RETI NEURALI

ARTIFICIALI E
LINGUISTICA
COMPUTAZIONALE
AL DI LÀ DI TURING E CHOMSKY
«a physical symbol system has the
necessary and sufficient means for
general intelligent action.»

A. Newell, H. A. Simon, Computer science as empirica

inquiry: symbols and search, 1976.
A symbolic AI system works by carrying out a series of logic-like reasoning
steps over language-like representations. The representations are typically
propositional in character, and assert that certain relations hold between
certain objects, while each reasoning step computes a further set of relations
that follow from those already established, according to a formally
specified set of inference rules.

M. Garnelo , M. Shanahan, Reconciling deep learning with symbolic artificial intelligence: representing
objects and relations, 2019.
[We] invented a computer program
capable of thinking non-numerically,
and thereby solved the venerable mind-
body problem, explaining how a system
composed of matter can have the
properties of mind.

D. Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous Search for

Artificial Intelligence, 1993.
• Elaborazione di testi

• Riconoscimento linguistico

• Discipline logiche

• Giochi (Scacchi, Go,

Backgammon)

• Chatbot
 Input calcolato Output elaborato

Funzione di Livello quantitativo

somma di attivazione
𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑘 ∑ 𝜔𝑖 𝑔𝑖
𝑖
𝐹 𝐶 ℝ

𝐶 ( 𝑓 )≤𝐶( 𝑓 ) ∀ 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹
∗
𝐸 ( 𝜔 )=∑ ∑ ( 𝑜 − 𝑦
h 2
h
𝑘 𝑘)
h 𝑘
𝑥1 𝑡

ANN
𝑥2 NON 𝑦
ALLENA
TA

2
𝐸 ( 𝜔 )= ( 𝑦 − 𝑡 )
• Inizializza i pesi a zero.
• Prepara un pattern di ingresso a cui
corrisponde un pattern di uscita noto.
• Calcola e aggiorna
• Ripeti i passi 2 e 3 per ogni pattern j
noto
•Capacità di riconoscere pattern e relazioni
tra i pattern

•Tolleranza per le informazioni

"disordinate"

•Capacità di riconoscere schemi

incompleti e/o parzialmente danneggiati

•Robustezza.
• Sistemi di controllo (controllo di veicoli, controllo di processi)

• Simulatori di giochi e processi decisionali (backgammon , scacchi)

• Riconoscimento di pattern (sistemi radar, identificazione di volti,

riconoscimento di oggetti, ecc )

• Riconoscimenti di sequenze (riconoscimento di gesti, riconoscimento vocale,

OCR)

• Diagnosi medica

• Applicazioni finanziarie

• Data mining

• Filtri spam per e-mail.

Esempi sparsi, regolari Apprendimento corretto del
e irregolari, trattati passato dei verbi regolari e
come casi distinti. irregolari.

Formazione del passato remoto attraverso

suffisso –ed. Dimenticanza delle forme
irregolari apprese in fase 1.
The net learned the past tenses of the
460 verbs in about 200 rounds of
training, and it generalized fairly
well to verbs not in the training set.
It even showed a good appreciation of
“regularities” to be found among
the irregular verbs (“send” / “sent”,
“build” / “built”; “blow” / “blew”,
“fly” / “flew”). During learning, as
the system was exposed to the
training set containing more regular
verbs, it had a tendency to
overregularize, i.e., to combine both
irregular and regular forms: (“break” /
“broked”, instead of “break” /
“broke”). This was corrected with
more training.
This paper explores differences between Connectionist proposals for cognitive architecture and
the sorts of models that have traditionally been assumed in cognitive science. We claim that the
major distinction is that, while both Connectionist and Classical architectures postulate
representational mental states, the latter but not the former are committed to a symbol-level of
representation, or to a ‘language of thought’: i.e., to representational states that have
combinatorial syntactic and semantic structure. Several arguments for combinatorial structure in
mental representations are then reviewed. These include arguments based on the ‘systematicity’
of mental representation: i.e., on the fact that cognitive capacities always exhibit certain
symmetries, so that the ability to entertain a given thought implies the ability to entertain
thoughts with semantically related contents. We claim that such arguments make a powerful
case that mind/brain architecture is not Connectionist at the cognitive level. We then consider
the possibility that Connectionism may provide an account of the neural (or ‘abstract
neurological’) structures in which Classical cognitive architecture is implemented. We survey a
number of the standard arguments that have been offered in favor of Connectionism and conclude
that they are coherent only on this interpretation.

J. A. Fodor, Z. W. Pylyshyn, Connectionism and Cognitive Architecture: A Critical Analysis, 1988.

• Chalmers (1993);
• Hadley (1994a, 1994b);
• Niklasson e van Gelder (1994);
• Aizawa (1997b);
• Matthews (1997);
• Hadley (1997b);
• Hadley e Hayward (1997);
• Boden e Niklasson (2000);
• Hadley (2004);
• Johnson (2004);
• Jansen e Watter (2012);
• Aizawa (2014);
• Loula, Baroni, & Lake (2018).
Bibliografia essenziale
• M.A. Boden, Artificial Intelligence. A very short introduction, Oxford
University Press, 2018.
• C. Buckner, J. Garson, Connectionism, The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Fall 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = < https : //
plato.stanford.edu /archives / fall2019/entries/connectionism/>.
• D. Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence, Basic Books,
1993.
• J. A. Fodor, Z. W. Pylyshyn, Connectionism and Cognitive Architecture: A
Critical Analysis, Cognition, 28(1-2), 1988.
• K. Frankish, W. M. Ramsey, The Cambridge Handbook of Artificial
Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, 2014.
• M. Garnelo , M. Shanahan, Reconciling deep learning with symbolic artificial
intelligence: representing objects and relations, Current Opinion in Behavioral
Sciences, Vol. 29, 2019.
• M. Mirolli, D. Parisi , Linguaggio e categorizzazione: un modello neurale
dell’apprendimento del lessico, 2005.
• A. Newell, H. A. Simon, Computer science as empirical inquiry: symbols and
search, Comunications of the ACM, Vol.19, Issue 3, 1976.
• D. Parisi, Intervista sulle reti neurali, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1989.
• D. Parisi, Mente. I nuovi modelli della vita artificiale, Il Mulino, 1999.
• F. Rosenblatt, The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and
Organization in the Brain, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Psychological Review,
v. 65, No. 6, pp. 386–408.
• D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, PDP. Microstruttura dei processi
cognitivi, Sistemi Intelligenti, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1991.
• A.M. Turing, Intelligenza Meccanica, a cura di G. Lolli, Bollati Boringhieri,
1994.