ENCYCLOPAEDIA

OF
HYDROCARBONS

ISTITUTO DELLA
ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA
FONDATA DA GIOVANNI TRECCANI
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ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA

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 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

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Massimo Bray
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

volume iii

NEW DEVELOPMENTS:
ENERGY, TRANSPORT,
SUSTAINABILITY
SCIENTIFIC CO-ORDINATION
Ugo Romano
 INDEX OF VOLUME III

NEW DEVELOPMENTS:
ENERGY, TRANSPORT,
SUSTAINABILITY

1 – FROM PRIMARY SOURCES TO THE MARKET

Dante Casati, Raffaella Turatto

1.1 – EVOLVING TECHNOLOGIES AND POSSIBLE SCENARIOS 3
1.1.1 – Scenarios and strategic decisions 3
1.1.2 – Scenarios and reference markets 3
1.1.3 – Factors for change and technological innovation 4
1.1.4 – The macroeconomic scenario 5
1.1.5 – Energy scenario 5
1.1.6 – Technological scenario 6
1.1.7 – The development scenario for the issue of ‘environment and sustainability’ 15

2 – HYDROCARBONS FROM NON-CONVENTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE

FOSSIL RESOURCES

Maurice B. Dusseault
2.1 – OIL FROM NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES 21
2.1.1 – Non-conventional fossil fuels 21
2.1.2 – Pressure-driven viscous oil technologies 25
2.1.3 – Gravity drainage technologies 32
2.1.4 – In situ combustion option 39
2.1.5 – Technology mixing and sequencing 41
2.1.6 – Reservoir screening criteria 44
2.1.7 – Oil shales and mineable oil sands 45
2.1.8 – Upgrading and transportation 48
2.1.9 – Environmental impact 50
2.1.10 – Predictions 52

Charles M. Boyer, Joseph H. Frantz, Creties D. Jenkins

2.2 – NON-CONVENTIONAL GAS 57
2.2.1 – Introduction 57
2.2.2 – Reservoir fundamentals 60

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 2.2.3 – Drilling, completion, and production 72
2.2.4 – Resources and reserves 74
2.2.5 – Technology and future trends 75
2.2.6 – Project summaries and comparisons of applied technologies 77
2.2.7 – International potential for coalbed methane and shale gas 79
2.2.8 – Conclusions 80

Gian Paolo Borghi

2.3 – GAS HYDRATES 85
2.3.1 – Introduction 85
2.3.2 – The structure of hydrates 85
2.3.3 – Hydrates as a problem in the oil industry 91
2.3.4 – Hydrates as a future energy resource 98
2.3.5 – Research and development activities in the gas hydrates sector 107

Alberto Delbianco
2.4 – HYDROCARBONS FROM THE DIRECT LIQUEFACTION OF SOLID FUELS 113
2.4.1 – Introduction 113
2.4.2 – Liquefaction technology 120
2.4.3 – New-generation processes 126
2.4.4 – Properties of coal liquids 128
2.4.5 – Further developments of the technology 129
2.4.6 – Integration with hydrogen production technologies 133
2.4.7 – Process economics and development potential of the technology 134

Alberto Delbianco, Romolo Montanari

2.5 – EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE CONVERSION OF RESIDUES 137
2.5.1 – Introduction 137
2.5.2 – Properties and chemical characteristics of non-conventional oils 139
2.5.3 – Chemistry of the conversion and upgrading processes 143
2.5.4 – Carbon rejection technologies 147
2.5.5 – Hydrogen addition technologies: hydrocracking 151
2.5.6 – Technologies for the exploitation of oil shale 156
2.5.7 – Main development projects 158

Giuseppe Bellussi, Roberto Zennaro

2.6 – HYDROCARBONS FROM NATURAL GAS 161
2.6.1 – Introduction 161
2.6.2 – Gas to Liquids process by means of the Fischer-Tropsch reaction 163
2.6.3 – Products 179

3 – NEW UPSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES

Ali Daneshy
3.1 – UPSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES. NOVEL WELL AND PRODUCTION ARCHITECTURE 185
3.1.1 – Introduction 185
3.1.2 – Horizontal drilling 186
3.1.3 – Multilateral wells 190

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 3.1.4 – Downhole flow regulators 196
3.1.5 – Novel well architectures 198
3.1.6 – Flow optimization 205

3.2 – ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY 209

Emilio Causin
3.2.1 – Processes 209
Steven L. Bryant
3.2.2 – Recovery factor optimization 214

Thomas Lockhart, Francesco Crescenzi

3.3 – SOUR OIL AND GAS MANAGEMENT 237
3.3.1 – Introduction 237
3.3.2 – Origin of H2S in oil and gas accumulations 238
3.3.3 – H2S removal in small volume plants 241
3.3.4 – High volume sour gas treatment processes 243
3.3.5 – Sour gas re-injection 256
3.3.6 – Sulphur storage and disposal 260
3.3.7 – The sulphur market and new uses 264

Francesca de Ferra
3.4 – BIOTECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION
AND CONVERSION 271
3.4.1 – Microbiology associated with hydrocarbons 271
3.4.2 – Reactions 274
3.4.3 – Applications 281
3.4.4 – Biological activation of methane 292

4 – ENERGY CARRIERS

Mario Marchionna
4.1 – FROM SOURCES TO MARKET: ENERGY CARRIERS 301
4.1.1 – Introduction 301
4.1.2 – Life cycle of the energy carrier 301
4.1.3 – Conventional energy carriers 304
4.1.4 – Innovative energy carriers 308
4.1.5 – Conclusions 315

Marco Nicola Carcassi

4.2 – THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY 319
4.2.1 – Introduction 319
4.2.2 – Characteristics of hydrogen 321
4.2.3 – Production, transportation and storage of hydrogen 323
4.2.4 – Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy vector 325
4.2.5 – Research and development programmes 329
4.2.6 – Conclusions 333

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 John R. Benemann, Paola Pedroni
4.3 – BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION OF H2: MECHANISMS AND PROCESSES 337
4.3.1 – Introduction 337
4.3.2 – Biological catalysts for H2 production 339
4.3.3 – Bioreactors for H2 production 341
4.3.4 – Photobiological H2 production processes 344
4.3.5 – Dark fermentations 350
4.3.6 – Biohydrogen applications and potential 355

Ernesto Scafè
4.4 – TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF HYDROGEN 361
4.4.1 – Introduction 361
4.4.2 – Traditional transport and storage 361
4.4.3 – Innovative transport and storage 364

5 – POWER GENERATION FROM FOSSIL RESOURCES

Ennio Macchi, Giovanni Lozza, Stefano Consonni

5.1 – LARGE-SCALE ELECTRICAL GENERATION SYSTEMS 377
5.1.1 – Introduction 377
5.1.2 – Steam electric power stations 384
5.1.3 – Gas turbines 397
5.1.4 – Combined cycles 404
5.1.5 – Gasification and combined cycles (IGCC) 413

Ennio Macchi, Giovanni Lozza

5.2 – INDUSTRIAL COGENERATION 421
5.2.1 – Introduction 421
5.2.2 – Plants with external combustion prime movers 425
5.2.3 – Plants with internal combustion prime movers 428

Ennio Macchi, Stefano Campanari

5.3 – DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 435
5.3.1 – Introduction 435
5.3.2 – Microgeneration technologies 438
5.3.3 – Trigeneration 457

Ivano Miracca, Mario Molinari

5.4 – POWER GENERATION WITH CARBON DIOXIDE SEGREGATION 461
5.4.1 – Introduction 461
5.4.2 – Technological development 466
5.4.3 – Future prospects 472

Francesco Pittalis, Vincenzo Antonucci

5.5 – FUEL CELLS FOR STATIONARY GENERATION 475
5.5.1 – Historical outlines 475
5.5.2 – Introduction 477

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 5.5.3 – Fuels 482
5.5.4 – Low temperature fuel cells 485
5.5.5 – Medium and high temperature fuel cells 491

Maurizio Cumo
5.6 – ADVANCED NUCLEAR SYSTEMS 499
5.6.1 – Introduction 499
5.6.2 – The six fourth-generation nuclear systems 501
5.6.3 – High-temperature reactors 505
5.6.4 – Reduction in the radiotoxicity of waste 508
5.6.5 – The III+ generation reactors 510

Giovanni Battista Zorzoli

5.7 – TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE OF ELECTRIC ENERGY 515
5.7.1 – Introduction 515
5.7.2 – Storage of electric energy 515
5.7.3 – The first steps 517
5.7.4 – Types of transmission networks and connected problems 518
5.7.5 – The North American network 520
5.7.6 – The European networks 522
5.7.7 – Problems posed by deregulation 524
5.7.8 – Examination of a typical case of blackout 525
5.7.9 – Distribution networks 527

6 – POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

6.1 – SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION 531

Mauro Vignolini
6.1.1 – Concentration systems 531
Francesca Ferrazza
6.1.2 – Photovoltaic technology 547

Jacques Ruer
6.2 – WIND POWER GENERATION 561
6.2.1 – The wind resource 561
6.2.2 – Theory of wind turbines 563
6.2.3 – Wind turbine regulation systems 564
6.2.4 – Turbine equipment 566
6.2.5 – Typical characteristics of modern large turbines 570
6.2.6 – Other types of wind turbines 570
6.2.7 – Development of onshore wind energy 571
6.2.8 – Development of offshore wind energy 571

Wavegen
6.3 – WAVE AND TIDAL POWER GENERATION 575
6.3.1 – Introduction 575
6.3.2 – Historical perspective 579

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 6.3.3 – Current status 582
6.3.4 – Estimation of wave energy resource and device performance 586
6.3.5 – Environmental impact of wave and tidal devices 590
6.3.6 – Global prospects for the energy industry 591

Mario Fanelli, Piero Manetti, Mary Hana Dickson, Leonardo Zan

6.4 – GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 595
6.4.1 – Introduction 595
6.4.2 – Nature of geothermal resources 597
6.4.3 – Geothermal exploration 603
6.4.4 – Utilization of geothermal resources 604
6.4.5 – Environmental impact 609

Vito Pignatelli, Andrea Robertiello

6.5 – BIOMASS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY 611
6.5.1 – Introduction 611
6.5.2 – The role of biomass in the energy spectrum 613
6.5.3 – Fuels from biomass 615
6.5.4 – Technologies for the use of biomass energy 621
6.5.5 – Conclusions 628

7 – ENERGY SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Alberto Tintinelli
7.1 – LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND ENERGY SYSTEMS 633
7.1.1 – Introduction 633
7.1.2 – Life cycle assessment method 634
7.1.3 – Applications of life cycle assessment in the field of energy systems 641

Teresa L. Hill, David H. Marks, Jefferson W. Tester

7.2 – PATHWAYS TO A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUTURE 651
7.2.1 – Introduction 651
7.2.2 – The future of fossil energy 652
7.2.3 – Alternatives to fossil 655
7.2.4 – Energy systems 664
7.2.5 – Choosing options for a sustainable energy future 666
7.2.6 – Conclusions 668

8 – TRANSPORT

Alessandro Piccone, Giorgio Cornetti

8.1 – RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 673
8.1.1 – Introduction 673
8.1.2 – Architecture 677
8.1.3 – Combustion, emissions and control system 684
8.1.4 – Evolution 695

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Jacopo D’Andria
8.2 – HYBRID DRIVE SYSTEMS 699
8.2.1 – Introduction 699
8.2.2 – Current environmental problems and potential solutions 700
8.2.3 – Hybrid-electric vehicles: historical outline and current situation 703
8.2.4 – Features of the hybrid systems in use 704
8.2.5 – Strengths and weaknesses of hybrid-electric vehicles
8.2.6 – Possible developments in components for hybrid-electric vehicles
8.2.7 – The future of the market for hybrid-electric vehicles

Fulvio Giavazzi, Patrizia Buttini, Carlo Perego

8.3 – POLLUTING EMISSIONS CAUSED BY TRANSPORT 717
8.3.1 – Pollutants emitted by motor vehicles 717
8.3.2 – Low-emission fuels 729

Riccardo Maione, Luigi D’Elia

8.4 – LUBRICATION AND LUBRICANTS 751
8.4.1 – Introduction 751
8.4.2 – Functions and performance of lubricants for heavy-duty vehicles 757
8.4.3 – Main components of lubricants for heavy-duty vehicles 764
8.4.4 – Lubricants for industry 768

9 – SUSTAINABILITY

Andrea Robertiello, Alberto Tintinelli

9.1 – THE OIL INDUSTRY TOWARDS ZERO IMPACT 775
9.1.1 – Introduction 775
9.1.2 – Oil cycle: upstream 776
9.1.3 – Oil cycle: downstream 787
9.1.4 – Natural gas cycle 793
9.1.5 – Operating instruments available for eliminating environmental impact 795

George J. Stosur
9.2 – SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 801
9.2.1 – Defining sustainable development 801
9.2.2 – The need for sustainable development 802
9.2.3 – The precautionary principle 803
9.2.4 – Industrial activities related to sustainable development 803
9.2.5 – Greenhouse gases and global warming 807
9.2.6 – Biodiversity and loss of habitat 808
9.2.7 – The role of technology and research and development 808
9.2.8 – Regulatory processes at corporate, country and global level 809

Paul Freund
9.3 – CO2 CAPTURE AND STORAGE FROM FOSSIL FUELS 811
9.3.1 – Introduction 811
9.3.2 – Sources of CO2 812

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 9.3.3 – Methods of capturing CO2 814
9.3.4 – Transportation of CO2 818
9.3.5 – Storage of CO2 819
9.3.6 – Costs and benefits 824
9.3.7 – Environmental impact, risks, legal aspects and public acceptance 829
9.3.8 – Monitoring, verification and commercial/regulatory requirements 832
9.3.9 – Conclusions 834

John R. Benemann, Paola Pedroni

9.4 – BIOFIXATION OF FOSSIL CO2 BY MICROALGAE FOR GREENHOUSE GAS ABATEMENT 837
9.4.1 – Introduction 837
9.4.2 – Photosynthesis, microalgae productivity and GHG abatement 839
9.4.3 – Microalgae cultivation systems and CO2 capture 843
9.4.4 – Microalgae harvesting and conversion to fuels 847
9.4.5 – Microalgae multipurpose processes for GHG abatement 851
9.4.6 – Economics and R&D issues 855
9.4.7 – GHG abatement potential with microalgae processes 857

Abigail Entwistle, Timothy Reed, Paola Pedroni

9.5 – BIODIVERSITY AND THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR 863
9.5.1 – Introduction 863
9.5.2 – Biodiversity and the oil and gas sector 866
9.5.3 – Operationalizing biodiversity awareness in the oil and gas sector 870

Ugo Romano, Franco Rivetti

9.6 – CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 879
9.6.1 – Sustainability 879
9.6.2 – Sustainability in the chemical industry 881
9.6.3 – Innovation areas for sustainable chemistry 887
9.6.4 – Looking ahead 907

10 – ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES

Ivo Allegrini
10.1 – ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 915
10.1.1 – Introduction 915
10.1.2 – Atmospheric chemistry in the gas phase 916
10.1.3 – Atmospheric chemistry in the aqueous phase 925
10.1.4 – Depletion of stratospheric ozone 931

Ivo Allegrini, Patrizia Buttini

10.2 – EMISSION AND CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE GASES 937
10.2.1 – Introduction 937
10.2.2 – Sources of greenhouse gas emissions 945
10.2.3 – Techniques for measuring greenhouse gases in ambient air 948
10.2.4 – Techniques for measuring greenhouse gases in emissions 949
10.2.5 – Strategies to control greenhouse gases 950

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Giovanni Grillo, Paola Pedroni
10.3 – POLLUTION PROCESSES IN SOIL AND WATER, MONITORING AND RISK ANALYSIS 955
10.3.1 – Introduction 955
10.3.2 – Migration and transformation of hydrocarbons in the environment 955
10.3.3 – Environmental characteristics of the principal groups of pollutants 959
10.3.4 – Characterization and monitoring of pollution at a site 960
10.3.5 – Modelling the movement of pollutants 964
10.3.6 – Evaluation of the pollution at a site: risk assessment 966

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 NOTES

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The units of measurement generally adopted are those of the Système International (SI), with corresponding mul-
tiples and submultiples. Only in particular contexts, typically connected with the petroleum industry, certain non-
SI units of current use have been maintained.

Main units of measurement adopted

ampere A henry H pascal Pa
angstrom Å hertz Hz poise P
atomic mass unit u horse-power hp pound lb
bar bar hour h pounds per square inch psi
barrel bbl inch '' (in) radian rad
becquerel Bq joule J second (angle) ⬙
British thermal unit Btu kelvin K second (time) s
calorie cal kilogram kg siemens S
candela cd kilowatt-hour kWh sievert Sv
coulomb C litre l
standard cubic foot scf or SCF or sft3
darcy D lumen lm
steradian sr
day d lux lx
stock tank barrel stb
decibel dB metre m
degree Celsius °C square metre m2 stokes St
degree Fahrenheit °F cubic metre m3 tesla T
degree (sexagesimal) ° minute (angle) ⬘ tonne t
electron volt eV minute (time) min tonnes of oil equivalent toe
farad F mole mol volt V
foot ' (ft) newton N watt W
gram g nit nt weber Wb
gray Gy ohm Ω yard yd
hectare ha parts per million ppm year yr

TERMINOLOGY AND SPELLING

In the sectors of petroleum engineering and chemistry, of the petrochemical industry and of the earth sciences,
specific terms, acronyms and expressions are frequently used. The criterion adopted in this work is based on their
frequency of use, i.e. given two possible terms, the more common one has been used.
British spelling, according to the most authoritative reference works, has been adopted.

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 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

In the nomenclature of simple compounds, the rules of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
have been adopted as far as possible, traditional names being limited to the cases admitted by IUPAC. When there
are two or more names admitted, the commonest one is adopted.
Two principal exceptions to the above rule have been applied in this work:
• For organic compounds used in the petrochemical industry, the name adopted is that listed in: Wells G.M.
(1999) Handbook of petrochemicals and processes, Aldershot, Ashgate; Brookfield (VT), Gower.
• The British English spelling of sulphur and sulphur containing compounds is adopted.

TRANSLITERATIONS

In writing names belonging to other languages with an alphabet other than the Latin alphabet, the Romanization
Tables compiled by the Library of Congress of Washington have been applied, introducing however certain modifications
intended to reduce to a minimum the number of diacritical marks, and – in particular in the case of Arabic and Persian
– adopting a number of transliterations by now accepted in local and international usage.

Opposite page:
The Val d’Agri deposits, along with those in the Sauro Valley, make up the largest energy resource ever discovered in Italy.
In the picture a drill in the drilling stage. In the subsequent production stage the drill is no longer in sight: the wellhead is
lodged in an underground space, substantially reducing its visual effect while guaranteeing utmost safety.
Technological advances in the energy industry allow the possibility to minimize the environmental impact and respect
biodiversity.

XXVI