Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Deurenberg
Acta Diabetologica 40:S254-S257; 2003
900
Number of observations
Bedogni G et al. Manuale di valutazione antropometrica dello stato nutrizionale. Milano: EDRA, in press.
PESO
• Solo biancheria intima
• Piedi al centro
• Peso uniformemente distribuito
• Calcagni vicini
• Punte leggermente Divaricate
• Posizione eretta
• Operatore dietro la bilancia
• Peso registrato ai più vicini 100g
AFFIDABILITA’ Interoperatore
•1,2 g da 5 a 10 anni
•1,5 g da 10 a 15 anni
•1,5 g negli adulti
Piano di Francoforte
Rilevazione in duplicato
9
•Artometria:
• Lunghezza spalla - gomito
• Punto mediano Linea acromion -
olecrano
• Circonferenza mediana braccio
• Plica tricipitale
Plicometri, i più noti ed usati sono quelli di:
Holtain, Harpenden e Lange
Lange
Holtain
Harpenden
Plica Tricipitale
Plica Bicipitale
Pliche
• Indicatori obiettivi del grasso sottocutaneo
• Associazione col rischio di malattia
indipendentemente dal BMI.
• Indispensabili per seguire le modificazioni loco -
regionali dell’ adiposità.
• La plica di un arto e la circonferenza
corrispondente vengono utilizzate nel calcolo
delle aree muscolo -adipose degli arti.
• Rilevazione in triplicato
Plica sopra iliaca
PLICOMETRIA
Equazione di Durnin-Womersley:
D (kg/l) = c - m ln 4 pliche
4,95
(Eq. Siri) FM% = - 4,50 x 100
Db(kg/l)
Siri WE Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods.
In Techniques for Measuring Body Composition, pp. 223–244 [J Brozeck and A
Henschel, editors]. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
BIOIMPEDENZA
La resistenza
dell’organismo al passaggio
della corrente è registrata
5 cilindri tramite una seconda coppia
di elettrodi
Valutazione della composizione corporea
BIA: analisi dell’impedenza corporea
RESISTENZA REATTANZA
Z = R2 + Xc2
IMPEDENZA BIOLETTRICA
RESISTENZA
La resistenza viene definita dalla legge di Ohm:
R= V/I
L’opposizione offerta è dovuta a:
- caratteristiche del tessuto (resistenza specifica o resistività)
- forma del conduttore che viene attraversato
REATTANZA
E’ la forza che un condensatore oppone al passaggio di una corrente elettrica.
Le cellule presenti nell’organismo si comportano come dei condensatori che
oppongono alla corrente alternata una resistenza capacitiva
SF-BIA and MF-BIA devices is typically very good, with 1%–2% variability
between repeat measures . (MDC* = 3%–6% FFM)
BIS devices may be somewhat more variable, due to the technical difficulties
in producing stable measurements at the extremes of frequencies, but even
most BIS devices have been reported to produce fairly precise measurements
(2%–3%). (MDC* = 5%–8% TBW)
* minimal detectable change (MDC)
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Multi-frequency BIA (MF-BIA)
As with SF-BIA, MF-BIA uses empirical linear regression models but includes
impedances at multiple frequencies.
MF-BIA uses different frequencies (0, 1, 5, 50, 100, 200 to 500 kHz) to
evaluate FFM, TBW, ICW and ECW.
At frequencies below 5 kHz, and above 200 kHz, poor reproducibility have
been noted, especially for the reactance at low frequencies.
According to Patel et al. MFBIA was more accurate and less biased than SF-
BIA for the prediction of ECW, whereas SF-BIA, compared to MF-BIA, was
more accurate and less biased for TBW in critically ill subjects.
Multi-frequency BIA (MF-BIA)
MF-BIA is quite similar to SF-BIA, but instead of just one frequency, MF-BIA
devices measure impedance at 2 or more frequencies, typically at 4 or 5
frequencies, including at least 1 low (most commonly 5 kHz) and several
higher ones (typically 50, 100, 200, and 500 kHz).
Separate equations are typically developed to predict ECW and TBW based
on reference values derived from bromide dilution and deuterium (or
tritium) dilution, respectively, in a particular sample population.
Subsequently, ICW can be estimated through subtraction (ie, TBW – ECW =
ICW).
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Single frequency BIA (SF-BIA)
Because components of the body (eg, TBW, ICW, FFM, BCM, and LST) are all
intercorrelated, impedance can be used to predict any body composition
compartment, if calibrated sufficiently to a reference method.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Failure to abduct the limbs: can affect resistance measurements by 2%–3% for minor deviations
and18% and 43% for skin-to-skin contact with crossed legs and contact of hands to the waist,
respectively.
Body positioning is also quite important; after a person assumes a supine position, there is an
immediate increase in impedance that occurs within the first 10 minutes and then a more
progressive increase in impedance over the next several hours, reflecting the movement in fluid
distribution toward the trunk.
The greatest increase in impedance occurs at lower frequencies, reflecting the decrease in ECW.
BIS-measured ECW decreased by approximately 3% and ICW increased by just less than 5% after
moving from a semi-upright to a supine position for 30 minutes.
Much of the available reference data have been generated from right-sided measurements. It is
estimated that impedance measurements can vary by approximately 2% between the dominant
and nondominant side of the body
Increasing skin temperature by 6.5°C (11.7°F) also has a significant inverse effect on impedance,
increasing 50-kHz estimates of TBW by approximately
13%; it is recommended that ambient temperature be maintained between 22.3 and 27.7°C (72.1–
81.9°F) to minimize these effects.
Failure to clean skin with alcohol or failure to remove metallic objects from the body prior to
measurement) are associated with smaller errors (<1% effect on resistance)
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
La posizione degli elettrodi
La variazione più grande risiede nel non corretto posizionamento degli
elettrodi misuratori: due cm di spostamento producono anche 40 ohms
di differenza. Se tale variazione fosse introdotta inopinatamente nelle
equazioni otterremmo un errore di 0,5-1 kg.
BIOIMPEDENZA: TBW
BIOIMPEDENZA: FFM
BIOIMPEDENZA: FFM
BIOIMPEDENZA: FM
Single frequency BIA (SF-BIA)
At 50 kHz BIA is strictly speaking not measuring TBW but a weighted sum of
extra-cellular water (ECW) and intra-cellular water (ICW) resistivities. SF-BIA
permits to estimate fat-free mass (FFM) and TBW, but cannot determine
differences in ICW.
BIA results are based on a mixture theories and empirical equations. The
latter have been derived in healthy subjects with tight biological homeostasis.
Although SF-BIA is not valid under conditions of significantly altered
hydration, this does not negate its use to predict absolute FFM or TBW in
normally hydrated subjects.
Multi-frequency BIA (MF-BIA)
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Multi-frequency BIA (MF-BIA)
MF-BIA equations have been specifically developed for lean tissue and/or fluid
volumes (TBW, ECW, and/or ICW) in healthy individuals, and some have been
developed for clinical assessment of fluid volumes (eg, in surgical patients and
individuals with HIV infection).
…….more often than not, time will be limited, and the only alternative will be
to accept the output generated by the device, the underlying equations for
which may not be readily available, being considered “proprietary” by the
manufacturer!
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
BIOIMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY (BIS)
In contrast to SF-BIA and MF-BIA devices, BIS devices apply the electrical
current (typically ≤800 μA) over a range of frequencies, from very low (eg, 1 or
5 kHz) to very high (eg, 1000–1200 kHz), measuring impedance data (ie, R, X, Z,
and PA) at 50 or more frequencies.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Cole plot. The RI term is mostly representative of the intracellular water (ICW) resistance, but ICW
resistance is also affected by cell membrane capacitance. Exponent α accounts for the distribution
effects (including cell size and shape) that cause suppression of the semi-circle below the x-
axis.102
Adapted from Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis—part I:
review of principles and methods. Clin Nutr. 2004;23(5):1226–1243. Reprinted with permission
from Elsevier.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Theoretically, at an exact very low frequency, the ECW is measured independent of ICW,
and at an exact very high frequency, the ICW is fully measured.
However, it is not possible to measure at frequencies >10 MHz or <1 kHz, and thus, using
nonlinear least squares curve fitting, data are fit to the semicircle and extrapolated to
the exact point where there is only ECW and no ICW conduction (ie, R0 or RE ) and
where there is complete conduction through both ECW and ICW (ie, R∞).
From RE and R∞, RI and Cm can be derived; to best solve for the primary components of
the Cole model, sufficient data points are required; thus, impedance data are typically
measured at 50 frequencies.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
The characteristic frequency (fc )
Theoretically speaking, at any frequency other than zero and infinity, the proportion
of ICW measured varies with increasing frequency and when the tissue changes,
causing a change in fc.
The BIS modeling approach is the only bioimpedance approach that actually
calculates the fc.
At 10 kHz, there is more ICW measured than at 5 kHz, and at 50 kHz, there is less
ICW measured if fc is 100 kHz than when fc is 30 kHz.
Although 50 kHz is used to predict TBW, it is away from where ICW is fully measured
(ie, at infinitely high frequency).
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
The characteristic frequency (fc )
One of the assumptions made by SF-BIA is that 50 kHz is sufficiently high to predict
TBW, but that is likely to only hold true in healthy people (for whom the fc is
typically around 40 kHz and underlying relationships between compartments are
not altered).
That will almost certainly not hold true in many individuals with acute and chronic
disease, who may have significantly greater fc (eg, >200 kHz in individuals on
dialysis).
It is important to realize that no single frequency (5, 50, f c 100, 200, 500, or even
infinite kHz) is a measure of TBW but rather a mixture of ICW and ECW, which have
substantially different resistivities.
The only way to accurately estimate ECW and ICW is to independently evaluate
them, and BIS is theoretically ideal to do this
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
It has been suggested by a growing number of researchers that a potentially more
useful approach to the use of SF-BIA might be to apply the raw data to a published
equation that has established normative reference values or to generate the PA and
compare that with published normative reference values.
One is to apply the 50-kHz data to a validated multiethnic prediction equation for
skeletal muscle mass (SM) and then to calculate the skeletal muscle index (SMI); this
has been incorporated into the definition of sarcopenia (relabeled as “whole-body
fat-free mass index without bone” by Fearon et al as part of the international
consensus definition of cachexia, based on evidence that it correlated well with MRI
and predicted functional status in older adults.
The first version of the SMI using this equation was calculated by dividing the
skeletal muscle mass by body weight in kilograms and multiplying by 100.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Ross R. Low relative skeletal muscle mass (sarcopenia) in older persons is associated with
functional impairment and physical disability. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002 May;50(5):889-96
Another proposed way to apply 50-kHz data is to calculate FFM using a validated SF-BIA
equation developed from healthy reference population data.
Kyle et al recommend calculating FFM by their validated equation (coined the Geneva
equation) generated from a Swiss population sample using a BIS (Xitron 4000B, then
owned by Xitron Technologies) device and converting it to an index (fat-free mass index
[FFMI]) by dividing it by the squared height; values can then be compared with reference
data to evaluate the individual compared with healthy reference norms:
Schutz et al have proposed that FFMI values below the fifth percentile cutpoint from
healthy reference norms could be interpreted to suggest compromised nutrition status,
although this is not well established. (The fifth percentile reference cutpoints range from
<12.9 and <16.6 kg/m2 for women and men, respectively, older than 75 years, to <14.4
and <17.2 kg/m2 for women and men, respectively, 35–54 years in age).
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
PA is a simple bioimpedance parameter generated from the arctangent of the ratio of
reactance to resistance at 50 kHz (see Figure 6). It can be calculated from the following
equation:
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Concetti Generali BIA
(da A. Piccoli: Analisi di bioimpedenza per la clinica, 2003)
Nella BIA VETTORIALE (BIVA; Bioletttrical Impedance Vector Analysis) le due misure R e Xc
vengono considerate simultaneamente come componenti del vettore impedenza
Z. Il vettore di un nuovo soggetto, standardizzato per la statura, viene confrontato
per via grafica (Grafo RXc) con la distribuzione dei vettori della popolazione sana di
riferimento
La validità della BIA VETTORIALE è generale, senza vincoli né restrizioni perché non
vengono richieste assunzionni di isotropia, né modelli di tessuto o di corpo
Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Ross R. Low relative skeletal muscle mass (sarcopenia) in older persons is associated with
functional impairment and physical disability. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002 May;50(5):889-96
IMPEDANCE RATIOS
The raw data generated by an MF-BIA device could have utility independent of whole-
body volumes/masses by allowing a clinician to evaluate the 50-kHz PA as well as a
high to low frequency (eg, 200/5-kHz) impedance ratio.
There has been significant interest in the utilization of a simple ratio of impedance
measured at 200 kHz to impedance measured at 5 kHz, with worse outcomes the
closer to 1.0 the ratio is.
For example, higher 200/5-kHz impedance ratios have been observed in individuals
with poor nutrition status, postoperative edema, and impaired renal and cardiac
function.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
study that included 151 healthy volunteers
Plank LD, Li A. Bioimpedance illness marker compared to phase angle as a predictor of malnutrition in
hospitalised patients. Clin Nutr. 2013;32(suppl 1):S85.
Con estrema sintesi, i cambiamenti d'impedenza a bassa e ad alta frequenza sono
messi in relazione al rapporto Z1/Z100.
Tale parametro potrebbe da solo esprimere un indice della ripartizione dei fluidi
corporei nelle più disparate condizioni.
Il rapporto tra la bassa e l'alta frequenza (5Khz/100Khz) riflette il rapporto tra i compartimenti extra
ed intracellulari e le modificazioni di tali compartimenti sono ritenute consequenziali ad una
variazione patologica dello stato nutrizionale: la valutazione del rapporto Z5/Z100 viene, pertanto,
considerato un indice nutrizionale, di facile e immediata lettura interpretativa.
Nello sportivo, ad esempio, causa la perdita di liquidi e di minerali, il rapporto Z5/Z100 è fortemente
variabile nel breve termine, a seguito della gara, o durante la fase di recupero.
Sulla donna con variazioni ponderali significative durante il ciclo, causa lo spostamento dei fluidi e del
potassio a livello intracellulare, si può altresì monitorare lo stesso indice.
In generale, il rapporto varia nelle situazioni di edema conclamato, nella diuresi, nelle nefropatie, nello
scompenso cardiaco, nella cachessia, cioè in tutte le condizioni fisiopatologiche in cui si modifica non
solo l'idratazione dei tessuti, ma anche il relativo contenuto di elettroliti.
BIOIMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY (BIS)
In contrast to SF-BIA and MF-BIA devices, BIS devices apply the electrical
current (typically ≤800 μA) over a range of frequencies, from very low (eg, 1 or
5 kHz) to very high (eg, 1000–1200 kHz), measuring impedance data (ie, R, X, Z,
and PA) at 50 or more frequencies.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Cole plot. The RI term is mostly representative of the intracellular water (ICW) resistance, but ICW
resistance is also affected by cell membrane capacitance. Exponent α accounts for the distribution
effects (including cell size and shape) that cause suppression of the semi-circle below the x-
axis.102
Adapted from Kyle UG, Bosaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis—part I:
review of principles and methods. Clin Nutr. 2004;23(5):1226–1243. Reprinted with permission
from Elsevier.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Theoretically, at an exact very low frequency, the ECW is measured independent of ICW,
and at an exact very high frequency, the ICW is fully measured.
However, it is not possible to measure at frequencies >10 MHz or <1 kHz, and thus, using
nonlinear least squares curve fitting, data are fit to the semicircle and extrapolated to
the exact point where there is only ECW and no ICW conduction (ie, R0 or RE ) and
where there is complete conduction through both ECW and ICW (ie, R∞).
From RE and R∞, RI and Cm can be derived; to best solve for the primary components of
the Cole model, sufficient data points are required; thus, impedance data are typically
measured at 50 frequencies.
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
The characteristic frequency (fc )
Theoretically speaking, at any frequency other than zero and infinity, the proportion
of ICW measured varies with increasing frequency and when the tissue changes,
causing a change in fc.
The BIS modeling approach is the only bioimpedance approach that actually
calculates the fc.
At 10 kHz, there is more ICW measured than at 5 kHz, and at 50 kHz, there is less
ICW measured if fc is 100 kHz than when fc is 30 kHz.
Although 50 kHz is used to predict TBW, it is away from where ICW is fully measured
(ie, at infinitely high frequency).
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
The characteristic frequency (fc )
One of the assumptions made by SF-BIA is that 50 kHz is sufficiently high to predict
TBW, but that is likely to only hold true in healthy people (for whom the fc is
typically around 40 kHz and underlying relationships between compartments are
not altered).
That will almost certainly not hold true in many individuals with acute and chronic
disease, who may have significantly greater fc (eg, >200 kHz in individuals on
dialysis).
It is important to realize that no single frequency (5, 50, f c 100, 200, 500, or even
infinite kHz) is a measure of TBW but rather a mixture of ICW and ECW, which have
substantially different resistivities.
The only way to accurately estimate ECW and ICW is to independently evaluate
them, and BIS is theoretically ideal to do this
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822
Equazioni per predire la composizione corporea negli atleti
IMPEDENZA BIOLETTRICA
Corrente alternata a 50 Hz
La resistenza dell’organismo al
passaggio della corrente è
registrata tramite una seconda
coppia di elettrodi (elettrodi
sensori)
IMPEDENZA BIOLETTRICA
Basi elettrofisiologiche
L’opposizione al passaggio della corrente è denominata IMPEDENZA
RESISTENZA REATTANZA
IMPEDENZA BIOLETTRICA
RESISTENZA
La resistenza viene definita dalla legge di Ohm:
R= V/I
L’opposizione offerta è dovuta a:
| caratteristiche del tessuto (resistenza specifica o resistività)
| forma del conduttore che viene attraversato
REATTANZA
E’ la forza che un condensatore oppone al passaggio di una corrente
elettrica.
Le cellule presenti nell’organismo si comportano come dei condensatori
che oppongono alla corrente alternata una resistenza capacitiva
• TBW
• ECW
Metodica essenzialmente votata alla rilevazione dei fluidi corporei.
Significato biologico:
- L’organismo con maggior presenza di acqua e di ioni mostra una minor
resistenza al passaggio della corrente alternata; di converso, la maggior
resistenza o impedenza.
- a parità di altezza, gli individui con alte percentuali di grasso corporeo
mostrano valori di R o Z altrettanto elevati. Nella pratica clinica è raro
trovare negli adulti valori di Z o R inferiori a 250 Ohms mentre è
frequente il riscontro di valori superiori ai 700 Ohms, sino a 1200 Ohms in
particolari casi, e questo in relazione alla “grassezza” e allo “shape”
ovvero al somatotipo individuale.
Quest’ultimo aspetto spiega la risultanza di valori Z elevati (intorno ai
1000 Ohms) su soggetti magri in grave sottopeso.
L’impedenza infatti è anche inversamente proporzionale alla sezione
media del corpo. Un corpo longilineo e magro ha una sezione piccola e
quindi impedenze elevate. Accanto alla spiegazione fisica del fenomeno
aggiungiamo che lo stato di anoressia di per sé prevede una ridotta
presenza di FFM, e di acqua in essa contenuta, e inoltre una cute
Le condizioni ottimali per la rilevazione:
3 Perfettamente disteso con gli arti superiori allontanati dal tronco per
un angolo di 15 gradi almeno, mentre gli arti inferiori devono essere
divaricati per un angolo superiore ai 35° almeno, ciò per evitare
comunicazione tra i distretti corporei a livello ascellare e radice
coscia. Nel caso di soggetti “voluminosi”, quali i grandi obesi, si ha
difficoltà a disporre gli arti con gli angoli suggeriti e per tali ragioni si
suggerisce di disporre una barriera isolante a livello inguinale e
ascellare. L’uso di un “foglio” di tessuto o di plastica può essere un
utile espediente per evitare il contatto tra le superfici cutanee.
Le condizioni ottimali per la rilevazione:
9 La cute non deve essere fredda o calda, poiché nel primo caso Z
aumenterebbe e nel secondo diminuirebbe in relazione a un ridotto o
incrementato flusso del sangue in superficie.
Si consiglia di far fede alle equazioni predittive FFM e FAT, solo prima
e dopo l’intervallo che va dal 15° al 19° giorno. La presenza nel
software del “giorno del ciclo” induce una riflessione sugli aspetti
fisiologici legati all’idratazione corporea oltre che una maggiore
standardizzazione nella misura.
BIOIMPEDENZA
L’impedenza (Z) di un conduttore geometrico isotropico è
Z = L/A V = L2/Z
BIOIMPEDENZA
stima dei compartimenti corporei
ad 1,41 kg.
ambient temperature,
proximity to metal
environmental factors
surfaces and electronic
devices
assumptions underlying
precision and accuracy
prediction (SF-bia or MF-
of bioimpedance
bia) or modeling (bBIS)
techniques
equations,
instrumentation factors
close adherence to
recommended
variations in measurement
measurement protocols
protocol
for body weight, height
and the bioimpedance
Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Volume 39 Number 7 September 2015 787– 822