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A world of darkness
“L’essenziale è invisibile agli occhi”
Sommario
Il profondo mistero della materia oscura (riassunto in italiano).........................4
Bibliografia........................................................................................................................... 20
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A world of darkness
“L’essenziale è invisibile agli occhi”
(Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Il piccolo principe)
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Il profondo mistero della materia oscura (riassunto in italiano)
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The dark matter is the unseen mass that appears to be the dominant source of
gravity in the universe. The term “dark” has a duplex meaning: on one hand, it
stands for the mass’ obscure nature, that has not yet been discovered by
scientists, and on the other, it represents the main peculiarity of dark matter, the
inability to interact with the electromagnetic field, not producing, reflecting or
absorbing any kind of electromagnetic wave. Therefore, dark matter is literally
dark, as it can’t produce light (or at least, not a type of electromagnetic wave
energetic enough to reach our telescopes). Nonetheless, scientists have many
clues that would lead to think that the existence of dark matter is indispensible
to explain the current structure of the universe.
The theory was put forward for the first time in 1930s by Fritz Zwicky, who
argued that galaxy clusters held enormous amount of undefined matter, that
explained galaxy motions, but couldn’t be detected by telescopes.
Zwicky was the first astronomer to think of galaxy clusters as a complex swarm
of galaxies orbiting one another, and, therefore, bound together by gravity.
Starting from this premise, that later turned out to be correct, he calculated the
cluster’s total mass, by observing galaxy motions and applying Newton’s laws of
motion and gravitation (The Cosmic Perspective, page 655):
To calculate the mass of a cluster of galaxies, we can use the orbital velocity
law, the same that allows calculating all the mass of a galaxy, within a distance
“r “ from the centre of the galaxy:
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necessary to account for the luminosity of a cluster and found out that it was far
less than the one he had measured by studying galaxy speeds (TCP, 655).
Hence, he inferred that most of the matter of galaxy clusters was not in the form
of stars and did not produce light; for this reason, he called it “dark matter”. At
the beginning, astronomers refused his theory, evaluating his results as
unreliable, but thirty years later another measurement corroborated the
existence of this mysterious mass.
In the ‘60s, the astronomer Vera Rubin suggested the existence of dark matter
in the Andromeda Galaxy, to explain the flatness of its rotational curve. The
rotational curve of a galaxy is a plot of the orbital speeds of visible stars or gas
in the system, versus their radial distance from the galaxy centre. The expected
curves are very different from the experimental ones: observing that most of the
luminosity of a galaxy comes from its centre, astronomers thought that most of
its mass should have been
concentrated in that region,
and thus, that the rotation
curves of a galaxy should be
decreasing as the radius
increased, just like the one of
the solar system, where the
Sun contains most of the total
mass, and therefore
represents the main source of
gravity.
This first model though, turned out to be incorrect: the rotational curves that
were measured were flat, or even slightly increasing with the distance from the
centre. This could be explained just by supposing the existence of an invisible
matter that filled the galaxy so that, when the radius increased, the total mass
within that distance increased as well, along with the gravitational force with
which the objects were attracted; this way, they could rotate faster or at least at
the same pace as those that were located at smaller distances from the centre.
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The graph indicates the rotational curves of the Milky Way: the velocity of an object in
relationship with its distance from the center of the galaxy. The three dotted lines instead, show
the distribution of the different sources of mass.
Rubin and her colleagues identified this unknown source of mass with the dark
matter that had been theorized by Fritz Zwicky more than thirty years before,
and confirmed their supposition with the experimental rotational curves of many
other galaxies, stating that stars compose just 10% of a galaxy’s mass: this
result couldn’t be simply a mistake, so that the theory of dark matter appeared
almost undeniable.
Nonetheless, the differences between the expected rotational curves and the
ones that were observed in galaxies are a real problem in astrophysics, as they
put in doubt the very foundation of the law of gravities. As a matter of fact, all
the evidence for dark matter rests on our understanding of gravity, so that there
are essentially two alternatives: whether all we know about gravity is true and,
as a consequence, dark matter exists, or we do not have a complete
understanding of the fourth force. But, since Newton’s laws have been
confirmed by many different experiments and measurement, scientists tend to
consider our current knowledge of gravity correct and, thus, generally accept
the theory of dark matter.
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In fact, there are even more evidences that could confirm the theory. Until very
recently, all the proof of dark matter’s existence were based on Newton’s
gravitational laws, but since the first observation of gravitational lensing we
have an alternative instrument to measure masses: Einstein’s theory of general
relativity. A gravitational lens is a massive distribution of matter between a
distant light source and an observer, capable of bending the light beams as they
travel towards the observer (Wikipedia, “Gravitational lens”). The image
detected will be distorted and shifted, so that the object will not appear in its
position and with its dimensions. Observing this phenomenon, we can
determine using Einstein’s deflection law, how the ray of light has been bent by
the mass, and thus, the exact quantity of matter that is present between the
light source and the observer in that direction. In particular, this is used to
calculate dark matter in a cluster of galaxies: carefully analysing the distorted
images of single galaxies, we can calculate how massive the cluster should be
in order to generate the observed distortions, and thus how much dark matter it
contains. This method also allows us to estimate the concentration and position
of dark matter in space, so that astronomers are able to draw a hypothetical
map of its distribution. Studying the disposition of dark matter in various
structures and conditions, scientist managed to figure out its role in the
formation of the galaxies and clusters.
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Various experiments show the reliability of the theory of dark matter to the point
where we can assume it to be true: although the horizons of research are still
open to new theories – mainly consisting in a different view of gravity – the one
of dark matter is the one that most fits with our knowledge of the universe and
with the most substantiated theories of its formation, being also the one that
would better explain our current observations of the cosmos.
Now, what remains to be cleared is: what might dark matter be made of?
Scientists do not know yet, but they divide it into two different categories:
ordinary dark matter and extraordinary dark matter.
Ordinary dark matter is made out of atoms, and for this it is also called baryonic
matter, because protons and neutrons – baryonic particles - make up most of its
mass. Since in astronomy “dark” means “not as bright as a normal star and
therefore not visible across vast distances” (TCP, 659), everything fainter than a
normal star can be classified as dark matter, including us, our planet, and even
some stars, like the brown dwarfs and those that have an apex at red in their
emission spectrum. These objects are often called MACHOs, for massive
compact halo objects, and include all the star-like (or planet-like) objects that
are too dim to be seen by current telescopes. The MACHOs, as we can see
thanks to an application of gravitational lensing, populate our galaxy’s halos, but
not in a large enough numbers to account for all the galaxies’ dark matter.
There are also other types of ordinary dark matter, such as black holes, that
could explain the unidentified gravitational influences, but they are more likely to
represent just a small percentage of the total dark matter; there must be
something else, an omnipresent matter, made out of unknown particles, that
don’t produce light, but represents the main source of gravity: extraordinary
dark matter.
This type of dark matter, called nonbaryonic, is made out of particles with no
electrical charge, that are not bound together with light-emitting particles (like
neutrons are in the nuclei), and don’t emit light themselves, so that their
presence cannot be revealed by electro-magnetic radiation. This type of
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particles interacts with other forms of matter through only two of the four forces,
gravity and weak forces, and hence, they are called weakly interacting particles.
Among these, we know the neutrinos, non-charged particles that move at
relativistic speeds and are, for this very reason, almost without mass. Although
neutrinos classify as extraordinary dark matter, the dark matter we see the
influence of in galaxies and clusters, in phenomena such as the one of
gravitational lensing or the one that causes the rotational curves to be flat, could
not be made out of neutrinos. Indeed, these are very-low-mass particles that
travel at enormous speed and thus, could easily escape a galaxy’s gravitational
pull. Consequently, the dark matter that makes up the 85% of the mass of our
universe should have different nature: scientists have theorized a subatomic
particle with the same characteristics of a neutrino (no charge, weakly
interacting…) but considerably heavier and consequently travelling at inferior
speeds. These particles would be slow and heavy enough to resent of their
mutual gravity that would hold them together in large collections, structures
which would explain all the effects claimed for dark matter. Such particles are
called weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs, and they could represent
most of the mass of a galaxy or cluster of galaxy, without being visible in any
wavelength of light.
Although invisible, WIMPs played a fundamental role in the formation of the
universe – according to the best theoretical models – as their gravity attraction
represents, not only the primary force keeping galaxies’ and clusters’ shape, but
even what pulled these structures together in the first place (TCP, 660). During
the first few million years after the Big Bang, the universe expanded
everywhere. Gradually, the stronger gravity regions of enhanced density, full of
dark matter, attracted mass until they became proto-galactic clouds that didn’t
expand along with the universe but were kept together by gravity. Here, the
ordinary matter in form of gas collapsed, radiating its orbital energy, giving birth
to stars and other objects, while the WIMPs remained in the outskirts in orbits
far out in the galactic halo. This difference is mainly due to the fact that gas
particles can collide and release their orbital energy, so that they fall into the
centre of mass, while it is almost impossible for WIMPs to interact, and thus,
radiate energy.
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The model of WIMPs is able to explain the phenomena linked to dark matter,
and adapts to our current knowledge of this mysterious presence in the
universe. Being unable to observe these particles for their weekly-interacting
nature, we are not capable of discerning the real nature of our universe: the
world we live in is mostly unknown and will remain undiscovered, until we will be
able to understand the real essence of darkness.
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“Il commentario della tenebra”: Il Notturno di Gabriele
D’Annunzio
Il 16 Gennaio 1916, Gabriele D’Annunzio vola su
Trieste con Luigi Bologna e, a seguito di un forzato
ammaraggio, contrae una ferita all’occhio che lo
costringerà per tre mesi immobile nel suo letto,
con il volto velato e completamente immerso
nell’oscurità. Da questa condizione di temporanea
cecità nascerà Il Notturno, un’opera in prosa lirica
in cui è presente un D’Annunzio più intimistico,
diverso da quello che ci restituiscono le sue altre
opere.
Immobile nel letto a Venezia, con il capo fasciato,
D’Annunzio compone l’opera su tremila strisce di carta: “le strisce sibilline”, su
ciascuna delle quali era vergata una sola riga di testo, ordinate subito dalla
“Sirenetta”, la figlia Renata che lo assiste assiduamente al suo capezzale. Il
Notturno sarà poi redatto e pubblicato per la prima volta da Treves, lo stesso
anno della composizione, e in seguito da D’Annunzio stesso, che non aveva
rivisto la prima versione, nel 1921.
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privato della vista “esterna”, ma straordinariamente arricchito della visione
“interiore”: sommerso dagli incubi, dalle apparizioni dei suoi cari, ma soprattutto
dai ricordi, il poeta vate compirà un viaggio dentro se stesso alla riscoperta di
una interiorità che è anche debolezza e paura, sentimenti che spesso erano
soffocati dalla sfrenata attività della sua vita estetica. Grazie alla condizione di
temporanea cecità e immobilità forzata, D’Annunzio è costretto a fermarsi ad
ascoltare ciò che il suo animo nasconde nei luoghi più reconditi dell’inconscio.
Sopraffatto e spesso spaventato dalla crudezza delle immagini che gli
appaiono, l’esteta sentirà la necessità di esprimere, con il proprio estro poetico,
il fiume di emozioni e sensazioni che gli derivano dalla sua condizione:
Così D’Annunzio inizia a scrivere, su sottili cartigli, come “le Sibille che
scrivevano la sentenza breve su le foglie disperse al vento del fato” (Notturno,
6), questa raccolta di confessioni e allucinazioni, che si svolgono in un tempo
che è il passato del ricordo, il presente della malattia e il futuro delle visioni.
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E il coperchio è inchiodato. (Notturno, 126)
È mia madre! È mia madre! È mia madre, che si appiglia alle mie ossa,
che si rivoltola nel buio, si rifà carne della mia carne, peso del mio
calvario. […]
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Era un amore così folto che non mi lasciava scorgere s’io fossi la sua
creatura o s’ella fosse la mia creatura.
Era un fuoco tanto splendente che non mi lasciava distinguere se
imperfetto io ardessi di lei o se di me lei ardesse compiuta.
Era un sacrifizio tanto veemente che non sapevo s’ella fosse la mia
madre o la mia patria, sospeso fra la culla e la tomba. (Notturno, 90-91)
Solo questa presenza virtuale può confortarlo nella solitudine del suo buio, solo
questa può apparirgli “con un viso ringiovanito” e togliergli la benda,
scoprendogli la palpebra. Ella è in lui e con lui in ogni momento, e nella totale
solitudine dell’esteta, che non deriva solo dalla sua condizione di salute, ma è
leit motif della sua intera esistenza, la madre diventa l’unica fonte di conforto da
cui appare impossibile separarsi davvero: “Arma non v’era in tutta la violenza
del mondo, che potesse recidere il nodo materno.” (Notturno, 91).
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attribuisce le opere notturne al genere della prosa d’arte (una prosa che si fa
lirica per la sua musicalità), che in quel periodo andava acquisendo prestigio in
Italia. Abbiamo quindi anche il linguaggio della lirica: numerose le figure
retoriche, gli incredibili climax, le sublimi metafore, ma soprattutto l’anafora, che
regna sovrana e conferisce musicalità al frammento (Sento il sole dietro le
imposte. Sento che c’è un’afa di marzo. Sento che è bassa marea. - Notturno,
118). Anche nella prosa spezzata del Notturno, D’Annunzio non può fare a
meno di lasciar trasparire il suo amore per la parola e per la poesia, quell’amore
che faceva affermare ad Andrea Sperelli che “il verso è tutto” (Piacere, 167).
Conclusione
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Eugenio Montale dirà che per superare D’Annunzio bisognerà prima
attraversarlo. Proprio partendo dal grande decadente, uno dei “poeti laureati”
nominati ne “I limoni”, Montale arriverà alla conclusione che la verità essenziale
delle cose non è accessibile a noi, ci sfugge il bandolo della matassa, ed è
invisibile agli occhi e per sempre lo resterà. Ma se noi ci muoviamo in queste
tenebre, in questa infinita oscurità inconoscibile, fatta di materia di cui non
conosciamo la natura e di bende che non ci permettono di vedere la vera
essenza del mondo, forse e solo forse abbiamo la speranza di intravedere una
verità nascosta, o magari solo di intuirla, grazie all’unico strumento che non
inganna: il cuore.
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Bibliografia
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