-sedimentary topsoil microbial biofilms that develop
Las Vegas, NV(Boeken
89154-4010 cal cycling, increasing the availability of soil resources during times of biotic
a mosaic pattern and Shachak, 1994; Boeken et al., 1995). in interspaces between plants (Belnap and Lange, 2003;
stress. Biological soil crusts uniquely facilitate the accumulation, morphology,
This patchy distribution of both moisture and trophic resources, Garcia-Pichel, 2002), are widely distributed in arid and semiarid
currently at and ecosystem function of dust and should, therefore, be considered critical
characteristic of arid and semiarid environments, and encompassed ecosystems, and have also been studied for decades with respect to
SES Group & Associates, LLC agents in arid pedogenesis
in the concept of “fertility islands”, can in some instances reflect the
and landscape development.
their effect on soil hydrological properties. The case of BSCs is much
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research
distribution between hydrological run-off andAbbreviations:
sink areas, charac- more
BSC, biological soilcomplex.
crust; EPS,While in some
extracellular cases biological
polymeric secretions;crusting
XPL, of soil is
Center/FHWA
terized by Georgetown
6300 low and high Pikewater infiltration rates, respectivelylight.
cross-polarized (Yair, associated with a decrease in water infiltration rate (Bisdom et al.,
1987).McLean,
WaterVA infiltration
22101 depends on a large variety of factors, 1993; Brotherson and Rushforth, 1983; Loope and Gifford, 1972;
B
some of which are intrinsic to the soil, ranging from cracking, Romkens et al., 1990; Warren, 2003a, b) or to an increase in run-off
iological soil crusts are complex matrices of cyanobacteria, mosses, lichens,
microtopography, and sealing, to particle size and organic matter yields (Kidron et al., 2003), in others studies the opposite effect is
distribution (Warren, 2003a, b). bacteria, algae, andreported
fungi that fuse around
(Belnap soil particles
et al., 2001; Greenetoand
create a living,
Tongway, 1989; Seghieri
protective membrane in arid
et al., soils In
1997). (Eldridge
studiesand Greene,
carried out1994). Biologicalfor instance,
in Australia,
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Le croste biologiche sono un’associazione di granuli (componente abiotica),

cianobatteri, alghe, microfunghi, licheni e briofite (componenti biotiche) che vivono
entro un orizzonte superficiale di suolo, dello spessore massimo di pochi
centimetri
Le croste biologiche sono presenti in aree aride, dove le condizioni ambientali

sono favorevoli alla crescita degli organismi che sono in grado di generare tali
croste
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Immagini al microscopio elettronico (100x) di cianobatteri che legano granuli di sabbia

mediante secrezione di esopolisaccaridi
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Canyonlands Nat’l Park

(Utah)
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Crescita nel tempo

vs.
Organismi Viventi
Pedology
Biological Soil Crusts in the Mojave Desert, USA:

Micromorphology and Pedogenesis
Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are bio-sedimentary complexes that play criti-
Amanda J. Williams* cal ecological roles in arid landscapes; however, the interactions between
formerly at
component biota and sediments are poorly understood. A detailed micro-
Dep. of Geoscience
currently at
morphological investigation of BSC development and crust microstructure in
School of Life Sciences the Muddy Mountains Wilderness Area, Nevada, examined features in thin
Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas section using petrographic microscopy, light microscopy, scanning electron
4505 S. Maryland Pkwy. microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The >1800 microscopic
Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004 observations were linked to crust macroscale features and soil geomorphology.
randomly distributed sites Complex bio-sedimentary structures of BSCs reflect a dynamic genetic histo-
Brenda J. Buck ry and diverse formative processes, including: (i) stabilization and authigenic
eolian and alluvial sur- Dep. of Geoscience mineral precipitation; (ii) wetting–drying and expansion–contraction; (iii) dust
Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas capture; (iv) microscale mass wasting; and (v) vesicular (Av) horizon forma-
from recent Holocene to 4505 S. Maryland Pkwy. tion. A new conceptual model for hot deserts illustrates how these processes
Las Vegas, NV 89154-4010 co-develop with BSC succession, during countless wet–dry cycles, to build up
ng soil profiles and surfac- pinnacle microtopography while simultaneously forming Av horizons in the
Mengesha A. Beyene bio-rich and bio-poor zones. Complex surficial and internal bio-sedimentary
racterized in two compan- formerly at
structures, which vary as a function of crust morphology, trap surface water
Dep. of Geoscience
for uptake by crust organisms, while dust influx provides a source of nutrients.
11, p. 104–350). Univ. of Nevada, Las Vegas
These phenomena influence landscape-scale water dynamics and biogeochemi-
4505 S. Maryland Pkwy.
BSC specimens were im- Las Vegas, NV 89154-4010 cal cycling, increasing the availability of soil resources during times of biotic
stress. Biological soil crusts uniquely facilitate the accumulation, morphology,
osity embedding medium currently at
SES Group & Associates, LLC
and ecosystem function of dust and should, therefore, be considered critical
agents in arid pedogenesis and landscape development.
esiccator for 4 to 6 h under Turner-Fairbank Highway Research
Center/FHWA Abbreviations: BSC, biological soil crust; EPS, extracellular polymeric secretions; XPL,
3–4.14 MPa) and subse- 6300 Georgetown Pike

McLean, VA 22101
cross-polarized light.
C for 16 h. Embedded sam-

B
iological soil crusts are complex matrices of cyanobacteria, mosses, lichens,
bacteria, algae, and fungi that fuse around soil particles to create a living,
cally oriented billets using protective membrane in arid soils (Eldridge and Greene, 1994). Biological
th a diamond ISOMET soil crusts control the movement of water, gases, and solutes across soil surfaces
(Belnap et al., 2003) and prevent desertification by impacting particle detachment
il-based lubricant to pre- and transport (McKenna Neuman et al., 1996; Miralles-Mellado et al., 2011), wa-
ter and energy balances (Belnap, 2006), soil fertility (Kleiner and Harper, 1977;
ets were ground into thin Evans and Belnap, 1999), and plant community establishment (Li et al., 2005;
il (National Petrographic Escudero et al., 2007). Biological soil crusts are extremely fragile and sensitive to
physical impacts such as off-road vehicles, hiking, and grazing, making them excel-
ctions were imaged under lent indicators of disturbance (Belnap, 1998).
Micromorphological fea- Biological soil crust development follows a natural succession (Belnap, 2001),
beginning with the development of smooth cyanobacterial-algal crusts and, un-
zed at 4´, 10´, and 20´ der favorable conditions, is followed by formation of short moss-lichen crusts and
eventually tall moss-lichen pinnacled crusts (Fig. 1). Estimated rates of crust forma-
Nikon Eclipse LV100POL tion, or recovery after disturbance, range from 10s to 1000s of years depending on
pe and under a light mi- climate, soil texture, and geomorphic stability as well as metabolic adaptations and
2´. Microscopic photos doi:10.2136/sssaj2012.0021

Received 13 Jan. 2012
still cameras. Lastly, thin *Corresponding author (mandy.williams@unlv.edu).
© Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison WI 53711 USA
ted in Au for 30 s with a All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for
putter and examined and reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.
Fig. 2. The study area, the Hidden Valley Area of Critical Environmental Concern
ty of Nevada, Las Vegas (ACEC), lies within the Muddy Mountains Wilderness Area, Nevada. Soil Science Society of America Journal
and Imaging Laboratory
ning electron microscope (SEM). The mosses (Fig. 4 and 5). Grain size, orientation, and compaction
taken under the backscatter electron varied with biological and sedimentary factors but ranged from
magnifications with working distances clay to medium sand with few coarse sand grains (Fig. 4A). Void
o 20 kV, and at spot sizes of 30 to 40. morphologies included the following: irregular, linear voids up
were verified using an attached Oxford to 5 mm wide; irregular interior voids up to 24 by 36 mm with
x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) system at smooth margins of compacted clays, silts, and very fine sands Fig. 1. (A) Cyanobacteria crusts display slightly darkened surfaces (arrow) and (B) knob features (arrow; marker for scale); (C) tall, pinnacled crusts with
extensive lichens (l) have summits cemented in authigenic mineral precipitates (p); and (D) short, moss-dominated crusts accumulate eolian sand grains.
cations with working distances of 15 to that commonly contained photosynthetic tissues that appeared
nd at spot sizes of 30 to 40. In all cases to be blocked from light (Fig. 4D and 5F); vesicular pores from reproductive strategies of the component organisms (Belnap and MATERIALS AND METHODS
pitates were suspected, SEM-EDS was 0.1 to 0.8 mm in diameter (Fig. 4B and 4C); and horizontal to Warren, 2002; Thomas and Dougill, 2007; Kidron et al., 2008; The Hidden Valley portion of the Muddy Mountains
alogy and potential origin. A total of vertical 0.5- to 1-mm-wide linear voids that commonly aligned
Williams et al., 2008; Langhans et al., 2010). Previous studies Wilderness Area in Nevada is an ideal natural laboratory to in-
vations were recorded and subsequent- parallel to all biological structures or penetrated the bio-rich
vs.
Organismi Viventi
Fig. 3. Three biological soil crust morphotypes display distinct bio-sedimentary structures and surface morphologies.
4E). Vascular plant roots were uncommon features that occurred cession proceeds from cyanobacteria crusts to tall moss-lichen
in large interior voids near the base of pinnacle mounds. Short pinnacled crusts overlying mineral Av horizons (Fig. 6). Through
mosses, such as Bryum and Pterygoneurum, commonly occurred this succession, component organisms change, organic and min-
Processes Forming Topo
Several theories of crust
been proposed by previous r
Fig. 6. Biological soil crust succession proceeds along geomorphically inactive fine-grained sediments. Processes (blue) co-develop with changes in species composition and surface morphology.
crust microtopography in war

iment sheets curl (Danin et a
the upturned features describe
ments, hoof traffic from nativ
(Csotonyi and Addicott, 20
that frost heave and differenti
topographic relief (Belnap, 20
a dominant role in cooler des
crust microtopography in ho
soils rarely freeze. This study s
and drying processes drive mic
Desert crusts through dust cap

contraction, and eventually Av
Expansion–Contraction
Microscale Mass Wastin
Alternating wetting and d
repeated hydration expansion
organic materials and dissolut
authigenic minerals. This proce
Organismi Viventi
clay minerals present to enhan

traction. Repeated expansion
aggregates to increase mass wa
that facilitate dust capture.
While pinnacle buildup r
vs.
bility, accretionary processes l

mass wasting that form comp
5F). If accretionary aggregate
undercutting may destabilize
pling and the formation of bio
2011, p. 10–103). These bridg
materials within interior voids
that they were once exposed a
sion can also form micro hoo-
may augment the relief of acc
dry cycles cause alternating sh
with subsequent gravitational
(Table 1) that resemble cree
1967). Sloughing or collapse
near-surface pores. Noncohesi
commonly collapse and detach
that is bound by biotic struct
authigenic minerals (Fig. 4B).
precipitates could also weake
wasting. These observations d
buildup of material, crusts are
life history that forms intricate
Vesicular Pore and Hori
A combination of organic
cementing authigenic minerals
6 So

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Evaporazione

Bilancio idrologico medio del globo terrestre, in migliaia di Km3/a

dove: Vt è il volume della roccia

Porosità primaria è funzione dei meati singenetici

Depositi alluvionali 8 ÷ 10 metamorfiche 8 ÷ 10

Wim Wenders, Il cielo sopra Berlino

Nick Arjolas, Stratified ruins (2009)

L’acqua di ritenzione è costituita da 3 componenti:

La capacità di ritenzione si esprime mediante il coefficiente di ritenzione (R), detto anche

dove: Vr è il volume di acqua di ritenzione

Tipi di acqua nel sottosuolo.

Pellicolare Non disponibile

Gravifica Gravità Per gravità Disponibile

Legge di Jurin: h = 2 τ cosθ / r ρ g

Movimenti dell’acqua nel sottosuolo

Ripartizione dell’acqua nel sottosuolo

La permeabilità è la capacità delle rocce di lasciarsi attraversare da un fluido

Il coefficiente di permeabilità o conducibilità idraulica (K) delle rocce è dato da:

dove: K è la conducibilità idraulica [L T-1]

Grado di permeabilità Coefficienti di

va è detta anche velocità Darcyana

Gli esperimenti condotti da Darcy dimostrano che:

va è indipendente dall’angolo di inclinazione (θ)

L’Altezza di pressione in un determinato punto P è la pressione dell'acqua nel punto

L'altezza geometrica in un determinato punto P è la quota del punto P rispetto ad un

La Legge di Darcy è una legge empirica ricavata da un esperimento condotto su un

Un mezzo si definisce omogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è la

Un mezzo si definisce eterogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è diversa in

La Legge di Darcy è una legge empirica ricavata da un esperimento condotto su un

Un mezzo si definisce omogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è la

Un mezzo si definisce eterogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è diversa in

La Legge di Darcy è una legge empirica ricavata da un esperimento condotto su un

Un mezzo si definisce omogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è la

Un mezzo si definisce eterogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è diversa in

La Legge di Darcy è una legge empirica ricavata da un esperimento condotto su un

Un mezzo si definisce omogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è la

Un mezzo si definisce eterogeneo quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è diversa in

Roy Lichtenstein, Modern painting with clef (dettaglio), 1967

Alberto Burri, Cretto bianco, 1974 – Tecnica mista su cellotex

Alberto Burri, Cretto bianco, 1974 – Tecnica mista su cellotex

Alberto Burri, Grande cretto nero, 1977 (dettaglio ruotato)

K1 < K2 < K3 < K4 < K5 < K6 ….

Alberto Burri, Grande cretto nero, 1977 (dettaglio ruotato)

Sport Pavillion, Burriana, Spagna

Un mezzo è isotropo, in un determinato punto, quando la sua conducibilità idraulica è

Un mezzo è anisotropo, in un determinato punto, quando la sua conducibilità idraulica

Al di là delle condizioni sperimentali in cui la Legge di Darcy è stata ottenuta, è

Tuttavia, è necessario che il flusso sia laminare, in un mezzo continuo

Il Numero di Reynolds viene

Il Numero di Reynolds (Re) è dato da:

dove: Re è il Numero di Reynolds, adimensionale

La Legge di Darcy è valida se Re è inferiore a 10, perché il flusso è laminare

Se Re è superiore a 100 ci si trova in condizioni di flusso turbolento

Se Re è compreso tra 10 e 100 ci si trova in condizioni di flusso laminare non-

Il flusso è laminare quando è lento e le molecole d’acqua si muovono lungo linee

Il flusso è turbolento quando la velocità è elevata e le particelle d’acqua si

(a) Linee di flusso parallele

In realtà, in alcuni mezzi fessurati la Legge di Darcy può essere applicata se il

Il Volume Elementare Rappresentativo è il volume di roccia al di sotto del quale la

Il Volume Elementare Rappresentativo è il volume di roccia al di sotto del quale la

Volume Elementare Rappresentativo

La velocità di flusso della falda è data da:

dove: vr è la velocità di flusso della falda [L T-1]