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Esempio:
Use of a postoperative lumbar corset after lumbar spinal arthrodesis for degenerative conditions of the spine. A prospective
1.
6
..........
7
Risultati
Statistica descrittiva
Scale di misura
0 2 4 6 8 10
16
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
Nessun dolore Massimo dolore Nessun dolore Massimo dolore
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
3 4
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
Nessun dolore Massimo dolore Nessun dolore Massimo dolore
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
1) tra 2 e 3 cm
2) tra 2 e 2.5 cm
3) tra 2.25 e 2.625 cm
4) tra 2.25 e 2.5 cm
Non si conoscerà la distanza esatta
Il grado di precisione aumenta all’aumentare delle linee nella
griglia.
Il grado di precisione desiderato dipende dal problema
17
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
sp deg.sp is.sp Jun.sd ps ia.in cong.st sp deg.sp is.sp Jun.sd ps ia.in cong.st
Nota bene:
• In ordinata è riportata la %, uguale scala per i due gruppi
∗ è consigliabile scegliere come valore massimo per l’asse
un numero di poco superiore al valore massimo di %
• In ascissa sono riportate le modalità di diagnosi
∗ l’ordine in cui sono disposte le barre è arbitrario (ma
uguale nei due grafici)
∗ le barre sono staccate l’una dall’altra
∗ l’ampiezza delle barre è arbitraria
21
Rappresentazione grafica
treatment group control group
sp
sp
deg.sp
cong.st
deg.sp cong.st
ia.in
ia.in
ps
ps
Jun.sd
Jun.sd
is.sp is.sp
Nota bene:
• Pie charts are a very bad way of displaying information. The
eye is good at judging linear measures and bad at judging
relative areas.
• A bar chart is a preferable way of displaying this type of data.
23
Esempio 2) Risultati:
• l’articolo riporta solo la % di successi, suddivisi nelle due
categorie qui solo a scopo di esemplificazione
gruppo no success much improved totally recovered
manual 31.7 40.2 28.2
physical 49.2 25.4 25.4
gen. pract. 64.1 20.6 15.3
25
70
70
70
60
60
60
50
50
50
40
40
40
%
%
30
30
30
20
20
20
10
10
10
0
0
n.s m.i. t.r. n.s m.i. t.r. n.s m.i. t.r.
• In ordinata è riportata la %
∗ è consigliabile scegliere come valore massimo per l’asse
un valore di poco superiore alla freq. massima, comune ai
due grafici
• In ascissa sono riportate le modalità di risposta
∗ le barre sono riportate nello stesso ordine ’’naturale’’ delle
modalità
∗ le barre sono staccate l’una dall’altra
∗ l’ampiezza delle barre è arbitraria
26
;
Rheumatol. 2007 Nov 27
c o n a r tr a lg ie s e n z a a r tr a lg ie
20
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
0 5 12 21 30 70 0 7 18 60
D HI D HI
Controllo: CoAc
[1] -8.75 -6.39 -5.50 -5.46 -5.06 -5.05 -4.89 -4.85 -4.73 -4.13 -4.12 -4.09 -4.07 -3.95 -3.93 -3.91 -3.87 -3.83 -3.76 -3.71
[21] -3.71 -3.69 -3.20 -3.15 -3.04 -2.99 -2.80 -2.63 -2.53 -2.52 -2.51 -2.51 -2.43 -2.35 -2.27 -2.25 -2.12 -1.95 -1.70 -1.68
[41] -1.52 -1.42 -1.41 -1.36 -1.32 -1.27 -1.26 -1.16 -1.12 -1.12 -0.98 -0.97 -0.96 -0.94 -0.93 -0.90 -0.90 -0.89 -0.87 -0.74
[61] -0.73 -0.64 -0.63 -0.58 -0.58 -0.48 -0.47 -0.46 -0.41 -0.30 -0.28 -0.22 -0.20 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.23
[81] 0.28 0.40 0.63 0.64 0.92 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.13 1.19 1.32 1.83 1.88 2.04 2.07 2.09 2.13 2.21 3.60
Agopuntura: AC
[1] -7.99 -7.68 -7.20 -6.97 -6.94 -6.67 -6.33 -6.29 -6.27 -6.02 -5.96 -5.92 -5.89 -5.74 -5.26 -5.23 -5.03 -5.00 -4.80 -4.75
[21] -4.70 -4.55 -4.50 -4.35 -4.27 -3.94 -3.77 -3.63 -3.47 -3.46 -3.46 -3.46 -3.41 -3.31 -3.23 -3.22 -3.17 -3.05 -3.03 -3.01
[41] -2.92 -2.92 -2.73 -2.47 -2.46 -2.41 -2.37 -2.21 -2.18 -2.17 -2.13 -1.90 -1.78 -1.65 -1.60 -1.42 -1.40 -1.34 -1.30 -1.28
[61] -1.28 -1.16 -1.01 -0.94 -0.84 -0.78 -0.74 -0.73 -0.71 -0.56 -0.22 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.20 0.32 0.33 0.56 0.59 0.61
[81] 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.27 1.43 1.48 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.77 1.90 2.39 2.71 2.96 3.25 3.55 3.59
25
25
20
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
0
-1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
d e lta V A S d e lta V A S
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
s p d e g .s p is .s p J u n .s d p s i a .i n c o n g .s t s p d e g .s p i s .s p J u n .s d p s i a .i n c o n g .s t
[2,] ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’ ’’m.i’’
[3,] ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’
[4,] ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’
[5,] ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’m.s’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’
[6,] ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’
[7,] ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’
[8,] ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’
[9,] ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’l’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’
[10,] ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’ ’’s’’
• 101/2=51
• mediana in corrispondenza della 51a osservazione→ laurea
39
1 1 2 2 2 3 4 7 7 8 11 18 23 23 60
12 14 15 15 18 21 21 21 24 25 26 30 31 35 70 71
1 1 2 2 2 3 4 7 7 8 11 18 23 23 60
12 14 15 15 18 21 21 21 24 25 26 30 31 35 70 71
Media: 37
xi x1+x2 +...+x36 +x36
notazione sintetica x = i=1
37 = 37
dove xi indica l’osservazione ia
Nel caso dell’esempio
senza artralgie
x = 0+0+...+1+...+23+60
37
= 4.65 → 5 punti
con artralgie
x = 0+0+...+1+...+70+71
37 = 14.11 → 14 punti
43
media pesata
La media si può scrivere in forma più sintetica utilizzando la
distribuzione di frequenza
• senza artralgie (37)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 7 7 8 11 18 23 23 60
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
0 5 12 21 30 70 0 7 18 60
D HI D HI
[21] -3.71 -3.69 -3.20 -3.15 -3.04 -2.99 -2.80 -2.63 -2.53 -2.52 -2.51 -2.51 -2.43 -2.35 -2.27 -2.25 -2.12 -1.95 -1.70 -1.68
[41] -1.52 -1.42 -1.41 -1.36 -1.32 -1.27 -1.26 -1.16 -1.12 -1.12 -0.98 -0.97 -0.96 -0.94 -0.93 -0.90 -0.90 -0.89 -0.87 -0.74
[61] -0.73 -0.64 -0.63 -0.58 -0.58 -0.48 -0.47 -0.46 -0.41 -0.30 -0.28 -0.22 -0.20 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.23
[81] 0.28 0.40 0.63 0.64 0.92 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.13 1.19 1.32 1.83 1.88 2.04 2.07 2.09 2.13 2.21 3.60
Agopuntura: AC
[1] -7.99 -7.68 -7.20 -6.97 -6.94 -6.67 -6.33 -6.29 -6.27 -6.02 -5.96 -5.92 -5.89 -5.74 -5.26 -5.23 -5.03 -5.00 -4.80 -4.75
[21] -4.70 -4.55 -4.50 -4.35 -4.27 -3.94 -3.77 -3.63 -3.47 -3.46 -3.46 -3.46 -3.41 -3.31 -3.23 -3.22 -3.17 -3.05 -3.03 -3.01
[41] -2.92 -2.92 -2.73 -2.47 -2.46 -2.41 -2.37 -2.21 -2.18 -2.17 -2.13 -1.90 -1.78 -1.65 -1.60 -1.42 -1.40 -1.34 -1.30 -1.28
[61] -1.28 -1.16 -1.01 -0.94 -0.84 -0.78 -0.74 -0.73 -0.71 -0.56 -0.22 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.20 0.32 0.33 0.56 0.59 0.61
[81] 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.27 1.43 1.48 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.77 1.90 2.39 2.71 2.96 3.25 3.55 3.59
Controllo: CoAc
[1] -8.75 -6.39 -5.50 -5.46 -5.06 -5.05 -4.89 -4.85 -4.73 -4.13 -4.12 -4.09 -4.07 -3.95 -3.93 -3.91 -3.87 -3.83 -3.76 -3.71
[21] -3.71 -3.69 -3.20 -3.15 -3.04 -2.99 -2.80 -2.63 -2.53 -2.52 -2.51 -2.51 -2.43 -2.35 -2.27 -2.25 -2.12 -1.95 -1.70 -1.68
[41] -1.52 -1.42 -1.41 -1.36 -1.32 -1.27 -1.26 -1.16 -1.12 -1.12 -0.98 -0.97 -0.96 -0.94 -0.93 -0.90 -0.90 -0.89 -0.87 -0.74
[61] -0.73 -0.64 -0.63 -0.58 -0.58 -0.48 -0.47 -0.46 -0.41 -0.30 -0.28 -0.22 -0.20 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.23
[81] 0.28 0.40 0.63 0.64 0.92 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.13 1.19 1.32 1.83 1.88 2.04 2.07 2.09 2.13 2.21 3.60
Agopuntura: AC
[1] -7.99 -7.68 -7.20 -6.97 -6.94 -6.67 -6.33 -6.29 -6.27 -6.02 -5.96 -5.92 -5.89 -5.74 -5.26 -5.23 -5.03 -5.00 -4.80 -4.75
[21] -4.70 -4.55 -4.50 -4.35 -4.27 -3.94 -3.77 -3.63 -3.47 -3.46 -3.46 -3.46 -3.41 -3.31 -3.23 -3.22 -3.17 -3.05 -3.03 -3.01
[41] -2.92 -2.92 -2.73 -2.47 -2.46 -2.41 -2.37 -2.21 -2.18 -2.17 -2.13 -1.90 -1.78 -1.65 -1.60 -1.42 -1.40 -1.34 -1.30 -1.28
[61] -1.28 -1.16 -1.01 -0.94 -0.84 -0.78 -0.74 -0.73 -0.71 -0.56 -0.22 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.20 0.32 0.33 0.56 0.59 0.61
[81] 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.27 1.43 1.48 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.77 1.90 2.39 2.71 2.96 3.25 3.55 3.59
100
media=( i=1 xi)/100
CoAc: [−8.75 + (−6.39) + ... + 3.60]/100 = −1.45
AC: [−7.99 + (−7.68) + ... + 3.59]/100 = −2.05
47
Sintesi
C oAC AC
25
25
20
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
0
-1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
d e lta V A S d e lta V A S
CoAc:
mediana=-1.05, media=-1.45
AC:
mediana=-2.15, media=-2.05
• la differenza tra media e mediana è maggiore per il gruppo
CoAc perchè l’asimmetria della distribuzione è maggiore
• il gruppo AC sembra avere ottenuto risultati migliori in
termini di riduzione del dolore
48
300
300
250
250
200
200
Frequency
Frequency
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
x x
con senza
devianza
dev.=22 ∗ (0 − 4.65)2 + 2 ∗ (1 − 4.65)2 + .... + 1 ∗ (60 −
4.65)2 =4504.43 punti2
varianza
s2 = 4504.43
36 = 125.12 punti2
dev. standard
√
s= 125.12 = 11.19 punti
• con artralgie (37) media=14.11
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 12 14 15 15 18 21 21 21 24 25 26 30 31 35 70 71
devianza
dev.=7 ∗ (0 − 14.11)2 + 2 ∗ (1 − 14.11)2 + .... + 1 ∗ (71 −
14.11)2 =10447.57 punti2
varianza
s2 = 10447.57
36 = 290.21 punti2
dev. standard
√
s= 290.21 = 17.04 punti
56
Misure di variabilità
Esempio 4: variazione del dolore fine trattamento-baseline (∆V AS) nello studio ’’superficial
acupuncture at non-acupuncture points group (CoAC) or an acupuncture group (AC)’’
[1] -8.75 -6.39 -5.50 -5.46 -5.06 -5.05 -4.89 -4.85 -4.73 -4.13 -4.12 -4.09 -4.07 -3.95 -3.93 -3.91 -3.87 -3.83 -3.76 -3.71
[21] -3.71 -3.69 -3.20 -3.15 -3.04 -2.99 -2.80 -2.63 -2.53 -2.52 -2.51 -2.51 -2.43 -2.35 -2.27 -2.25 -2.12 -1.95 -1.70 -1.68
[41] -1.52 -1.42 -1.41 -1.36 -1.32 -1.27 -1.26 -1.16 -1.12 -1.12 -0.98 -0.97 -0.96 -0.94 -0.93 -0.90 -0.90 -0.89 -0.87 -0.74
[61] -0.73 -0.64 -0.63 -0.58 -0.58 -0.48 -0.47 -0.46 -0.41 -0.30 -0.28 -0.22 -0.20 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.23
[81] 0.28 0.40 0.63 0.64 0.92 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.13 1.19 1.32 1.83 1.88 2.04 2.07 2.09 2.13 2.21 3.60
Esempio 4: variazione del dolore fine trattamento-baseline (∆V AS) nello studio ’’superficial
acupuncture at non-acupuncture points group (CoAC) or an acupuncture group (AC)’’
[1] -7.99 -7.68 -7.20 -6.97 -6.94 -6.67 -6.33 -6.29 -6.27 -6.02 -5.96 -5.92 -5.89 -5.74 -5.26 -5.23 -5.03 -5.00 -4.80 -4.75
[21] -4.70 -4.55 -4.50 -4.35 -4.27 -3.94 -3.77 -3.63 -3.47 -3.46 -3.46 -3.46 -3.41 -3.31 -3.23 -3.22 -3.17 -3.05 -3.03 -3.01
[41] -2.92 -2.92 -2.73 -2.47 -2.46 -2.41 -2.37 -2.21 -2.18 -2.17 -2.13 -1.90 -1.78 -1.65 -1.60 -1.42 -1.40 -1.34 -1.30 -1.28
[61] -1.28 -1.16 -1.01 -0.94 -0.84 -0.78 -0.74 -0.73 -0.71 -0.56 -0.22 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.20 0.32 0.33 0.56 0.59 0.61
[81] 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.27 1.43 1.48 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.77 1.90 2.39 2.71 2.96 3.25 3.55 3.59
[21] -3.71 -3.69 -3.20 -3.15 -3.04 -2.99 -2.80 -2.63 -2.53 -2.52 -2.51 -2.51 -2.43 -2.35 -2.27 -2.25 -2.12 -1.95 -1.70 -1.68
[41] -1.52 -1.42 -1.41 -1.36 -1.32 -1.27 -1.26 -1.16 -1.12 -1.12 -0.98 -0.97 -0.96 -0.94 -0.93 -0.90 -0.90 -0.89 -0.87 -0.74
[61] -0.73 -0.64 -0.63 -0.58 -0.58 -0.48 -0.47 -0.46 -0.41 -0.30 -0.28 -0.22 -0.20 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.23
[81] 0.28 0.40 0.63 0.64 0.92 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.13 1.19 1.32 1.83 1.88 2.04 2.07 2.09 2.13 2.21 3.60
Agopuntura: AC
[1] -7.99 -7.68 -7.20 -6.97 -6.94 -6.67 -6.33 -6.29 -6.27 -6.02 -5.96 -5.92 -5.89 -5.74 -5.26 -5.23 -5.03 -5.00 -4.80 -4.75
[21] -4.70 -4.55 -4.50 -4.35 -4.27 -3.94 -3.77 -3.63 -3.47 -3.46 -3.46 -3.46 -3.41 -3.31 -3.23 -3.22 -3.17 -3.05 -3.03 -3.01
[41] -2.92 -2.92 -2.73 -2.47 -2.46 -2.41 -2.37 -2.21 -2.18 -2.17 -2.13 -1.90 -1.78 -1.65 -1.60 -1.42 -1.40 -1.34 -1.30 -1.28
[61] -1.28 -1.16 -1.01 -0.94 -0.84 -0.78 -0.74 -0.73 -0.71 -0.56 -0.22 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.20 0.32 0.33 0.56 0.59 0.61
[81] 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.95 1.09 1.26 1.27 1.43 1.48 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.77 1.90 2.39 2.71 2.96 3.25 3.55 3.59
100
2
i=1 (xi −x)
s= 99
CoAc
: media=-1.45
(−8.75+1.45)2 +...+(3.60−1.45)2
s= 99
= 2.21
AC:
media=-2.05
(−7.99−2.05)2 +...+(3.59−2.05)2
s= 99 = 2.83
59
25
20
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
• CoAC
mediana=-1.05 range interquartile 3.07
media=-1.45 dev. standard=2.21
• AC
mediana=-2.19 range interquartile= 4.48
media=-2.05 dev. standard=2.83
60
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
AC C oA c
Istogramma e box-plot
CoAC AC
25
25
20
20
15
15
N
N
10
10
5
5
0
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
AC CoAc
Riassunto
• la rappresentazione grafica e la sintesi dipendono dalla scala
di misura
• Per le variabili su scala nominale ed ordinale
si usano i diagrammi a barre le misure di tendenza centrale
sono la moda e la mediana (solo su scala ordinale)
• Per le variabili su scala numerica discreta
le barre si riducono a ’’linee’’, è possibile usare i box plot
le misure di tendenza centrale sono la moda,la mediana e la
media
le misure di dispersione sono il range interquartile e la
deviazione standard
• Per le variabili su scala numerica continua
si usano gli istogrammi e i box plot
le misure di tendenza centrale sono la moda,la mediana e la
media
le misure di dispersione sono il range interquartile e la
deviazione standard
• Se la distribuzione è asimmetrica è preferibile usare mediana
e range interquartile