Progettazione di veicoli

aerospaziali (AA-LZ)

D o ce n t e t i t o l a r e : Pr o f. E . C a r r e ra

Le c t u r e s e r i es :
Conceptual Design of subsonic commercial
aircraft

Dr. Davide Ferretto

davide.ferretto@polito.it

Lesson 2: First guess and

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto) preliminary estimations
 1.5 Where we left...
Table of Contents
2.1 First guess: preliminary mass estimation

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: Reference aircraft and competitors

1.5
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

ASSIGNMENT

Assignment 1.3: On the basis of the list of Requirements elicited in

the previous step, identify a good list of reference aircraft and
collect data to be used as meaningful statistical population.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Frequently Asked Questions: Lesson 1

• Assignment 1.1: Cosa scrivere?

→ Alcuni spunti: [...] l’ammontare del traffico aereo passeggeri nel

mondo ha subito, a causa della pandemia, una riduzione decisa negli
Lesson 1 scorsi anni, ma mostra un aumento promettente in proiezione, con il
possibile raggiungimento dei livelli pre-pandemici nel prossimo
futuro.
→ [...] Lo smantellamento delle flotte commerciali lascia ora spazio alla
Some re-introduzione in servizio anche dei velivoli a lungo raggio, aprendo
nuove opportunità sui mercati che più hanno sofferto nel recente
feedbacks passato.
→ [...] Inoltre, il problema della gestione dei grandi velivoli
quadrimotore apre a possibili sostituzioni da parte di più efficienti
bimotori nelle flotte più grandi ed eterogenee.
→ [...] Con queste premesse, il presente studio ha come obiettivo il
progetto preliminare di un velivolo bimotore wide-body per trasporto
passeggeri, con ingresso in servizio da qui a dieci anni, ispirato
all’Airbus A350-900, caratterizzato da elevata efficienza aero-
propulsiva ed operativa. [...]

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Frequently Asked Questions: Lesson 1

• Assignment 1.2: Si può fare proprio la versione A350-900?

→ Sì, considerando gli strumenti a nostra disposizione il risultato

non sarà mai perfettamente identico al velivolo originale
Lesson 1

• Assignment 1.2: Volendo variare, di quanto ci si può discostare

dal velivolo originale?
Some
→ Bisogna rimanere consistenti con il velivolo di riferimento. Non ha
feedbacks senso, per i nostri scopi, variare di poco (<10% in payload o
range), ma non bisogna nemmeno esagerare (tenere presente il
MTOW del velivolo di riferimento)

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Design Problem

Requirements To move from

qualitative data to
quantitative estimations

Synthesis Sizing
2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
Sketch
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

o There are many levels of aircraft sizing procedure.

➢ The simplest methods just adopt history
➢ The most complex methods exploit high-fidelity
simulations, and test and verification processes after the
manufacturing of the first prototype.
➢ What about sizing in Conceptual Design?

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation

At the very beginning of the design process, it is important to understand the

limits of the design space (sizing procedure), thus it is fundamental to start
estimating the main design variables, such as:

✓ Maximum Take-Off Mass (MTOM)

✓ Aircraft Level Mass Breakdown (𝒎𝑶𝑬 , 𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 , 𝒆𝒕𝒄 …)
2.1 ✓ Thrust (𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒒 )
✓ Wing Loading
Guess data estimation ✓ Lift-over-Drag 𝑦𝑖
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t 𝜖
𝑦ഥ𝑖

For conventional
configurations, methods for
Guess Data Estimation are
usually based on statistical
analysis. Error margins shall
be duly considered.

𝑝ෝ𝑖 𝑝𝑖
known

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Before starting...

Definition of typical mass variables within aircraft mass breakdown

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚

Empty mass (i.e. basic empty mass)

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝒎𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚

2.1 Operating Empty Mass (OEM)
Guess data estimation
for subsonic • Operating Empty Mass (OEM) (also Basic Operating Mass): it consists of the empty mass as
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t delivered by the manufacturer plus all other elements which make the aircraft “ready to fly”, excluding
payload and fuel: crew and cabin personnel with their luggage, emergency equipment, water supplies,
lubricants, anti-ice, fuel that remains in the engine and in the adduction circuits.

• Payload mass: mass associated to passengers, their luggage and the entire cargo contribution (if
applicable). It varies depending on the mission the aircraft shall fly.

• Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM): aircraft mass taking into account OEM and payload, without fuel (OEM +
payload = ZFM).

• Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM): maximum allowable mass for the aircraft before adding fuel
(fueling)

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Take-Off Mass

Design Take-off mass can be broken into different contributions including, crew,
payload, structures, subsystems, etc…

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦

?
2.1 (Known from Requirements, (Known from Requirements, ?
including regulations) including applicable regulations)
Guess data estimation Pilots and all crew members Passengers and related
equipment
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t
This can be rewritten as follows:
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝒎𝑻𝑶 + 𝒎𝑻𝑶
𝒎𝑻𝑶 𝒎𝑻𝑶

𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 This Equation can only

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 be solved iteratively!
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂

? ?
[1] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Empty Mass fraction tren
The trends can be represented by the
𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 following equation:
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝒎𝒆
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚 = 𝑨 𝒎𝑪𝑻𝟎
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂 𝒎𝑻𝟎

2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

Be careful to the semi-logarithmic axes

o Each curve can be represented by a power equation based upon take-off gross mass.
o The small but negative exponents indicate that the empty-mass fractions decrease with increasing take-off
mass.
o The adoption of advanced technologies (such as composite materials), may be considered with additional
factors (< 1)

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Why pure statistical methods will not work Guess Data Estimation: Fuel Mass ratios
for fuel ratio estimations?

𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Fuel Fraction can be estimated based on the mission to

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 be flown, once an estimate of fuel consumption and
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚 aerodynamic efficiency is available
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂

2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

[1] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American

Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Why pure statistical methods will not work Guess Data Estimation: Fuel Mass ratios
for fuel ratio estimations?

𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Fuel Fraction can be estimated based on the mission to

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 be flown, once an estimate of fuel consumption and
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚 aerodynamic efficiency is available
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂

For the definition of a Mission Profile for commercial aircraft, various simplified models
can be found out in literature. However, for a more precise estimate, real mission profiles
of reference aircraft can be used and discretized.
2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

Data taken from Eurocontrol

Aircraft Performance Database
https://contentzone.eurocontrol.int/aircraftperformance
[1] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Fuel Mass ratios

𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Fuel Fraction can be estimated based on the mission

𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 to be flown, once an estimate of fuel consumption
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚 and aerodynamic efficiency is available
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂

𝑛
2.1 • where n is the number of mission phases (or legs)
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = ෍ 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚 𝑇𝑂 − 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ) • 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑖 is the aircraft mass at the end of i-th phase
Guess data estimation 𝑖 • 𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 is a factor accounting for allowances
𝑖=1
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚 𝑇𝑂 − 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ) 𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒏
= = 𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 1 −
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 𝑚 𝑇𝑂 𝒎𝑻𝑶

𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒏 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 1 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 2 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 3 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑛

= …
𝒎𝑻𝑶 𝑚𝑇𝑂 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑1 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑2 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑛−1

Fuel fractions can be statistically estimated for all phases except for cruise phase.
In cruise phase, a more accurate estimation is requested.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Fuel Mass ratios
Cruise fuel fraction can be estimated by means of mathematical formulations.
Here, Breguet range equation is suggested.

The range of an aircraft is its velocity multiplied by the amount of time it can remain in the air.

Time in the air equals the amount of fuel carried divided by the rate at which the fuel is burnt.

Mass flow rate of fuel is, in turn, the required thrust multiplied by the specific fuel consumption.
2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic 𝐿
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t Additional distance the aircraft 𝑑𝑅 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝐷
will travel with a certain = = =
increment in fuel burnt 𝑑𝑚 −𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝑇 −𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝐷 −𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝑚
𝐿
𝑤𝑓 𝑉 𝐷
𝑅=න 𝑑𝑚
𝑤𝑖 −𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝑚

𝑉 𝐿 𝑚𝑖
𝑅= ln
𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝐷 𝑚𝑓

From Raymer

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Fuel Mass ratios

𝑅 𝑠𝑓𝑐
− 𝐿 Range (R) and speed
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 3
3 Cruise = 𝑒
𝑉
𝐷 (V) are known
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑2
Descent

4
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 4
= 0.985 [1]
2.1 2 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑3

Guess data estimation Climb

5
for subsonic 1 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 2
= 0.985 [1]
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑1
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t Landing
Warm up and take-off 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 5
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑 1 = 0.995 [1]
= 0.97 [1] 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑4
𝑚𝑇𝑂

Cruise fuel fraction can be estimated by means of mathematical formulations.

Here, Breguet range equation is suggested.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Specif ic Fuel Consumption
𝑅 𝑠𝑓𝑐
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝐿
Cruise 3 𝑉
= 𝑒 𝐷
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙2

Typical Values for subsonic jet aircraft

are reported hereafter
2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

[1] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Specif ic Fuel Consumption

Please use the correct units!

2.1 𝑘𝑔Τℎ
𝑙𝑏Τℎ 𝑘𝑔Τℎ
Guess data estimation
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑆𝐼1 ≈ 𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑆𝐼1′ 𝑑𝑎𝑁
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑔𝑓
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t
Example
𝑚𝑔Τ𝑠
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑆𝐼 = 14.1 𝑁
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑆𝐼 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑘𝑔−𝑠−𝑁 = = 1.41 ∙ 10−5
106 𝑁
𝑘𝑔Τℎ
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑘𝑔−ℎ−𝑁 = 3600 ∙ 𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑘𝑔−𝑠−𝑁 = 0.051 𝑁

𝑘𝑔Τℎ
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑘𝑔−ℎ−𝑑𝑎𝑁 ≅ 10 ∙ 𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑘𝑔−ℎ−𝑁 = 0.51 𝑑𝑎𝑁
Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)
 Guess Data Estimation: Maximum L/D
𝑅 𝑠𝑓𝑐
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝐿
Cruise 3 𝑉
= 𝑒 𝐷
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙2

𝐿
= 𝑘𝐿𝐷 𝐴𝑤
2.1 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t Where

• 𝑘𝐿𝐷 has different values depending

upon the type of aircraft and in
particular the type of the propulsive
system (e.g. 15.5 for civil jets,…)

A
• 𝐴𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: Wetted Area ratios

How can you estimate

wetted aspect ratio before
the aircraft design layout has
been fixed?

2.1
Guess data estimation • Typical ratios from literature
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t • Measures from aircraft sketch

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

Guess Data Estimation: Procedure This depends on aircraft type as well!

Set W0 guess
me/mT0
(mTO)

Crew members
Select payload and m_crew
number
cruise range m_payload
(2 pilots +?)
2.1
Guess data estimation
for subsonic Define mission
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t profile

Set configuration
data mf/mT0
(e.g. aspect ratio)

Set engine data mT0

(e.g. SFC) mf
Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)
Guess Data Estimation: Procedure

What to expect?

𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
1− −
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 𝑚 𝑇𝑂

2.1 Estimated

Guess data estimation

mTO [kg] Solution
for subsonic converged
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t

mTO = mTO

Graphical
approach
mTO [kg]

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Example: basic analysis of statistical populations with Matlab

Some references:
Interpolation of data with Matlab
(https://www.mathworks.com/help/matla
b/data_analysis/programmatic-
Discussion: fitting.html#f1-7407 )

Curve fitting toolbox

(https://www.mathworks.com/help/curvefi
Preliminary t/getting-started-with-curve-fitting-
Guess Data toolbox.html)

Estimation
&
Procedure
Statistical
Analysis

Statistical Import data Analysis of statistical

Population trends

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 With a known statistical population, how can I update the regression coefficients by
maintaining the «shape» of the equation?

𝑚𝑒
Example with reference to = 𝐴 𝑚𝐶𝑇0
𝑚𝑇0

Discussion:
From data
Equation “shape” or type
Preliminary
Guess Data
Estimation Suggested
& coefficients

Statistical
Analysis

If you fix the type of interpolating equation, it is possible to obtain updated

coefficients (e.g. by using tools such as the Curve Fitting Toolbox). In this
example, the power low is considered 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏
Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)
 With a known statistical population, how can I update the regression coefficients by
maintaining the «shape» of the equation?

𝑚𝑒
Example with reference to = 𝐴 𝑚𝐶𝑇0
𝑚𝑇0

Discussion:

Preliminary
Guess Data 𝑦 = 131.8 𝑥 −0.44
Estimation Warning!
This is just an
& example!
Statistical
Analysis
𝑦 = 0.97 𝑥 −0.66

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: known issues of the approach
𝑓(𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑥 )
𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Be careful with guess,
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 requirements and
1− 𝑚 − 𝑚 statistical references!
𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂
Discussion: 𝐿
𝑓 𝑅, , 𝑠𝑓𝑐, 𝑀𝑐𝑟
𝐷

Preliminary
Guess Data
Estimation 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
1− − >0
&
𝑚 𝑇𝑂 𝑚 𝑇𝑂
estimated
Not consistent? 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
+ <1
Statistical 𝑚 𝑇𝑂 𝑚 𝑇𝑂

Analysis 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 < 𝑚 𝑇𝑂

mTO = mTO

E.g. R = 15 000 km E.g. R = 20 000 km

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Guess Data Estimation: additional trade -offs

Discussion:

Preliminary
Guess Data
Estimation
&
Statistical By considering either range or payload as a free parameter, it is
possible to perform trade studies.
Analysis
In this case, different curves can be drawn and different
convergence points can be identified.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: First Guess Data Estimation

Assignment 2.1: Critical Analysis of statistical trends.

Verify whether your statistical population fits the trend reported in
literature (e.g. Raymer) or suggest improvements to the simple
2.1
mathematical models (e.g. updates of coefficients).
Guess data estimation
for subsonic
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t
Assignment 2.2: Guess data estimation for the reference case
study. Apply the original or improved statistical trends to perform the
ASSIGNMENT first guess data estimation for the reference case study. Please, report
all iterations needed to reach convergence of the maximum take-off
mass, specifying hypothesis on the considered payload and range.

An example of iterations is reported into [1], pages 43-52.

[1] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)

 Complete Breguet equation derivation (general)
𝑑𝑊
= −𝑇 ∙ 𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∙ 𝑔 Reduction of weight per unit time [N/s]
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑉
𝑠 =𝑉∙𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = From kinematics
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2.1
Guess data estimation 𝑉𝑑𝑊 𝑉𝑑𝑊
= −𝑇 ∙ 𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∙ 𝑔 𝑑𝑠 = −
for subsonic 𝑑𝑠 𝑇 ∙ 𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∙ 𝑔
c o m m e r c i a l a i r c ra f t
𝑊 𝑊 𝑐𝐷
𝑇= 𝐷 𝑇= 𝑊 Steady-state rectilinear flight
𝐿 𝐿 𝑐𝐿
Appendix Hypothesis

𝑉𝑑𝑊 𝑐𝐿
𝑑𝑠 = − ∙
𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑊 𝑐𝐷

𝑠2
𝑉 𝑐𝐿 𝑊1 𝑑𝑊 𝑽 𝒄𝑳 𝑾𝟏
න 𝑑𝑠 = ∙ න 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏 = ∙ ∙ 𝐥𝐧
𝑠1 𝑠𝑓𝑐 ∙ 𝑔 𝑐𝐷 𝑊2 𝑊 𝒔𝒇𝒄 ∙ 𝒈 𝒄𝑫 𝑾𝟐

Lesson 2: First guess and preliminary estimations (D. Ferretto)