+=F JK /H=B I

= JA H = @A CH=B I JEA A IK HECA A K =HJ ?K FK> E?=@ F H -K AH A %!$ A A GKA IA @=>= I K?E = FH > A = @A I % FKA JAI @A = ?EK@=@ @A ECI>AHC =?JK= A JA = E E CH=@  FKA JAI GKA ? A?J=>= @ I EI =I ? =I HCA AI @A H 2HACA IAC A AIGKA = @A = CKH= GKA IA =@ K J= .ECKH= #  - FH > A = ? IEIJ = A HA= E =H K F=IA GKA =JH=LAI=IA ?=@= K @A I % FKA JAI K = E?= LA  I FKA JAI A A CH ? I I GKA K A =I HACE AI ) * + O , -K AH @A IJH GKA AIJ AH= F IE> A O AIJ AI E F HJ= JA IE ? FH >=H J @ I I F IE> AI F=IA I ,AI@A A J ?AI I HAIK J=@ I O =F E?=?E AI @A AIJ= JA H = D= E@ =K A J= @ O =?JK= A JA = JA H = @A CH=B I IA KJE E = F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I A

.ECKH= #  2KA JAI @A

EI>AHC

%

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

H= =I @A = ?EA ?E= KO @EBAHA JAI 2 H A A F I CH=B I IA KJE E = F=H= ? IJHKEH @A I @A HA@AI @A H@A =@ HAI O @AJAH E =H IE @ I H@A =@ HAI AIJ ? A?J=@ I A K = HA@ F=H= @AJAH E =H IE K ?EH?KEJ FKA@A IAH E F A A J=@ I >HA K J=> AH F = F=H= @EIJE CKEH ? FKAIJ I GK E? I ? = EI = B H K = A?K =H F=H= A ? JH=H A ?= E I ? HJ A JHA @ I ?EK@=@AI A K = HA@ @A JH= IF HJA 5A FHAJA @A GKA A = K = = E =H A ?=F JK

- JEA @=

I?

?AFJ I O @A

E?E

AI > IE?=I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I AI @A CH=B I ?AH IE @ I CH=B I I EI H

7JE E?A =I @EIJE J=I HAFHAIA J=?E 7JE E?A @EBAHA JAI B I
J @ I F=H= HA?

+ ?= I ? ?AFJ I @A CH=B ? AN AK AHE= O D= E J E= =I J ? E?=I F=H= HA? ?AH I IKI FH FEA@=@AI O = CK I HAIK J=@ I HA = ?E =@ I ? A I )F EGKA = @A H>
E?E I =@A?K=@= F=H= LAHE ?=H IE K CH=B AI K

#  /H=B I @ECH=B I O

K JECH=B I

I CH=B I I AIJHK?JKH=I @EI?HAJ=I GKA ? IJ= @A L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= AIJ I L HJE?AI 0=O @EBAHA JAI JEF I @A CH=B I GKA @E AHA A = ? =IA O AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= K F=H @A L HJE?AI - AIJ= IA??E E JH @K?EHA I = CK I ? ?AFJ I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I O = CK I JEF I @A CH=B I @A F=HJE?K =H E JAH I

,A

E?E #   7 CH=B IE F A G AI K F=H G = (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ? K J EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K ? K J E @A F=HAI H@A =@ I @A L HJE?AI @EIJE J I AI @A?EH
E {{u, v } |u, v V u = v }.
)

J=@=I

I A A A J I @A E IA AI @A

E = =HEIJ=I 

@EHECE@=I

HEA

#

/4). 5 ,1/4). 5 ;

7 61/4). 5

'

O =I =HEIJ=I {u, v } ? @A CH=B

>IAHL=?E

#

2 @A

I HAFHAIA J=H I L HJE?AI ? FK J I @A F = A IAC A J uv @= @ K = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= K J

,A

EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K = B= E E=

E?E

#! 7

K JECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ?

EJ= E @A =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I

E = {ei }iI
@ @A I AI K ui , v i V ? K J EJ O i I IA LAHE ?= GKA ei = {ui , vi } ?

JAIA GKA A K K JECH=B @ I =HEIJ=I @EIJE J=I FKA@A ? A?J=H I EI I L HJE?AI AIJ AI GKA E AI K = B= E E= O K ? K J FK@EA @ JA AH A A A J I HAFAJE@ I JAIA J= >E GKA AIJ= I FAH EJEA @ =HEIJ=I @A JEF {u, u} @A E =@=I = I >K? AI

>IAHL=?E

#"

E?E #  # 7 @ECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) @ @A V AI K ? K J EJ O E (V V ) IEA @ = {(x, x) : x V } ) I A A A J I @A V IA AI @A E = L HJE?AI O = I @A E =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I K HEA J=@=I -A F #  $  = > ? = > = ? > ? ? >  AI K @ECH=B GKA F @A I HAFHAIA J=H KJE E = @ FK J I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H I L HJE?AI O A?D=I F=H= HA FHAIA J=H =I =HEIJ=I IAC = CKH= # ,A E?E #% 7 K JE@ECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ? EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K = B= E E= EJ= E @A =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I
E = {ei }iI
@ @A I AI K ?
4AIK E

,A

K J

K J

EJ O i I IA LAHE ?= GKA ei V V
C = GKA A F A= I

I A K = J=> = = JAH E

/H=B IE F A K JECH=B ,ECH=B K JE@ECH=B

6EF

@EHECE@=I @EHECE@=I ,EHECE@=I ,EHECE@=I

)HEIJ=I

=HEIJ=I
5 5

JEF AI

= I
5 5



+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= #

IK?AIEL A J H E CH=B IA @AI?HE>EH CH=B I ? =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I IE =HEIJ=I JEF AI 2 H JH =@ A JA @AH ? IE E @A K JECH=B ANEIJA ?E= @A =HEIJ=I JEF AI O = I @EHECE@ IA A JA @AH ? K JE@ECH=B

A F A=H A IA JE@ CA AH= F=H= @EHECE@=I ? IE = I O ? A J H E CH=B @EHECE@ IA =@ EJEA @ F H J= J = ALA JK= ,A ECK= = AH= A J H E CH=B

,A

#  & 5A @E?A GKA @ I L HJE?AI u O v @A K CH=B @EHECE@ G = (V, E ) I =@O=?A JAI IE {u, v } E - AIA ?=I IA @E?A GKA = =HEIJ= e = {u, v } ? A?J= I L HJE?AI u O v, GKA AI E ?E@A JA ? I L HJE?AI u O v, O GKA I L HJE?AI u O v I I ANJHA I @A = =HEIJ= e. ,A
@EHECE@ AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA K = A K L HJE?A ? JHE>KOA @ I LA?AI = CH=@ @A AIA L HJE?A ,A J=HA I A CH=@ @A K L HJE?A u F H gr(u)

E?E

E?E

#  ' - CH=@ @A K L HJE?A A K CH=B

-A F

/ IA LAHE ?= GKA gr(a) = 3 = gr(c), gr(b) = 2 = gr(e) O gr(d) = 4. - A CH=B 0 IA LAHE ?= GKA gr(f ) = 3, gr(g ) = 2 O gr(h) = 5.

#   + IE@ HA IA I CH=B I / O 0 @A = CKH= # ! - A CH=B

#

/4). 5 ,1/4). 5 ;

7 61/4). 5



.ECKH= # ! 5E K L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ ?AH IA @E?A GKA AI K L HJE?A =EI =@

6A HA = #   5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B

gr(v ) = 2 |E | .
v V

@EHECE@

5A LAHE ?= GKA

,A IJH=?E = @A IJH=?E AI E A@E=J= @A>E@ = GKA ?=@= =HEIJ= ? JHE>KOA @ I LA?AI = IK =J HE = JAHE H O= GKA K = =HEIJ= AI E ?E@A JA ? AN=?J= A JA @ I L HJE?AI GKA ALA JK= A JA FKA@A IAH ECK= AI

+ H =HE #   +K= GKEAH CH=B

JE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H

@EHECE@ JEA A K

AH F=H @A L H

,A IJH=?E 5A= V1 O V2 I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H A E F=H HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A CH=B G = (V, E ). - AIA ?=I

2 |E | =
v V

gr(v ) =
v V1

gr(v )

+
v V2

gr(v ) .

2KAIJ GKA F=H= ?=@= v V1 IA JEA A GKA gr(v ) AI K AH F=H A FHE AH IK =J HE @A I @ I GKA =F=HA?A = = @AHA?D= @A = ECK= @=@ AI K AH

 F=H ; FKAIJ GKA A HAIK J=@ @A = IK = AI A = A JA

+)2 67

/4). 5 A?AI=HE

AH F=H 2|E |

gr(v )
v V2

AI K

AH F=H

,A

E?E #  ! 5E G = (V, E ) AI K CH=B @EHECE@ O (u, v ) E, IA @E?A GKA u AI A L HJE?A E E?E= @A = =HEIJ= (u, v ) O GKA v AI A L HJE?A = @A @E?D= =HEIJ= )IE EI @=@ u V IA @A E = CH=@ @A A JH=@= @A u = AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A = u ? L HJE?A = ) CH=@ @A A JH=@= @A u IA A @A J= F H gr+ (u). ,A EI @ IA @A E = CH=@ @A I= E@= @A u = AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A = u ? L HJE?A E E?E= ) CH=@ @A I= E@= @A u IA A @A J= F H gr (u).
OK

>IAHL=?E

= CH=@ @A I= E@=

#  " 7 =

A K L HJE?A u IK = K

= CH=@ @A A JH=@=

gr (a) = 0 gr+ (c) = 1 gr (c) = 2 gr (d) = gr+ (d) = 2 gr (b) = gr+ (b) = 1 gr+ (e) = 0, gr (e) = 2 2 H JH= F=HJA A A CH=B 0 JA A I GKA gr (f ) = 1 gr+ (f ) = 2 gr+ (g ) = 2 gr (g ) = 0, gr (h) = 2, gr+ (h) = 3.

-A F

#  # - A CH=B / @A = CKH= # " IA LAHE ?= GKA gr+ (a) = 3

6A HA = #  $ - ?K= GKEAH CH=B ?

LAHE ?= GKA

=HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I G = (V, E ) IA

|E | =
v V

gr+ (v ) =
v V

gr (v ).

,A IJH=?E -I ? IA?KA ?E= @A DA?D @A GKA ?K= GKEAH =HEIJ= @EHECE@= JEA A K L HJE?A E E?E= O K L HJE?A =

#
8=

/H=B I IE F AI AIFA?E= AI
I = @=H = @A E?E @A = CK I CH=B I F=HJE?K =H A JA E JAHAI= JAI

,A

E?E #  5A @A E = CH=B ? F AJ @A n L HJE?AI = CH=B IE F A Kn GKA contiene K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI @EIJE J I LAH CKH= # #

/4). 5 51 2 -5 -52-+1) -5

!

.ECKH= # "

.ECKH= # #

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # $

,A

E?E # - ?E? @A n L HJE?AI Cn n 3 AI A CH=B IE F A GKA JEA A ? ? K J @A L HJE?AI V = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }, O ? ? K J @A =HEIJ=I E = {{v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 }, ..., {vn1 , vn }, {vn , v1 }} 8AH CKH= # $  ,A E?E # ! = HKA@= Wn IA >JEA A = =@EA @ K L HJE?A =@E?E =
A?JA @E?D L HJE?A =@E?E = ?

= ?E? Cn O = =@EA @ n =HEIJ=I GKA ? J @ I I @A Cn .

- AH?E?E & ,E>K =H =I HKA@=I W3 , W4 , W5 O W6 .  >I HLAIA GKA = HKA@=

Wn JEA A n + 1 L HJE?AI

,A

E?E # " ?K> Qn IEHLA F=H= HAFHAIA J=H =I IA?KA ?E=I @A n A A A J I @A ? K J {0, 1} AI @A?EH =I IA?KA ?E=I @A n >EJI )I Qn JEA A 2n L HJE?AI K F H ?=@= IA?KA ?E= @A n >EJI O K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI GKA I=JEIB=C= = ? @E?E @A GKA IK IA?KA ?E= =I ?E=@= @E AHA A K E? >EJ 8AH CKH= # % - AH?E?E ' ,E>K =H A ?K> Q3 .

/4). 5 51 2 -5 -52-+1) -5

#

.ECKH= # %

) CK =I LA?AI K CH=B JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A @ELE@EH A @ I IK>? K J I @EI K J I @A = AH= GKA J @=I =I =HEIJ=I I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E @A ? A?J=H K L HJE?A @A K @A I @ I IK>? K J I ? K L HJE?A @A JH 2 H A A F ? IE@AHA I A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= I =JHE E I @A K = @AJAH E =@= ?EK@=@ I L HJE?AI I =I FAHI =I ?=I=@=I @A AI= ?EK@=@ O IA AIJ=> A?A K = =HEIJ= A JHA I @ I EA >H I @A ?=@= =JHE E - CH=B =I >JA E@ JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @AI?HEJ=

,A
?

K J @A L HJE?AI V IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? = K E @A @ I IK>? K J I L=? I @EI K J I V1 O V2 @A = AH= GKA ?=@= =HEIJ= @A CH=B ? A?J= K L HJE?A @A V1 ? K L HJE?A @A V2 . JH=I F= =>H=I ANEIJA E CK = =HEIJ= A JHA @ I L HJE?AI @A V1 E A JHA @ I L HJE?AI @A V2  8AH CKH= # & 

E?E

# 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ) AI >EF=HJE@ IE IK

- AH?E?E  +

FH >=H GKA K3

AI >EF=HJE@

O GKA C6 AI >EF=HJE@ CH=B @A m + n = K E @A @ I @A = AH= GKA V2 . 8AH CKH=

,A E?E # $ - CH=B >EF=HJE@ ? F AJ Km,n AI A L HJE?AI ?KO ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? IK>? K J I @EI K J I V1 @A m L HJE?AI O V2 @A n L HJE?AI ?=@= L HJE?A @A V1 AIJ ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I L HJE?AI @A #'

$

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # &

.ECKH= # '

#!

5647++1

,- /4). 5 ) 2)4614 ,- /4). 5

%

- AH?E?E  ,E>K =H I CH=B I >EF=HJE@ I ?

=H A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A CH=B Km,n .

F AJ I K2,5 O K3,4 . ,AJAH E

O ? @EBAHA JAI FAHEB HE? I ? E FHAI H=I I?= AHI AJ? ) CK =I @A AIJ=I HA@AI AIJ @EIA =@=I ? IE@AH= @ K = J F C = JEF AIJHA = ?=H=?JAHE =@= F H A DA?D @A GKA J @ I I @EIF IEJEL I AIJ ? A?J=@ I = K @EIF IEJEL @A ? JH ?A JH= - K = HA@ @A AIJA JEF I A I= AI GKA IA A L = @A K @EIF IEJEL = JH F=I= IEA FHA F H A @EIF IEJEL @A ? JH ?A JH= 7 = HA@ @A HA= ?= @A AIJA JEF IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H KJE E = @ K CH=B ? F AJ K1,n JH=I HA@AI @A HA= ?= AIJ >=I=@=I A K = J F C = JEF = E A = GKA ?=@= @EIF IEJEL AIJ ? A?J=@ E?= A JA ? JH I @ I O I A I= AI IA A L = @A K @EIF IEJEL = JH = HA@A@ H @A ?E? D=IJ= GKA A A I= A A ?KAIJE AC= = IK HA?AFJ H =I HA@AI @A HA= ?= @A AIJA JEF IA @A E = KJE E = @ I n ?E? I Cn JH=I HA@AI @A HA= ?= I @A K JEF D >HE@ @A =I @ I J F C =I = JAHE HAI 6= IAH = A ?=I @A =I HA@AI GKA @A E =H = I KJE E = @ A CH=B Wn .

-A F

% 7 = HA@ @A HA= ?= FAH EJA ? A?J=H H@A =@ HAI A JHA I

#!
,A

IJHK??E

@A CH=B I = F=HJEH @A CH=B I

E?E # !  7 IK>CH=B HAIFA?JEL= A JA IK>@ECH=B  @A K CH=B IE F A @A K @ECH=B  G = (V, E ) AI K CH=B HAIFA?JEL= A JA @ECH=B  H = (V , E ) J= GKA V V O E E.
>I HLAIA GKA AIJ= @A E?E IA ANJEA @A @A B H = =JKH= = K JE@ECH=B I IEA @ E K = IK>B= E E= @A E K JECH=B I

,A

E?E # ! = K E @A @ I CH=B I IE F AI G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = (V2 , E2 ) AI A CH=B IE F A (V1 V2 , E1 E2 ) CH=B GKA IA @A J= F H G1 G2 . -A F

=K E @A

# ! ! - CH=B H @A = CKH= #  AI K IK>CH=B @A CH=B K3,3 , O

I CH=B I G1 O G2 @A = CKH= AI A CH=B G1 G2 = IJH=H =I = H =?E AI @A A A F HAFHAIA J=@ = JAHE H

- AH?E?E  ,A ,A E?E

(V , E ) AI A CH=B IE F A

# ! " - FH @K?J @A @ I CH=B I IE F AI G = (V, E ) O G =

G G = (V V , E )

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

@ @A E AI A ? K J B H =@ F H J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A = B H = {(a, b), (a , b )} J= AI GKA >EA a = a O {b, b } AI K = =HEIJ= @A G >EA b = b O {a, a } AI K = =HEIJ= @A G

-A F

# ! # = CKH= # 

KAIJH= K FH @K?J @A CH=B I

AI gr((v, v )) = gr(v ) + gr(v ) , @A gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A v @A G O gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A v A G

>IAHL=?E

# ! $ - CH=@ @A K L HJE?A (v, v ) A A CH=B FH @K?J G G

- AH?E?E ! ,A

IJH=H GKA A FH @K?J @A K CH=B IE F A G ? n L H JE?AI O m =HEIJ=I O JH G ? n L HJE?AI O m =HEIJ=I AI K CH=B IE F A ? nn L HJE?AI O nm + mn =HEIJ=I

,A

E?E # ! % 5A= K CH=B G = (V, E ) @EHA I GKA G = (V , E ) AI K = F=HJE?E @A G IE AI K CH=B GKA IA >JEA A @ELE@EA @ = CK =I @A =I
=HEIJ=I @A G -I @A?EH E JH @K?EA @ L HJE?AI KAL I @EC= I a / V O =HEIJ=I @A = B H = {u, a} {a, v } @ @A {u, v } E IE G AI K CH=B @EHECE@ (u, a) (a, v ) @ @A (u, v ) E IE G AI @EHECE@

#"

15

4.15

,- /4). 5

'

.ECKH= # 

-A F

# ! & 5A= G = ({1, 2, 3}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}}) A J ?AI

G = ({1, 2, 3, 4}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 4}, {4, 2}})

AI K = F=HJE?E

@A G

#"

1I

H I

@A CH=B I

- 3K E?= F H A A F I CH=B I IA A F A= F=H= HAFHAIA J=H O @A E =H ? FKAIJ I GK E? I , I ? FKAIJ I @EBAHA JAI FKA@A JA AH = EI = B H K= A?K =H FAH @EBAHA JA AIJHK?JKH= - AIA ?=I @E?D I ? FKAIJ I IA @A E =H F H CH=B I GKA IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H @A = EI = B H = I CH=B I GKA HAFHAIA J= ? FKAIJ I ? ?E@ I FKA@A KJE E =HIA F=H= @A JAH E =H IE K IKFKAIJ= A JA KAL ? FKAIJ GK E? D= IE@ AIJK@E=@ = JAI , I CH=B I GKA JEA A = EI = AIJHK?JKH= @EHA I GKA I EI HB I =JA E @ I = = IECKEA JA @A E?E

,A

(V2 , E2 ) I

E?E

# "  5A @E?A GKA @ I CH=B I IE F AI G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = EI HB I IE ANEIJA K = BK ?E >EOA?JEL= f : V1 V2 J= GKA

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

u, v V1 {u, v } E1 {f (u), f (v )} E2 .
,A = BK ?E

@A CH=B I A JHA I CH=B I G1 O G2

f GKA I=JEIB=?A @E?D= ?

@E?E

IA @E?A GKA AI K EI

H I

- JH=I F= =>H=I @ I CH=B I I EI HB I IE JEA A A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O ANEIJA K = BK ?E >EOA?JEL= A JHA I @ I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI GKA FHAIAHL= =I =@O=?A ?E=I

-A F

#" I @ I CH=B I @A = CKH= #  I EI HB I 2=H= LAH >=IJ= ? FH >=H GKA = BK ?E f : {a, b, c, d} {u, v, w, p} J= GKA f (a) = u, f (b) = v, f (c) = w, f (d) = p AI K EI H I @A CH=B I
>I HLAIA GKA A A A A F =HEIJ=I @A CH=B @A = @AHA?D= AI K L HJE?A

>IAHL=?E

#"!

= JAHE H A ?HK?A @A =I @ I

- AH?E?E " +

FH >=H GKA A ?K> Q3 AI EI HB = CH=B FH @K?J @A ?K> >E@E A IE = Q2 O A ?K> K E@E A IE = Q1 . - CA AH= IA FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA Qn = Qn1 Q1

#"

15

4.15

,- /4). 5

.ECKH= # !

) A K@ AI @EB ?E @AJAH E =H IE @ I CH=B I IE F AI I EI HB I ,A DA?D ? LE I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H D=O n! = n(n 1)(n 2)...1 =F E?=?E AI >EOA?JEL=I A JHA I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI @A @ I CH=B I ? n L HJE?AI F H GKA ? FH >=H K = F H K = IE @E?D=I >EOA??E AI FHAIAHL= = =@O=?A ?E=I AI K >KA J @ I >HA J @ IE n AI K AH CH= @A 2 H JH= F=HJA ANEIJA = CK I ?HEJAHE I F=H= @AJAH E =H IE @ I CH=B I IE F AI I EI HB I I -IJ I ?HEJAHE I IA =F O= A A DA?D @A GKA D=O ?EAHJ=I FH FEA@=@AI @A E =@=I E L=HE= JAI GKA IE K CH=B F IAA ?K= GKEAH JH CH=B EI HB = @A>A J= >E F IAAH 2 H A A F @ I CH=B I EI HB I @A>A JA AH A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O A EI AH @A =HEIJ=I 2 H JH= F=HJA IE f : V1 V2 AI K EI H I A JHA I CH=B I @EHECE@ I G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = (V2 , E2 ), JEA A GKA LAHE ?=HIA GKA u V1 gr(u) = gr(f (u)). -IJA HAIK J=@ IEHLA F=H= ? FH >=H ? ?EAHJ= B=?E E@=@ GKA = CK I CH=B I I EI HB I

-A F

I @ I CH=B I @A = CKH= # ! I EI HB I FKAI =K GKA = > I JEA A A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O @A =HEIJ=I A A FHE AH gr(a) = 4, EA JH=I GKA A A IACK @ D=O E C L HJE?A ?KO CH=@ IA= "

#""

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # "

- AH?E?E # 8AHE ?=H IE = CK

HB = = CK @A

@A I CH=B I @A = IECKEA JA EIJ= AI EI I HAIJ= JAI K4 , W3 O K1,3 . EI HB I 1@A

- AH?E?E $ -IJK@E=H IE I CH=B I @A = CKH= # " I

F=H= = CKH= # #

# # 4AFHAIA J=?E

@A CH=B I
A I

- AIJ= IA??E LAHA I @EIJE J=I = AH=I @A HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I 5AC FH > A = GKA IA GKEAH= => H@=H K =I K JH=I HAFHAIA J=?E AI HAIK J= =@A?K=@=I

##

A@E= JA K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I

A@E= JA K = @A IKI

7 = @A =I B H =I @A HAFHAIA J=H K CH=B IE F A AI

,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ), F=H= ? IJHKEH K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@O= ?A ?E=I A?AIEJ= I ? IE@AH=H IKI L HJE?AI A K = EIJ= H@A =@= 5E A CH=B

=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I

##

4-24-5- 6)+1

,- /4). 5

.ECKH= # #

JEA A n L HJE?AI |V | = n O I H@A = I ? V = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A G ? HAIFA?J = AI= H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI AI = =JHE A = (aij ) @A n =I O n ? K =I @AJAH E =@= F H = IECKEA JA ? @E?E

aij =

1 si {vi , vj } E 0 si {vi , vj } / E.

K CH=B IE F A AI K = =JHE IE JHE?= aij = aji F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= i O j ) O GKA I A A A J I @A = B H = aii I J @ I ECK= AI = ?AH

>IAHL=?E

# #  -I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A

-A F

5A= F H A A F A CH=B K3 + JEA A ! L HJE?AI ?K= GKEAH =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K3 @A>A IAH @A J= = 3 3 5EA @ A CH=B ? F AJ J @= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AIJ B H =@= F H K I I= L A = @E=C = @ @A D=O ?AH I  >I HLAIA GKA A AIJA A A F = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI E @AFA @EA JA @A = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI

##

0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # $

- AH?E?E % + IJHKEH K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I F=H= ?=@= K IECKEA JAI CH=B I K4 , C4 , W3 O K3,2 . @A = CKH= # $

@A

- AH?E?E & 7JE E =H K = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H I CH=B I

IA FKA@A KJE E =H F=H= HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I @EHECE@ I ? = I O =HEIJ=I JEF AI )I K = A A L HJE?A vi LEA A HAFHAIA J=@ F H K 1 A = F IE?E aii @A = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= 5E IA JH=J= @A K JECH=B I A = F IE?E aij @A = =JHE ? ?=HA I A AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= A L HJE?A vi O A vj . )I IE JA A I ! =HEIJ=I A JHA A L HJE?A vi O A vj , F @HA I aij = 3. - ?K= GKEAH ?=I J @ I I CH=B I @EHECE@ I JEA A =I ?E=@=I =JHE?AI IE JHE?=I

>IAHL=?E

# # ! =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I J= >E

>IAHL=?E # # " - A ?=I @A I CH=B I @EHECE@ I = IEJK=?E AI IE E =H - = F IE?E aij =F=HA?AH K 1 IE D=O K = =HEIJ= @EHECE@= ?KO L HJE?A E E?E= AI vi O ?KO L HJE?A = AI vj O K ?AH A ?=I ? JH=HE >I HLAIA GKA =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I =I ?E=@=I = CH=B I @EHECE@ I I A?AI=HE= A JA IE JHE?=I

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

##

A@E= JA K =

=JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I

JH @ KIK= @A HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I AI KJE E = @ =JHE?AI @A E ?E@A ?E=I 5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B @EHECE@ ? |V | = n O |E | = m 5A= K = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI @A G @EC= I v1 , v2 , ..., vn O K = H@A =?E @A =I =HEIJ=I @A G @EC= I e1 , e2 , ..., em = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I @A G ? HAIFA?J = AI= H@A =?E @A I A A A J I @A V O E AI = =JHE B = (bij ) @A n =I O m ? K =I @A E@= F H = IECKEA JA ? @E?E

bij =

1 si vi ej 0 si vi / ej .

-A F

# # # 5EA @ G = ({a, b, c, d}, {{a, b}, {b, c}, {c, d}, {d, a}, {d, b}}), = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I @A C4 ? HAIFA?J = = H@A =?E a, b, c, d @A V O {a, b} {b, c} {c, d} {d, a} {d, b} @A E AI = =JHE 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 . 0 0 1 1 1

>IAHL=?E # # $ ,A = AH= = C= = =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I = @A E?E @A =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I IA FKA@A =F E?=H  KJ=JEI KJ= @EI = CH=B I @EHECE@ I ? = I
HB I A?AI=HE= A JA ANEIJA K = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I @A = > I @A = AH= GKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A E ?E@A ?E=I AI = EI = F=H= I @ I CH=B I -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH IE A >=HC GKA ?=@= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A G IA= ECK= = ?=@= K = @A G EI

>IAHL=?E

# # % -I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA IE @ I CH=B I G O G I

#$
,A
CH=B

+= E
E?E

I ?E? I O CH=B I ?

AN I

# $  7 ?= E @A CEJK@ n A JHA I L HJE?AI a O b @A K @EHECE@ AI K = IK?AIE EJ= (e0 , ..., en ) @A =HEIJ=I @A CH=B
e0 = {v0 , v1 }, e1 = {v1 , v2 }, ..., en = {vn1 , vn }

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # %

@A = AH= GKA v0 = a O vn = b. 5E A CH=B AI IE F A A ?= E GKA@= FAHBA?J= A JA @AJAH E =@ F H = IK?AIE @A L HJE?AI

(e0 , ..., en1 )

(a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b).

,EHA I GKA A ?= E = JAHE H F=I= F H  =JH=LEAI= I L HJE?AI a v1 v2 vn1 b 5A @E?A GKA K ?= E AI K ?EH?KEJ IE AI ?AHH=@ AIJ AI A FEA = O JAH E = A A EI L HJE?A AI @A?EH IE a = b. 5A @E?A GKA K ?= E AI IE F A IE ? JEA A = = EI = =HEIJ= I @A K = LA 7 ?EH?KEJ GKA F=I= @ I LA?AI F H A EI L HJE?A I= L A E E?E= F H A GKA F=I= @ I LA?AI IA = = ?E?

-A F

# $ - A CH=B IE F A @A = CKH= # % (a, b, g, d, c, a) AI K ?EH ?KEJ IE F A @A CEJK@ 5 O (a, b, d, c, e, f, d) AI K ?= E IE F A @A CEJK@ 6 A JHA I L HJE?AI a O d.
= @A E?E K JE@ECH=B I = JAHE H IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = CH=B I @EHECE@ I @ECH=B I O

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

K JECH=B @EHECE@ AI K = IK?AIE EJ= (e0 , ..., en ) @A =HEIJ=I @A @EHECE@ e0 = (v0 , v1 ), e1 = (v1 , v2 ), ..., en1 = (vn1 , vn )

,A

E?E

# $ ! 7 ?= E

@A

CEJK@ n A JHA I L HJE?AI a O b @A K

K JECH=B

@A = AH= GKA v0 = a O vn = b. +K= @ IA JH=J= @A K @ECH=B A ?= E (e0 , ..., en1 ) GKA@= FAHBA?J= A JA @AJAH E =@ F H = IK?AIE @A L HJE?AI

(a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b).

,EHA I GKA A v1 v2 vn1 b. 5A @E?A GKA K JAH E = A A EI ) ECK= GKA A AI IE F A IE ? ?= E = JAHE H F=I= F H  =JH=LEAI= I L HJE?AI a

?= E AI K ?EH?KEJ IE AI ?AHH=@ AIJ AI A FEA = O L HJE?A AI @A?EH IE a = b. A ?=I @A I CH=B I @EHECE@ I IA @E?A GKA K ?= E JEA A = = EI = =HEIJ= I GKA K = LA IE F=H=

@EHECE@ G AI ? AN ?K= GKEAH F=H @A L HJE?AI a O b @A G ANEIJA K ?= E A JHA a O b

,A

E?E

# $ " 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B

-A F

# $ # - CH=B G @A = CKH= # & ?KO ?

V = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}

K J @A L HJE?AI AI

AI ?

AN FKAI F H A A F

ANEIJA E C

?= E

A JHA a O g.

5E K CH=B AI ? AN IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? = K E @A @ I I IK>CH=B I ? AN I @A = AH= GKA I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI O @A =HEIJ=I @A ?=@= F=H @A AIJ I IK>CH=B I I @EI K J I A JHA I ) AIJ I IK>CH=B I IA AI @A E =? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B @=@ ,A AIJ= = AH= K CH=B AI ? AN IE O I IE JEA A K = E?= ? F A JA ? AN=

F A JAI ? AN=I = GKA JEA A ? L HJE?AI = ? K J {a, b, c, e, f } O =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEI J=I O = GKA JEA A ? ? K J @A L HJE?AI {g, h, d} O =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I

-A F

# $ $ - CH=B @A = CKH= # & JEA A @ I ?

6A HA = # $ % -NEIJA K ?= E
JE J I @A K CH=B ? AN

IE F A A JHA ?K= GKEAH F=H @A L HJE?AI @EI @EHECE@

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # &

,A IJH=?E 5A= a O b @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= @A K CH=B ? AN G = (V, E ). 2KAIJ GKA G AI ? AN ANEIJA = A I K ?= E A JHA a O b. 5A= v0 v1 v2 vn1 vn K ?= E A JHA a O b @A = A H CEJK@ F IE> A AIA ?=I @E?D ?= E AI IE F A - ABA?J @A IJH= I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ 5E BKAH= IE F A A F=HJE?K =H JA @H = I GKA vi = vj F=H= = CK I i, j {1, ..., n}, i < j. 2AH A J ?AI A ?= E v0 vi1 vj vj +1 vn AI K ?= E A JHA = O > @A CEJK@ AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA n FKAIJ GKA IA D= >JA E@ A E E = @ K = L=HE=I =HEIJ=I @A ?= E = JAHE H A ? JH=@E??E ? GKA A ?= E ? IE@AH=@ HECE = A JA A JHA a O b IA= @A = A H CEJK@ F IE> A
I ? ?AFJ I HA =?E =@ I ? =? L=HE= JAI F=H= =LAHECK=H IE @ I CH=B I I ANE I FH F H?E EI HB I = KAL I E

>IAHL=?E
A JAI ?

AN=I

# $ & , I CH=B I EI

HB I JEA A

EI = ?= JE@=@ @A ?

,A

E?E # $ ' 5A @E?A GKA K L HJE?A a V @A K CH=B G = (V, E ) AI K L HJE?A @A ? HJA IE A CH=B >JA E@ = A E E =H @A CH=B G A L HJE?A a
K J ? =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? JEA A I ? F A JAI ? AN=I GKA A CH=B HECE = ,A EI @ IA @E?A GKA K = =HEIJ= e E AI K = =HEIJ=

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

'

.ECKH= # '

@A ? HJA @A G IE A IK>CH=B
I? F A JAI ?

>JA E@ = A E E =H e @A CH=B AN=I GKA A CH=B HECE =

HECE = JEA A

I FK J I @A ? HJA O =I =HEIJ=I @A ? HJA I E L=HE= JAI GKA I FKA@A FAH EJEH ? ? KEH GKA @ I CH=B I I EI HB I 5E K CH=B FHAIA J= K L HJE?A @A ? HJA O JH I @ I CH=B I FKA@A IAH EI HB I ,A EI @ = ANEIJA ?E= @A ?EAHJ I IK>CH=B I F H A A F = AN EIJA ?E= @A K IK>CH=B EI HB = Cm  FKA@A IAHLEH J= >E F=H= ? ? KEH GKA @ I CH=B I @=@ I FKA@A IAH EI HB I

-A F

I CH=B I G O H @A = CKH= # ' FKA@A IAH EI HB I FKAI =K GKA = > I JEA A $ L HJE?AI O IEAJA =HEIJ=I A CH=B H JEA A E C IK>CH=B EI HB = C3 EA JH=I GKA A CH=B G I JEA A 2 H JH= F=HJA E G E H I EI HB I = CH=B L FKAI L JEA A K = =HEIJ= @A ? HJA OGOH JEA A E CK =

# $ 

6A HA = # $  5A= G K CH=B @EHECE@

@EHECE@ ? =HEIJ=I JE F AI O = I  O IA= A = (aij ) IK =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I ? HAIFA?J = H@A v1 , v2 , ...vn1 , vn @A IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI - AIJ=I ? @E?E AI A

!

+)2 67

/4). 5

AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA A L HJE?A vi O A vj AI ECK= = ? A ?EA JA IEJK=@ A A KC=H (i, j ) @A = F JA ?E= m IE = @A = =JHE A ? HAIFA?J = FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI KIK=  ,A IJH=?E = D=?A I F=H= CH=B I @EHECE@ I  = @A IJH=?E AI IE E =H F=H= CH=B I @EHECE@ I 4= = I F H E @K??E I >HA = CEJK@ @A ?= E A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj @A K CH=B G *=IA @A E @K??E AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ 1 A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE A, O= GKA @E?D ? A ?EA JA AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I A JHA vi O vj . 2=I @A E @K??E 5KF C= I GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE Am . 6A A I GKA ? FH >=H GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m + 1 m+1 m+1 A JHA vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE A .+ A = Am A, m m+1 IEA @ A = (bij ) O A = (aij ), A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE A AI

bi1 a1j + bi2 a2j + ... + bin anj .

2 H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E bik AI A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA vi O vk . 7 ?= E @A CEJK@ m + 1 A JHA vi O vj AI K ?= E @A CEJK@ m A JHA vi O K L HJE?A =@O=?A JA = vj = GKA @A J= I F H vk , IACKE@ @A = =HEIJ= GKA K A vk O vj . 2AH A AH @A ?= E I A JHA vi O vk AI bik , O A AH @A =HEIJ=I A JHA vk O vj AI akj , F H GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m + 1 A JHA vi O vj LEA A @=@ F H = ANFHAIE

bi1 a1j + bi2 a2j + ... + bin anj .

+ GKAH = I @A IJH=H =H O

= >IAHL=?E IECKEA JA AI K = ? IA?KA ?E= @A 2HE ?EFE @A 2= = @A IJH=?E AI E@ JE?= = = @A JA HA = # $ %

>IAHL=?E # $  5A= A CH=B G = (V, E ) ? |V | = n 5E u, v V u = v AIJ K E@ I F H K ?= E A G A J ?AI u O v AIJ K E@ I F H K ?= E @A CEJK@ A H ECK= GKA n 1 A G
,A = >IAHL=?E IECKEA JAI ? H =HE I = JAHE H O I HAIK J=@ I = JAHE HAI IA ? ? KOA I

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

!

+ H =HE # $ ! ,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n, O IEA @

A = (aij ) = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A G IA LAHE ?= GKA ANEIJA K ?= E A JHA vi O vj IE O I IE = =JHE C = (cij ) C = In + A + A2 + .... + An1
I=JEIB=?A GKA A ? A ?EA JA cij = 0.

G AI ?

+ H =HE # $ " ,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n, IA LAHE ?= GKA

AN IE O I IE = =JHE

In + A + A2 + .... + An1
JEA A J @ I I ? A ?EA JAI @EIJE J I @A ?AH =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI 0 1 0 A := 1 0 1 . 0 1 0

-A F

# $ # 5A= G K CH=B ?KO=

- J

?AI IK ?K=@H=@ AI

1 0 1 A2 := 0 2 0 . 1 0 1
? 2 H J= J I + A + A2 JEA A J @=I IKI A JH=@=I AN K =I O A CH=B AI
F=H= @AJAH E =H

- ? H =HE = JAHE H I FAH EJA >JA AH K = C HEJ IE K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n AI ? AN

= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= A @A CH=B j := 1, B := In MDE A j n 1 B := B + Aj j := j + 1 1B B JEA A J @ I IKI A A A J I @EIJE J I @A ?AH JDA s :=? s := ? AN 5= E@= s

- JH=@=

AN A IA

- AH?E?E ' -IJK@E=H = ?

F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ = JAHE H A A FA H @A I ?=I I F=H= ?K= D=O GKA => H@=H A FH > A = @A ? FKJ=H = ? F A E@=@ @A = FAH=?E FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI

+)2 67

/4). 5

# % /H=B I AK AHE=
,A E?E # %  7 ?= E

I O D= E J
AK AHE=

E=

A K CH=B @EHECE@ G AI K ?= E IE F A GKA ? JEA A = J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A G. 7 ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A G AI K ?EH?KEJ IE F A GKA ? JEA A J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B G K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

,A

E?E

#%

5A @E?A GKA K CH=B

@EHECE@ AI AK AHE=

IE ?

JEA A

,A = @A E?E @A CH=B AK AHE= IA IECKA GKA >EA A CH=B AI ? AN >EA D=O K = ? F A JA ? AN= GKA ? JEA A J @=I =I =HEIJ=I IEA @ A HAIJ @A =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I L HJE?AI =EI =@ I

6A HA = # % ! 7 CH=B G = (V, E ) ?
IE O I IE J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H A

=HEIJ=I EI = ?

@EHECE@=I AI AK AHE= F A JA ? AN= O J @ I

,A IJH=?E 5E A CH=B G AI AK AHE= A J ?AI ? JEA A K ?EH?KEJ AK A HE= GKA F H @A E?E ? JEA A = J @=I =I =HEIJ=I - ? IA?KA ?E= J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= 2 H JH= F=HJA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H FKAI ?=@= LA GKA A ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= F=I= F H K L HJE?A D=?A K = LA F=H= A JH=H O JH= F=H= I= EH = AN?AF?E @A FHE AH O A JE GKA A A ?=I @A K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= I A EI  ? GKA A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI F=H 2=H= = @A IJH=?E @A HA? FH ? A IECKEA JA = C HEJ KAIJH= K FH ?A@E EA J ? IJHK?JEL F=H= CA AH=H K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A K K JECH=B ? AN A A GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H 2 H DEF JAIEI J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= F H GKA IA FKA@A IKF AH GKA A CH=B AI ? AN 5A= A J ?AI G K K JECH=B ? AN ? J @ I I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H )@A I F @A I FHAI?E @EH @A I F IE> AI = I IE G K JECH=B ? AN JEA A = I AI AGKEL= A JA G AK AHE= GKA G AK AHE= IEA @ G A CH=B HAIK J= JA @A GKEJ=H I = I = G 2 H J=J G AI K K JECH=B ? AN IE = I

- JH=@= G = (V, E ) C :=?K= GKEAH ?EH?KEJ IE F A @A G H :=A CH=B >JA E@ A E E = @ @A G =I =HEIJ=I @A C O GKA GKA@A =EI =@ I = GKEJ=H @E?D=I =HEIJ=I MDE A H JEA A =HEIJ=I

I L HJE?AI

#%

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5 ; 0) 1 6

1)

!!

.ECKH= # 

C :=?K= GKEAH H := A CH=B L HJE?AI GKA GKA@A =EI =@ C := C ? C 5= E@= C K ?EH?KEJ

?EH?KEJ IE F A @A H >JA E@ A E E = @ @A H =I =HEIJ=I @A C O I = GKEJ=H @E?D=I =HEIJ=I E IAHJ=@ A A L HJE?A =@A?K=@ -K AHE= 

2=H= GKA A = C HEJ BK ?E A A?AIEJ= I =IACKH=H = ANEIJA ?E= @A ?EH?KEJ IE F A @A E =@ C -IJ AI GKA @=@ K K JECH=B ? AN ? J @ I IKI L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H ANEIJA K ?EH?KEJ IE F A C 6 = I K L HJE?A ?K= GKEAH= u 8= I ? IJHKOA @ K ?= E IE F A T = (u0 = u, u1 , ..., un ) @A CEJK@ NE = 5E ANEIJA i, j {0, ..., n} J= AI GKA ui = uj DA I ? ? KE@ - ?=I ? JH=HE ? un JEA A CH=@ F=H ANEIJA v / {u0 , ..., un } =@O=?A JA ? un ? JH=@E?EA @ GKA T AI @A CEJK@ NE = 2 H J= J A = C HEJ BK ?E = 8A= I ? IA =F E?= A = C HEJ = JAHE H A K A A F ? ?HAJ

-A F

= HA@ @A ?= AI HAFHAIA J=@= F H A CH=B @A = CKH= #  2=H= HA= E =H A HAF=HJ A ?=HJAH @A>A A FA =H O JAH E =H A = AIJ=BAJ= @A ? HHA I GKA IA A ?KA JH= A A L HJE?A i 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H A

# % " 7 ?=HJAH JEA A GKA HAF=HJEH IKI ?=HJ=I A

!"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

?=HJAH I=>A GKA FKA@A ABA?JK=H A HAF=HJ IE HA? HHAH @ I LA?AI = EI = ?= A ? IJHKOA @ F=H= A K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= + A = I ? A ?EH ?KEJ (i, j, h, i) O > HH= I IKI =HEIJ=I @A CH=B K J ? A L HJE?A i GKA GKA@= =EI =@ LAH CKH= #  ) ? JE K=?E ? IJHKE I K KAL ?EH?KEJ A A CH=B GKA GKA@= F H A A F (j, m, l, k, j ) E IAHJ= I A A ?EH?KEJ = JAHE H A A KC=H =@A?K=@ L HJE?A j  >JA EA @

(i, j, m, l, k, j, h, i).
* HH= I =I =HEIJ=I O L HJE?AI =EI =@ I 8AH CKH= #  2H IECKEA @ ? A = C HEJ ? IJHKE I A ?EH?KEJ (m, n, a, m) O E IAHJ= I A A KC=H =@A?K=@ L HJE?A m >JA EA @

(i, j, m, n, a, m, l, k, j, h, i).
.E = A JA I GKA@= K A ?EH?KEJ (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, a) GKA E IAHJ=@ A A KC=H =@A?K=@ @= KC=H = IECKEA JA ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= @A CH=B E E?E=

(i, j, m, n, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, a, m, l, k, j, h, i).

#%

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5 ; 0) 1 6

1)

!#

.ECKH= #

- AH?E?E   -I F IE> A @EIF AH J @=I =I ?D=I @A K @

GKA AIJ J @=I A ?= =@=I 1 @E?=?E O LAHE ?=H GKA AI AK AHE= O ? AN
- IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ ?= E AK AHE= ?AHH=@

KJE E =H K
@E?E

E K JECH=B ?

@A = AH= % L HJE?AI

I @= K = ?

F=H= = ANEIJA ?E= @A K

2H F IE?E

# % # 7 CH=B G = (V, E ) ? =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I J= GKA J @=I IKI =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= =@ EJA K ?= E AK AHE= ?AHH=@ IE O I IE ? JEA A AN=?J= A JA @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H
,A IJH=?E ?AHH=@
5KF C= I GKA G = (V, E ) =@ EJA K ?= E AK AHE=

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b
IEA @ a O b I ANJHA I @A ?= E 5A= w K KAL L HJE?A FAHJA A?EA JA = V O G = (V , E ) @ @A V = V {w} O E = E {{w, a}, {b, w}}. -I ALE@A JA GKA G =@ EJA A ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

w, a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b, w

!$

+)2 67

/4). 5

O A ? IA?KA ?E= J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G I @A CH=@ F=H ) A E E =H =I =HEIJ=I {w, a} O {b, w} O A L HJE?A w @A G F=H= >JA AH G ? ? KE I GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI I @A CH=@ F=H I= L a O b. 4A? FH ?= A JA IE J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G = (V, E ) I= L @ I a O b, JEA A CH=@ F=H ? IJHKOA @ A CH=B G = (V , E ) @ @A V = V {w} O E = E {{w, a}, {b, w}} ? w K KAL L HJE?A FAHJA A?EA JA = V, >JA @HA I K CH=B A A GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI I @A CH=@ F=H 5EA @

w, a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b, w
K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b
AI K ?= E AK AHE= ?AHH=@ GKA ? A?J= a O b.

)D H= O= AIJ= I A ? @E?E AI @A @A IJH=H GKA AI F IE> A A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ GKA HAIKA L= A FH > A = @A I FKA JAI @A ECI>AHC FKAI A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= A FH > A = JEA A I @A @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H

- AH?E?E   + IJHKEH A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= = ?

@A EI>AHC ,A IJH=H @A @E?D CH=B

AI -K AHE=

CKH=?E

@A

I FKA JAI

,A

D= E J ,A
IE ?

E = ?= E D= =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I G = (V, E ) = ?K= GKEAH = J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G F=I= @ K = I = LA FAH EJEA @ GKA A L HJE?A E E?E= @A @E?D ?= E A ?= E D= E J E= AI ?AHH=@ = @E?D ?=

E?E

# % $ 5A @A

E=

A K CH=B ? ?= E IE F A GKA ? JA C= F H ?=@= K @A A I FAH IA= ECK= = L HJE?A = 5E E IA A @A E = ?EH?KEJ

EJ

E=

JEA A K ?EH?KEJ D= E J

E?E

# % % 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ) AI D= E J

E=

E=

I CH=B I D= E J E= I JEA A IK HECA A A IECKEA JA KAC FH FKAIJ F H 0= E J A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ GKA F=I= @ F H J @ I I L HJE?AI @A @ @A?=A@H = JH=L I @A =I =HEIJ=I JAH E A A A @A L HJE?A @A F=HJE@= IE F=I=H @ I LA?AI F H A EI L HJE?A I= L A @A F=HJE@= 2AIA = = =F=HA JA IE E EJK@ ? = @A E?E @A I CH=B I AK AHE= I A K ?=I A B=IEI @A AIJK@E AIJ FKAIJ A I L HJE?AI O A A JH A =I

#%

/4). 5 -7 -41)

5 ; 0) 1 6

1)

!%

.ECKH= # ! 7 CH=B -K AHE=

=HEIJ=I A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= A K CH=B FKA@A IAH J=HA= B ?E FKAI IA ? ?A K = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A I CH=B I D= E J E= I 8A= I = CK I HAIK J=@ I IA ?E I HA =?E =@ I ? I CH=B I D= E J E= I = CK @A A I IE @A IJH=?E 

6A HA = # % & - ?K> Qn AI D= E J E=
,A IJH=?E
4= =

F=H= ?=@= n 2

I F H E @K??E I >HA n *=IA @A E @K??E Q2 AI D= E J E= (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 0) AI K ?E? D= E J E= @A Q2  2=I @A E @K??E 5KF C= I GKA Qn AI D= E J E= 5E A Qn D=O K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= >=IJ= ? IE@AH=H @ I ? FE=I @A Qn ?=@= K = ? IK ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= O = =@EH =I =HEIJ=I F HJK =I F=H= >JA AH Qn+1 = F=HJEH @A =I @ I ? FE=I @A Qn . - E E = @ K = =HEIJ= A ?=@= K @A I ?EH ?KEJ I D= E J E= I @A =I @ I ? FE=I @A Qn O ?AHH= @ A ?EH?KEJ = =@EA @ =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= I ANJHA I @A I ?= E I IE F AI HAIK J= JAI  =I =HEIJ=I ? A?D= @A = CKH= # " >JA A I K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= @A Qn+1 . I ?EH?KEJ I @A D= E J JEA A =F E?=?E = @A E =@ FH > A = @A I ? @EC I @A /H=O ? IEIJA JA A @AJAH E =H IE D=O K = H@A =?E @A =I

!&

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # "

F= =>H=I @A n >EJI @A = AH= GKA IEJK= @ K = F= =>H= A ?=@= K = @A =I IA??E AI ?EH?K =HAI GKAIEJ I A I GKA DA I @ELE@E@ K ? H?K @ I IA??E AI ? JECK=I @E AH= A K E? >EJ 8A= I ? IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH ? @EC I @A /H=O = F=HJEH @A ?EH?KEJ I D= E J E= I A Qn + IE@AHA I I L HJE?AI @A Qn E A =I F= =>H=I @A n >EJI IAC E @E?= I A IK ? IJHK??E E A @A B H = GKA @ I L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI @E AH= A K E? >EJ +K= GKEAH ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= I >HA A ?K> Qn @= KC=H = K ? @EC @A /H=O 2 H A A F A IECKEA JA ?= E D= E J E= @A Q3 @= KC=H = K ? @EC @A /H=O F=H= A AI IK ?EA JA HAFHAIA J=H @A B H = ?EH?K =H IAC IA D= E @E?=@ 

(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0).

-A F

?EH?KEJ D= E J

# % ' - CH=B @A = CKH= # # AI D= E J E=

E=

5A

KAIJH= K

+ IA ? A J IEA FHA AI IA ?E ? AN @=@ AI D= E J E= FKAI F=H= A FHE HE AI KAIJH= D=>E E@=@ F=H= A ? JH=H

@AJAH E =H IE K CH=B IE F A O A E? ?HEJAHE GKA JA A I = K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= A

#%

/4). 5 -7 -41)

5 ; 0) 1 6

1)

!'

.ECKH= # #

A CH=B @=@ = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E I =F HJ= K HAIK J=@ GKA FAH EJA ? ? KEH GKA ?EAHJ I CH=B I I D= E J E= I

5E G AI D= E J E= A J ?AI U V A CH=B >JA E@ = A E E =H @A V I L HJE?AI @A U O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? @E?D I L HJE?AI JEA A = IK |U | ? F A JAI ? AN=I ,A IJH=?E D= E J E=
5E A CH=B G AI D= E J E= A J ?AI ? JEA A K ?EH?KEJ

2H F IE?E

# %  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | 3

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , a.
5A= H A CH=B B H =@ F H I L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I @A ?EH?KEJ = JAHE H O IA= U V.  >I HLAIA GKA I L HJE?AI @A H I I EI I GKA I @A CH=B HECE = G). 5A= k A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B (V U, E ) @ @A E AI A IK>? K J @A =HEIJ=I @A G ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H A DA?D @A GKA IKI ANJHA I FAHJA A?A = V U O IA= k A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A IK>CH=B @A H >JA E@ = A E E =H @A H I L HJE?AI FAHJA A?EA JAI = U K J ? =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? A I -LE@A JA A JA k k 2KAIJ GKA A CH=B H IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? A = CKH= # $ AI >LE GKA = A E E =H K FK J O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ?  A KAL CH=B =I >JA E@

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # $

AI ? AN AI @A?EH JEA A K = E?= ? F A JA ? AN= = A E E =H @ I FK J I O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? A I A KAL CH=B =I >JA E@ JEA A ? K?D @ I ? F A JAI ? AN=I O =I IK?AIEL= A JA - CA AH= IE GKEJ= I p L HJE?AI  K J ? IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI >JA A I K CH=B ? = IK p ? F A JAI ? AN=I 2 H ? IECKEA JA k k p = |U | - HAIK J=@ = JAHE H I @A IJH=H GKA = CK I =F HJ= K = KAL= DAHH= EA J= ? I CH=B I I D= E J E= I = GKA F @A

-A F

# %  5E = CH=B G @A = CKH= # % A GKEJ= I A E? L HJE?A @A CH=@ # GKA JEA A O IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI A CH=B HAIK J= JA JEA A ! ? F A JAI ? AN=I F H J= J AI D= E J E= - AH?E?E 
,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B H @A = CKH= # % AI 0= E J E=

# & /H=B I AJEGKAJ=@ I O = C HEJ

(V, E ) AI K CH=B IE F A O d AI K = BK ?E

@A ,E IJH=
= GKA

,A

E?E

# &  7 CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ AI K = ! JKF = (V, E, d), A

d : E R.

#&

/4). 5 -6137-6), 5 ; ) / 416

,- ,1

564)

"

.ECKH= # %

) = E =CA @A K = =HEIJ= A@E= JA d IA A @A = =HEIJ= 8AH ? A A F = CKH= # &

- IECKEA JA = C HEJ ? ?E@ ? @A E =@ FH > A = @A ?= E E = C HEJ

E = AJEGKAJ=

FAI @A

@A ,E IJH= HAIKA LA A

?= E A JHA u O v J= GKA = IK = @A =I AJEGKAJ=I @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? F A IA= E = ) @E?D= IK = IA A @A E = CEJK@ @A ?= E A A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@

2H > A = ,=@ K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ O @ I L HJE?AI u O v @AJAH E =H A

J= - A = C HEJ IECKEA JA IA I >HAA JEA @A GKA AI =O H GKA ?K= GKEAH AH HA= GKA G AI K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN O GKA F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI x, y IA JEA A GKA d({x, y }) = ) C HEJ @A ,E IJH=

- JH=@= G = (V, E, d) u, v V
L(u) := 0

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # &

L(x) := F=H= ?=@= x = u T := MDE A v /T x := a IEA @ a K L HJE?A GKA AIJ A T ? T := T {x} B Hy /T EB L(x) + d({x, y }) < L(y ) JDA L(y ) := L(x) + d({x, y }), f (y ) := x 5= E@= L(v ) AI = CEJK@ @A ?= E E (v, f (v ), f (f (v )), ..., u) AI A ?= E E

L(a)

@A u = v

7 @ FH ?JE? @A A A?KJ=H A = C HEJ @A ,E IJH= ? IEIJA A AI?HE>EH I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A A L= H =?JK= @A L, A EH @E ?= @ @E?D I L= HAI O > HH= @ I L HJE?AI GKA L= I E ? HF H= @ = ? K J T

-A F

# & *KI?= I F H AIJA = C HEJ A A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ @A = CKH= # &

A ?= E

A JHA a O d

#&

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564)

"!

+ EA = A = C HEJ L HJE?AI ,A AIJA @ )D H= IA ?K F A GKA

=IEC = @ L(a) = 0 O L(x) = F=H= A HAIJ @A

T = {a}.

L(a) + 2 = 2 < L(b) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(a) + 5 = 5 < L(h) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(b) = 2
; =@A I

L(h) = 5.

f (b) = f (h) = a.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A A L HJE?A b O b /T ? GKA

T = {a, b}.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(b) + 3 = 5 < L(c) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(a) + 1 = 3 < L(i) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(c) = 5
; =@A I

L(i) = 3.

f (c) = f (i) = b.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A A L HJE?A i ? GKA

T = {a, b, i}.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(i) + 3 = 6 < L(d) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(i) + 2 = 5 < L(f ) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(d) = 6

L(f ) = 5.

"" ; =@A I

+)2 67

/4). 5

f (d) = f (f ) = i.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A I L HJE?AI c f O h ? K @A A I F H A A F A f @A @ GKA GKA A E

T = {a, b, i, f }.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(f ) + 1 = 6 < L(e) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(f ) + 3 = 8 < L(g ) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(e) = 6
; =@A I

L(g ) = 8.

f (e) = f (g ) = f.
)D H= A L= H E @A L @A A I F H A A F A c @A JEA A I L HJE?AI c O h ? @ GKA GKA A E K

T = {a, b, i, f, c}.
IA ?K F A K ?= = ? @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I - L= H @A L JEA A A J ?AI A L HJE?A h ? GKA E

T = {a, b, i, f, c, h}.
6= F ? =D H= IA ?K F A K ?= = ? @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I )D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A I L HJE?AI d e ? GKA A E K @A A I F H A A F A d =I A = C HEJ JAH E =H A A F=I IECKEA JA @A @ GKA T = {a, b, i, f, c, h, d}. 6= F ? =D H= IA ?K F A K ?= = ? ,A AIJ= = AH= A ?= E @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I CEJK@ $ O AI I ? HJ A JHA a O d JEA A

(d, f (d) = i, f (i) = b, f (b) = a).

E J= >E

- AH?E?E  ! 7JE E =H A = C HEJ

@A ,E IJH= F=H= A ? JH=H A ?= E A JHA I L HJE?AI a O e @A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ @A = CKH= # & 0= =H A ?= E I ? HJ A JHA I L HJE?AI g O c.

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I ?= E I E I I KO JE AI A HA@AI @A ? K E?=?E HA@AI @A JH= IF HJA F=H= FJE E =H = = AH= @A A LE=H E B H =?E ?=HC= A JHA @ I FK J I ? A?J=@ I F H K = HA@ I FAI I FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H @EIJ= ?E=I FKA@A HA? CAH JH JEF @A E B H =?E JEA F ? IJA @E ?K J=@ H CH ?=

#'

H> AI

-IFA?E= A JA JE A GKA = =F E?=?E AI E B H JE?=I IA HA AHA AI K ?EAHJ JEF @A CH=B IE F A = =@ H> GKA IA A F A= A JHA JH=I ? I=I F=H= ? IJHKEH = C HEJ I A ?EA JAI @AIJE =@ I = ?= E =H EJA I A K = EIJ= F=H= ? IJHKEH HA@AI @A H@A =@ HAI ? A E ? IJA F=H= ? IJHKEH ? @EC I A ?EA JAI @AIJE =@ I = = =?A =H O JH= I EJEH @=J I F=H= = = E =H = C HEJ I @A H@A =?E

,A

IE F AI

E?E

#' 7 #'
+ JEF AI

H>

AI K CH=B

@EHECE@

AN O IE ?EH?KEJ I

JA AH =HEIJ=I

>IAHL=?E

K H> = I F H

JEA A ?EH?KEJ I IE F AI J= F ? FKA@A GKA ?K= GKEAH H> AI K CH=B IE F A H> AI H> IE O IE F A

-A F

#'!

I CH=B I @A = CKH= # ' I

I = A JA IE F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI u, v V ANEIJA K K EA @ u ? v

2H F IE?E

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,A IJH=?E 5E G JEA A K IK>CH=B T GKA AI K H> O ? JEA A J @ I IKI L HJE?AI A J ?AI F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI @A G D=O K ?= E A T O F H J= J A G GKA I K A -IJ KAIJH= GKA G AI ? AN 5E G AI ? AN = = AH= @A ? IJHKEH K H> CA AH=@ H ? IEIJA A ?= E =H K ?EH?KEJ A G O GKEJ=H K = =HEIJ= -IJ= FAH=?E FHAIAHL= = ? ANE O D=?A @AI=F=HA?AH K ?E? I 1JAH= @ AIJ= FAH=?E @AI=F=HA?AH J @ I I ?E? I
0A I @=@ K = = AH= @A ? IJHKEH K H> CA AH=@ H A A ?=I @A I CH=B I GKA I JEA A >IJ= JA = ?= E =?E @A ?EH?KEJ I A K CH=B AI K = J=HA= IA ?E = 2 H A AI ? LA EA JA A KC=H @A A F A=H = AIJH=JACE= = JAHE H A F A=H K = AIJH=JACE= @A JEF E ?HA A J= F=HJEA @ @A K L HJE?A EH = =@EA @ =HEIJ=I K J ? IKI ANJHA I IE GKA = = =@EH K = KAL= =HEIJ= =F=HA ?= K ?EH?KEJ A A KAL CH=B = ? IJHK??E @A K H> CA AH=@ H A@E= JA K JEF @A AIJH=JACE= E ?HA A J= FKA@A D=?AHIA > IE?= A JA @A @ I B H =I @EIJE J=I

- F A= @ K J @ @A > IGKA@= A = F EJK@ ? IEIJA A HA? HHAH J @ I I L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI = K @=@ A ACE@ = = =H O = =@EH = H> A ? IJHK??E J= J =I =HEIJ=I ? I L HJE?AI HA? HHE@ I ,AIFK I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI HA? HHEA @ I L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI = I L H JE?AI =@O=?A JAI = FHE AH )I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI D=IJ= GKA GKA@A L HJE?AI F H E ? HF H=H = H> - F A= @ K J @ @A > IGKA@= A FH BK @E@=@ ? IEIJA A F=HJEH @A K L HJE?A O = =@EH K @A IKI L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI K J ? IK =HEIJ= ) ? JE K=?E = F=HJEH @A AIJA KAL L HJE?A = =@EH JH =@O=?A JA = AIJA JE K J ? IK =HEIJ= )I IK?AIEL= A JA D=I J= GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI @A CH=B HECE = AIJ E ? KE@ I A A H> CA AH=@ H
,A>E@ = IKI =F E?=?E AI I H> AI CA AH=@ HAI @A I CH=B I AJEGKAJ= @ I JEA A K E JAH I F=HJE?K =H + IE@ HAIA A IECKEA JA FH > A =

2H > A = 7 = ?
?

F= = F = A= ? IJHKEH K = HA@ @A ? K E?=?E AI GKA A?JA IKI ?E ? ?A JH I @A ? FKJ=?E +K= GKEAH F=H @A AIJ I ?A JH I

#$

+)2 67

/4). 5

FKA@A IAH K E@ ? K ?=> A JA AB E? GKA JEA A K ? IJA @EBAHA JA @A>E@ = =I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A = ? ANE O = = J F CH=B = @A JAHHA = FHACK J= AI ?K AI I =I ? ANE AI GKA D=O GKA AIJ=> A?AH F=H= C=H= JE =H GKA J @ I I ?A JH I AIJ ? A?J=@ I O GKA A ? IJA @A ? IJHK??E @A = HA@ AI E 5E ? IE@AH= I A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ A A GKA = AJEGKAJ=  FAI  @A ?=@= =HEIJ= AI A ? IJA @A AIJ=> A?AH = ? ANE A JHA I @ I ?A JH I L HJE?AI GKA K A A FH > A = IA HAIKA LA A ? JH= @ K H> CA AH=@ H J= GKA = IK = @A =I AJEGKAJ=I @A =I =HEIJ=I @A @E?D H> IA= E = ) @E?D H> IA A @A E = H> CA AH=@ H E

,A

E?E # '  7 H> CA AH=@ H E A K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN AI K H> CA AH=@ H GKA I=JEIB=?A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA = IK = @A =I AJEGKAJ=I @A IKI =HEIJ=I AI = I FAGKA = F IE> A
8= I = FHAIA J=H @ I = C HEJ I F=H= ? IJHKEH H> AI CA AH=@ HAI E I ) > I = C HEJ I I @A JEF E ?HA A J= FKAI JH=J= @A ?HA=H K H> CA AH=@ H = =@EA @ =HEIJ=I O L HJE?AI = AIJH=JACE= FKAIJ= ? IEIJEH = A = F=HJEH @A CH=B @=@ EH A E E = @ =I =HEIJ=I @A =O H FAI JA EA @ ?KE@=@ @A GKA @E?D=I =HEIJ=I @AI? A?JA A CH=B HAIK J= JA ) > I = C HEJ I D=?A K = A A??E FJE = A ?=@= K @A IKI F=I I =K GKA AI E F HJ= JA IA = =H GKA FJE E =H ?=@= AJ=F= @A K = C HEJ C=H= JE = GKA = I K?E = >JA E@= IA= = FJE = - AIJA ?=I IA FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA = > I = C HEJ I FH @K?A I K?E AI C >= AI FJE =I - = > I = C HEJ I G AI K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN

) C HEJ - JH=@= G = (V, E ) u V

@A 2HE

V (T ) := {u}, E (T ) := MDE A V (T ) = V ) =@EH = E (T ) K = @A =I =HEIJ=I @A L HJE?A @A V (T ) O I K  O = =@EH IK ANJHA 5= E@= (V (T ), E (T ))

A H FAI E ?E@A JA ? = V (T )

) C HEJ

@A

HKI =

# 

64 5 )52-+6 5 ,- ) 6- 4 ) ,- /4). 5

#%

V (T ) := {u}, E (T ) := MDE A V (T ) = V ) =@EH = E (T ) = =HEIJ= @A A H FAI IEA FHA GKA K ?EH?KEJ ? =I =HEIJ=I @A E (T ) O = =@EH IKI ANJHA I = V (T ). 5= E@= (V (T ), E (T ))

- JH=@= G = (V, E ) u V

B H A

-I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA EA JH=I GKA A A = C HEJ @A 2HE A CH=B T = (V (T ), E (T )) AI K H> A J @ A J @A IK ? IJHK??E A A @A HKI = I F @A I =IACKH=H GKA AI ?K= @ JAH E = A = C HEJ O= GKA A ?=@= F=I AI A?AI=HE= A JA ? AN

- AH?E?E  & 7JE E =H A = C HEJ

@A 2HE O A = C HEJ @A HKI = F=H= @EIA =H K = HA@ @A ? K E?=?E AI @A E ? IJA GKA ? A?JA J @ I I H@A =@ HAI HAFHAIA J=@ I A A CH=B @A = CKH= # &

# 

JH I =IFA?J I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I

0=O K?D I JH I ? ?AFJ I FH > A =I O DAHH= EA J=I E JAHAI= JA HA =?E = @ I? = JA H = @A CH=B I - AIJ= IA??E FHAIA J=HA I I AH= A JA @ I @A A I = F = =HE@=@ O = ? H=?E @A CH=B I

,A

? BK ?E

#   5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A O C = {1, 2, ...m} K K J @A m ? HAI 7 = ? H=?E ? m ? HAI @A CH=B G AI K =

f : V C J= GKA IE u, v V O {u, v } E A J
?AI f (u) = f (v ).

E?E

= ? H=?E @A CH=B I JEA A =F E?=?E F H A A F = = ? BA??E @A D H=HE I IKF C= I GKA A K = K ELAHIE@=@ IA @AIA= HA= E =H K D H=HE F=H= =I @EIJE J=I =IEC =JKH=I FJ=JEL=I 5A @A>A JA AH ?KE@=@ @A GKA =GK =I GKA FKA@= E JAHAI=H = EI JEF @A = K I IA FH CH= A @A = AH= GKA ? E ?E@= IKI D H=I 2=H= ? ?AH A E AH @A D H=I A?A I=HE F=H= ?K F EH J @ I I HAGKEIEJ I F @A I ? IJHKEH A IECKEA JA CH=B = ?=@= =IEC =JKH= IA A =IEC = K L HJE?A O @ I L HJE?AI IA K A F H K = =HEIJ= IE E JAHAI= = EI JEF @A = K I AH E @A ? HAI A?AI=HE I F=H= ? HA=H I L HJE?AI @A CH=B AI A AH @A D H=I >KI?=@

#&

+)2 67

/4). 5

,A AIJ= = AH= IA FKA@A =IEC =H K AH ?H E AH @A ? HAI A?AI=HE I F=H= IK ? H=?E ?=H=?JAHE = I CH=B I ? AH ?H JE?

- IECKEA JA A AH?E?E

JE? = K CH=B A

- AH?E?E  ' ,A
K =? H=?E ?
JH ? JANJ I @EH

IJH=H GKA K CH=B IE F A AI >EF=HJE@ IE O I @ I ? HAI

IE =@ EJA
I JH I

?AFJ E JAHAI= JA AI A @A CH=B

CH=B F = =H

F=

GKA A

= CK

,A E?E #  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B 5A @E?A GKA G AI F = IE =@ EJA K = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= A A F = @A @ GKA =I =HEIJ=I E?= A JA IA ? HJ= A I L HJE?AI
AI @EB ?E ? FH >=H GKA A CH=B ? F AJ K4 AI F = =K GKA J= >E F @A I HAFHAIA J=H K4 @A = AH= GKA IKI =HEIJ=I I IA ? HJA A I L HJE?AI 5A FKA@A @A IJH=H =K GKA AI IA ?E O IA AI?=F= = I > AJEL I @A ?KHI = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A I CH=B I F = I

6A HA = #  ! @A KH=J MI E 7 CH=B AI F =

E C IK>CH=B GKA IA= EI HB = K = F=HJE?E
- F=HJE?K =H ?K= GKEAH CH=B GKA ? AI K CH=B F =

IE O I IE ? @A K5 @A K3,3 .
= K3,3 ?

JEA A

JA C= = K5

IK>CH=B I

- AH?E?E ! ,AJAH E =H IE I

K2,3 .

F=

I IECKEA JAI CH=B I Q3 , K2,2 O

>I HLAIA GKA I=>AH IE K CH=B AI F= JEA A =F E?=?E AI = = A A?JH E?= F=H= I=>AH IE K ?EH?KEJ IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH I >HA K F= A ALEJ= @ =I E JAHIA??E AI A JHA =I ? ANE AI ; D=O K B= I JA HA = GKA HA =?E == > I? ?AFJ I

6A HA = #  " @A I " ?

AI A H ECK= GKA "

HAI -

AH ?H

JE? @A K CH=B F =

= DEIJ HE= @A AIJA JA HA = AI >=IJ= JA ?KHE I= FKAI = =HC @A = DEI J HE= D= E@ =F=HA?EA @ @A IJH=?E AI B= I=I O ? JH=A A F I E ? HHA?J I = JA HA = 4ABAHE I = A?J H E JAHAI=@ = = IA??E % & @A

# 

- -4+1+1 5

#'

# 

- AH?E?E I
EA @ K = =HEIJ=

- AH?E?E ! ,E>K =H K CH=B GKA HAFHAIA JA =I @EIJE J=I =K =I O @AFA

@A ?E=I D= AJ?  @A A@E ?E A GKA IA E F=HJA ? =IA F A JHA ?=@= F=H @A @AFA @A ?E=I GKA AIJ ? K E?=@=I

- AH?E?E !
@A ?=@= K @A

,E>K =

I CH=B I K7 W5 K1,6 K4,4 O Q4 =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=

- AH?E?E !! 0= =H K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= O K = I CH=B I @A A AH?E?E = JAHE H

- AH?E?E !" ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA = C

CH=B IE F A ? % L HJE?AI ?KO I CH=@ I IA= 3, 2, 2, 4, 3, 5, 4. ,AJAH E =H J= >E IE ANEIJA = C CH=B IE F A ? # L HJE?AI ?KO I CH=@ I IA= 3, 2, 2, 4, 3.

- AH?E?E !# 0= =H J @ I I IK>CH=B I @A K1,6 O @A W3 . - AH?E?E !$ 0= =H

I L= HAI @A n F=H= =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= K n , C n O Wn I GKA I IECKEA JAI CH=B I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=

- AH?E?E !% ,E>K =H I @ECH=B I ?

I =I IECKEA JAI

= I ?KO=I

0 2 2 0 2 1 2 1

2 1 0 1

2 1 3 3 0 1 , 1 2 1 0 0 2

2 1 0 1

0 2 , 1 0

0 0 3 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

2 1 0 1 1

2 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 0

- AH?E?E !& ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

?KO= A JH=@= IA= = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A K CH=B O GKA FAH EJ= @AJAH E =H A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A K CH=B -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E !' ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

?KO= A JH=@= IA= = =JHE @A =@O= ?A ?E= @A K CH=B O GKA FAH EJ= @AJAH E =H IE A CH=B AI AK AHE= -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E " 5A= K = HA@ @A $ H@A =@ HAI K AH=@ I @A  = $ @AI?HEJ=

F H K CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI = IECKEA JA

$

+)2 67

/4). 5

0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

5A= p = 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K =@O=?A JAI IA @= A E +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH EE +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K K AH=@ ? K  ACKA = H@A =@ H ?KA J= = E B H =?E I >HA = FH >=>E E@=@ IE F A G = (V, A)

?=> A GKA K A @ I H@A =@ HAI FAA = A I @ I ?=> AI A I= A GKA F=HJA @A H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K JA EA @ A @A GKA IA @= A K = ? ANE

- AH?E?E " 5A= = IECKEA JA =JHE = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI K H> ,AJAH E =H IE = = =@EH = =HEIJ= {1, 5} KAL CH=B (V, A {{1, 5}}) AI K H> EEE ,AJAH E =H I CH=@ I @A J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G EL ,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B (V, A {{1, 5}}) AI -K AHE=

#

- AH?E?E I HAIKA J I

- AH?E?E &

=I HKA@=I GKA IA FE@A IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? K F C ?AHH=@ @A ! " # O $ =@ I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ? K L HJE?A =@E?E = A A E JAHE H O H=@E I @AI@A AIJA L HJE?A = ?=@= K @A I L HJE?AI @A F C LAH W5 A = CKH= # !'

#

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 K ?K> JHE@E A IE =

$

- AH?E?E ' 5A FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? - AH?E?E  -I?HE>E

I K3 = ({1, 2, 3}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1}}) 5E BKAH= >EF=HJE@ IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI V IA F @H = AI?HE>EH ? K E @EI K J= @A @ I ? K J I L=? I @EC= I V1 O V2 5E BKAH= >EF=HJE@ F @A I IKF AH IE FAH@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@ GKA 1 V1 A?AI=HE= A JA I L HJE?AI O ! GKA I =@O=?A JAI ?  @A>A AIJ=H A V2 GKA @= K = ? JH=@E??E O= GKA I =@O=?A JAI 5A=

C6 = ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5}, {5, 6}, {6, 1}}).
6 = I 1 V1 A J ?AI 2, 6 V2 ,A AIJA @ 3, 1 V1 )I V1 = {1, 3, 5} O V2 = {2, 4, 6} ?K F A =I ? @E?E AI F=H= GKA C6 IA= >EF=HJE@

- AH?E?E  *=IJ= J

=H HA?J=I F=H= A =I I >HA K = @A A =I =H?=H FK J I O I >HA = JH= =H?=H # FK J I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ! O " O HAFHAIA J=H J @ I I IAC A J I GKA K A K = =H?= @A K = @A =I HA?J=I ? K = =H?= @A = JH= LAH K4,4 A = CKH= # " + ?=@= L HJE?A @A V1 |V1 | = n D= @A K EHIA ? |V2 | = m A J J= @A =HEIJ=I AI mn ?=@= L HJE?A @A V2 ?AI

- AH?E?E 

*=IJ= AI?HE>EH V = {1, 2, 3} O V = {1 , 2 , 3 } A J

K3,3 = (V V , V V )

H = ({1, 2, 3, 1 , 2 , 3 }, {{1, 2 }, {2, 2 }, {3, 1 }, {3, 2 }, {3, 3 }})

; @A ECK= = AH= AI?HE>EH A ? K J @A L HJE?AI @A = CKH= GKA I HAIFA?JEL= A JA I CH=B I O =HEIJ=I @A

G = ({a, b, c, d, e}, {{a, b}, {c, b}, {c, d}, {d, e}, {a, e}}) G = ({a, b, f }, {{a, b}, {f, b}, {a, f }})
,A @ GKA G G AI A CH=B HAFHAIA J=@

G G = ({a, b, c, d, e, f }, {{a, b}, {c, b}, {c, d}, {d, e}, {a, e}, {f, b}, {a, f }})

+)2 67

/4). 5

- AH?E?E ! 5A= G = (V, E ) O G = (V , E ) ?

|V @A @A @A @

|V | = n |E | = m | = n O |E | = m - J ?AI A ? K J @A L HJE?AI @A G G AI V V @ GKA F H = HAC = @A ?=H@E = @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A AH L HJE?AI @A G G AI nn 5A= (v, v ) K L HJE?A @A CH=B FH @K?J 2 H E?E @A FH @K?J @A CH=B I IA LAHE ?= GKA gr((v, v )) = gr(v ) + gr(v ) @A gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A v A G O gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A v A G ,A AIJA @ (v,v )V V gr((v, v )) = n vV gr(v ) + nvV gr(v ).

5A ?

? KOA =F E?= @ A 6A HA = #  

L HJE?AI @EC= I V3 =I F= =>H=I @A JHAI >EJAI - ?K> Q2 V2 =I F= =>H=I @A @ I >EJAI - ?K> Q1 V1 =I F= =>H=I @A K >EJ - FH @K?J Q1 Q2 JEA A ? L HJE?AI A FH @K?J V1 V2 AIJ AI IKI L HJE?AI I F=HAI @A = B H = (a1 , a2 a3 ) @ @A a1 , a2 , a3 {0, 1} - EI H I @A CH=B I IA AIJ=> A?A @A = IECKEA JA = AH= f : V1 V2 V3 @A @ GKA f ((a1 , a2 a3 )) = a1 a2 a3 ; = HA =?E @A =@O=?A ?E= A A FH @K?J IA AA (a1 , a2 a3 ) O (b1 , b2 b3 ) I =@O=?A JAI IE O I = A JA IE >EA a1 = b1 O a2 a3 AI =@O=?A JA ? b2 b3 A Q2 >EA a2 a3 = b2 b3 O a1 AI =@O=?A JA ? b1 A Q1 -IJ AI AGKEL= A JA = @A?EH GKA ANEIJA K E? L= H i {1, 2, 3} @A @ GKA ai = bi GKA C=H= JE = GKA f AI K EI H I @A CH=B I

- AH?E?E " - ?K> Q3 JEA A ?

- AH?E?E #

I CH=B I K4 O W3 JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA ?K= GKEAH L HJE?A AIJ ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I @A I 6EA A A NE @A =HEIJ=I F IE> AI A K CH=B @A 4 L HJE?AI 2 H J= J I EI HB I - CH=B K1,3 JEA A K L HJE?A ? A?J=@ ? I JH I 3 GKA AIJ @A I? A?J=@ I A JHA I FKA@A IAH EI HB = I JH I @ I CH=B I I @A = CKH= # " I EI HB I O= GKA = > I IA FKA@A LAH ? = K E @A @ I ?E? I C5 GKA ? F=HJA " L HJE?AI I @A = CKH= # # I EI HB I O= GKA A CH=B G JEA A AN=?J= A JA @ I IK>CH=B I EI HB I = C4 K E JAHE H O JH ANJAHE H EA JH=I GKA A H ? JEA A 3 IK>CH=B I EI HB I = C4  I @ I @A CH=B G IA H > = = E GKEAH@=

- AH?E?E $

#

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

$!

- AH?E?E % K4 :

0 1 A= 1 1 C4 : 0 1 A= 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

W3 = HKA@= AIJ B H =@= F H A ?E? C3 O K L HJE?A ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I @A ?E? 5A= v1 @E?D L HJE?A O v2 , v3 , v4 I @A ?E? - J ?AI 0 1 A= 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

K3,2 : K ?EAHJ ? K J @A JHAI L HJE?AI v1 , v2 O v3  AIJ ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I A A A J I @A K ? K J @A @ I L HJE?AI v4 O v5  - J ?AI A= 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

- AH?E?E & -IJ=> A ?=

@A L HJE?AI = > ? @ A - J

I F=H= A FHE AH CH=B ?AI

= IECKEA JA H@A =?E

A=

0 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0

$" - A IACK @ CH=B - J ?AI H@A = 0 1 0 0 0 1 I

+)2 67 I L HJE?AI @A IECKEA JA 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

# @

/4). 5

=>?@AB

1 0 1 0 0 1

- AH?E?E ' 0=O

 n2 + 1 =IEC =?E AI  K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n 1 LA?AI A A GKA IA D=?A @ I =IEC =?E AI A AL=H K = =JHE = = F JA ?E= j GKA AGKEL= A = K JEF E?=H = F H I EI = j LA?AI K JEF E?=H @ I =JHE?AI n n IKF A F H ?=@= = O ? K = GKA IA K JEF E?= n FH @K?J I O n 1 IK =I AI @A?EH K J J= @A n2 (2n 1) FAH=?E AI - ? ? KIE A AL=H = =JHE = = F JA ?E= j 2 IKF A jn (2n 1) FAH=?E AI K = IK = @A @ I =JHE?AI nn GKA IKF A n2 IK =I @A I A A A J I @A = >=I =JHE?AI = IK = j + 1 1 2 5 - J J= IA HA= E = 3 + n2 + n j =1 jn (2n 1) O (n ) ! = LAHE ?=?E @A IE I n2 A A A J I @A = =JHE B I I ?AH 2 6 J= n FAH=?E AI - = C HEJ JEA A F H J= J ? F A E@=@ GK JE?= E ? @ I L= HAI A 3 O A 5 F H A A F  IA FKA@A LAH ? K = =HEIJ= A JHA @ I L HJE?AI v3 O v5 A A A A F  K J=H @E?D= ?D= ? JH= A K = KC=@= @A @ E F H A A F ? = GKA JEA A K 5 O K 1 AGKEL= A = ? IE@AH=H K ?= E A A CH=B F H A A F v3 , v5 , v1  + AIJA AIGKA = K = IAHEA @A KC=@=I @A @ E AI I GKA K ?= E A A CH=B ? F AJ K7 ,E?D CH=B AI ? AN JEA A 7 L HJE?AI O A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI 6 K AH F=H 2 @A I C=H= JE =H A J ?AI = ANEIJA ?E= @A = A I K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= IE F A - JH=I F= =>H=I JA A I C=H= JE =@ GKA AI F IE> A A ?= =H J @=I =I FEA =I @A @ E

- AH?E?E   7 = ?D= @A @

- AH?E?E

,A I ?K=JH L HJE?AI @A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J=H = = FKA JAI JHAI JEA A CH=@ JHAI O A JH JEA A CH=@ ?E ? 2 H J= J

 

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- AH?E?E 

5E = CH=B H A GKEJ I @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ 4 GKA JEA A O IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI I GKA@= JHAI ? F A JAI ? AN=I 2 H J= J A CH=B FKA@A IAH D= E J E= I L HJE?AI a O e JA A I = F=HJEH @A I ? ?K I A I =FK JAI GKA = CEJK@ E = @A a = f AI 5 O = @A a = d AI 6. 2 H J= J = CEJK@ E = @A a = g JEA A GKA IAH min{L(f )+1, L(d)+3} = 6 - A ?=I @A I L HJE?AI g O c JA A I GKA E F A A J=H A = C HEJ @A ,E IJH= @A KAL 5A= T = {g } L(f ) = L(g ) + 3 = 3 L(h) = L(g ) + 4 = 4 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= f 2 H J= J T = {g, f } L(e) = L(f ) + 1 = 4 L(i) = L(f ) + 2 = 5 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= e O h 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h} L(a) = L(h) + 5 = 9, L(i) = L(h) + 4 = 8 > 5, L(d) = L(e) + 3 = 7 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= i 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i} L(d) = L(i) + 3 = 8 > 7, L(b) = L(i) + 1 = 6 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= b 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i, b} L(a) = L(b) + 2 = 8 < 9, L(c) = L(b) + 3 = 9 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= d 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i, b, d} L(c) = L(d) + 5 = 12 > 9 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= a O L= A 8 - L= H @A L F=H= A JE L HJE?A GKA AI c AI 9 + ? KIE - ?= E E A JHA g O c JEA A CEJK@ 9 O HA? HHA I L HJE?AI g, f, i, b, c

- AH?E?E  ! - A ?=I @A

- AH?E?E  " 8AH = CKH= # !"

AH NE @A ? F=H=?E AI AI A AH NE @A L HJE?AI GKA IA FKA@A HA? HHAH -I @A?EH h + 1 IEA @ h = = JKH= @A H> 5A= h = = JKH= @A H> I @=J I IA FKA@A H@A =H A@E= JA K = HA =?E GKA @A J= I F H < - JH=@= - H> 5= E@= - @=J A?JKH= H= IK H= O K @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A E C

- AH?E?E  # -

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.ECKH= # !" - AH?E?E  "

9DE A AC= I = K = D = = @ 5= E@= - @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A E C L HJE?A 1B A?JKH=<@=J JDA I LA I = = H= = @AHA?D= @A ELA E BAHE H 1B A?JKH=>@=J JDA I LA I = = H= = E GKEAH@= @A ELA E BAHE H 1B A?JKH= @=J JDA 5= E@= A @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A K L HJE?A 5= E@= - A FA H @A I ?=I I A @=J AI K = AJEGKAJ= A A H> O A H> >E =HE @A = JKH= h JEA A n = 1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2h = 2h+1 1 @=J I 2=H= ?= E =H IE K @=J @=@ AIJ A A H> @A>A I D=?AH h + 1 A?JKH=I A ?= E I =HC GKA D=O A A CH=B JEA A h + 1 L HJE?AI 2 H J= J A AH NE @A A?JKH=I AI log2 (n + 1) O(log n) - ?=@= A?JKH= D=?A I K = ? F=H=?E = ? F A E@=@ AI F H J= J C=H J E?= AIJ AI O(log n)

- AH?E?E  $ 6

= I@ I A@=I O =I F A I A IA @ I F =JE I @A = >= = = 0=O @ I F IE>E E@=@AI GKA FAIA EI GKA 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA K = @A =I @ I AI = >KI?=@= 6 = I K = @A =I A@=I  = GKA AIJ = = @AHA?D= F H A A F  O K = @A =I GKA DA I FAI=@  E CK = @A =I ?K AI FKA@A IAH = >KI?=@= =I F A I A IA @ I F =JE I 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA = A@= GKA AIJ=>= A = FHE AH= FAI=@= A A F =JE E GKEAH@ AI = >KI?=@= 5E FAI= @EIJE J AI = GKA AIJ=>= A A F =JE @AHA?D = >KI?=@=

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5E A = FHE AH= FAI=@= =I A@=I FAI=>= EI A J ?AI J K = @A A =I O K = @A =I GKA DA I FAI=@ 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA = A@= GKA DA FAI=@ A E CK = @A =I @ I FAI=@=I AI = >KI?=@= 5E FAI= EI AI E F E?= GKA = A@= GKA DA FAI=@ = IACK @= LA O = FHE AH= LA AI = >KI?=@= - HAIK A F @A I ?= E =H = A@= A @ I FAI=@=I - H> @A @A?EIE ? HHAIF @EA JA AI >E =HE O JEA A = JKH=

- AH?E?E  % 2 @A

I LAH A H> A = CKH= # !# =I F= =>H=I IA ? @E ?= @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

IAJ=  =J=  IA I=J= 

- AH?E?E  & ) C HEJ

@A 2HE 2=HJE I @A a V (T ) = {a} E (T ) = ) =@E I = =HEIJ= @A a = b O V (T ) = {a, b} ) =@E I i O V (T ) = {a, b, i} ) =@E I f O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f } ) =@E I e O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e} ) =@E I c, g O d O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e, c, g, d} ) =@E I h O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e, c, g, d, h}

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.ECKH= # !$ - AH?E?E  &

) C HEJ @A HKI = + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 1 {b, i} , {f, e} + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 2 {i, f } , {a, b} + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 3 ? ?KE@=@ @A B H =H ?EH?KEJ I {e, d} , {b, c} , {f, g } .E = A JA ? ?= I K = @A =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 4 {g, h} A J ?AI A ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A F AH ? K E @EI K J= @A @ I IK>? K J I @EC= I V1 O V2 2 @A I A J ?AI ? HA=H ? ? HAI @EIJE J I ?=@= K @A I IK>? K J I Vi i = 1, 2 + AIJ= ? H=?E @=@ GKA A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@ D=O K ?= @ I L HJE?AI @A EI ? H K E@ I - IA JE@ FKAIJ IE A CH=B FKA@A IAH ? HA=@ I ? @ I ? HAI F @A I @ELE@EH I L HJE?AI @A CH=B A @ I IK>? K J I @EI K J I I L HJE?AI @A K ? H O I @A JH I L HJE?AI @A K ? H I A J A = =@ I ? I @A JH -I @A?EH A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@

- AH?E?E  ' - FHE AH KC=H IE A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@

- AH?E?E !
# !%

I JHAI CH=B I I

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I ?

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.ECKH= # !& 7 = HAFHAIA J=?E

@A K7

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@A W5

.ECKH= # " 7 = HAFHAIA J=?E

@A K1,6

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.ECKH= # " 7 = HAFHAIA J=?E

@A K4,4

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7 = HAFHAIA J=?E

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- AH?E?E !! +K= GKEAH

=IFA?J

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K7 JEA A A IECKEA JA

0 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 0

- CH=@ @A ?=@= K @A I % L HJE?AI AI $ F H J= J = IK = @A I CH=@ I AI " @A @ GKA K7 JEA A  =HEIJ=I 5E J I L HJE?AI K AH=@ I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} F @A I AI?HE>EH =I =HEIJ=I ?

{{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 7}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {2, 5}, {2, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 4}, {3, 5}, {3, 6}, {3, 7}, {4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}}
2 H J= J K = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I GKA IECKA AIJA H@A AI

1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 1

J=I

- CH=B W5 JEA A $ L HJE?AI @EC=

I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} O =I IECKEA JAI =HEI

{{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5}, {5, 1}, {1, 6}, {2, 6}, {3, 6}, {4, 6}, {5, 6}}

#

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%! =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A

5ECKEA @ AIJA H@A @A L HJE?AI JA ?E=I A E ?E@A ?E=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0

- CH=B K1,6 JEA A % L HJE?AI @EC=

I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} O JEA A =I =HEIJ=I

{{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 7}}
)I H@A =@ I I L HJE?AI O =I =HEIJ=I IK =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 JA A I IK =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I O

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

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- CH=B K4,4 JEA A & L HJE?AI GKA FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? {1, 2, 3, 4, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } O $ =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? A A @ @A A = {1, 2, 3, 4} O A = {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } 5E H@A = I I L HJE?AI =I JA A I = IECKEA JA =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 ; IE H@A = I IAH 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 =I =HEIJ=I A H@A ANE? CH ? IK =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

- ?K> Q4 JEA A $ =HEIJ=I GKA ? HHAIF

@A = =I F= =>H=I @A " >EJAI

{0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 1000, 0011, 0101, 1001,

1010, 1100, 0110, 0111, 1011, 1101, 1110, 1111}

+=@= K @A I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ " F H J= J = IK = @A J @ I I CH=@ I @= $" - J ?AI Q4 JEA A ! =HEIJ=I = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I = @A = I = A?J H = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I IAC AIJA H@A AI

#

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0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0

- AH?E?E !" - FHE AH @A

CH=@ I AI ! GKA AI K IK = @A I CH=@ I @A AI F IE> A F H A A F

I ?=I I AI F IE> A FKAI = IK = @A I AH E F=H A ? JH=@E??E ? A DA?D @A GKA = I L HJE?AI AI LA?AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I - IACK @

({a, b, c, d, e}, {{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {a, e}, {b, c}, {c, e}, {d, e}})
@ @A gr(a) = 4 gr(b) = 2 gr(c) = 3 gr(d) = 2 O gr(e) = 3

- AH?E?E !# - CH=B K1,6 = (V, E ) JEA A % L HJE?AI O $ =HEIJ=I

({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1 }, {{1, 1 }, {2, 1 }, {3, 1 }, {4, 1 }, {5, 1 }, {6, 1 }}).
- CH=B W3 = (V , E ) JEA A " L HJE?AI O $ =HEIJ=I

({1, 2, 3, 4}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}).
- = > I ?=I I IA JEA A ? IK>CH=B I I CH=B I ?KO ? K J @A =HEIJ=I AI L=? -I @A?EH @A = B H = (A, ) @ @A A AI K IK>? K J ?K= GKEAH= @A V HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A V  0=O 27 O 24 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF HAIFA?JEL= A JA

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5E J = I @ I L HJE?AI I KAL I CH=B I IA A??E =@ I A A F HH=B = JAHE H IA ? IJHKOA J = @ A F=H @A L HJE?AI O = =HEIJ= GKA I K A - J ?AI D=O J= J I ? =HEIJ=I AIJ AI $ A ?=@= ?=I 5E J = I JHAI L HJE?AI O I @A I @A FHE AH F HH=B A J ?AI FKA@A JA AH  @ I =HEIJ=I 5E JEA A =HEIJ=I AIJ=I A?AI=HE= A JA @A>A JA AH K ANJHA A ? 2=H= ? IJHKEH K CH=B ? ! L HJE?AI O K = =HEIJ= IA J = K = =HEIJ= IKI ANJHA I O JH L HJE?A ?K= GKEAH= @EIJE J @A IKI ANJHA I - A FHE AH ?=I D=O $ # ! @A AIJ I CH=B I A A IACK @  2=H= ? IJHKEH K CH=B ? @ I =HEIJ=I O ! L HJE?AI D=O GKA J =H @ I =HEIJ=I GKA ? F=HJ= K ANJHA O IKI JHAI L HJE?AI - A FHE AH ?=I ?=@= @A AIJ I CH=B I F=H @A =HEIJ=I ? F=HJA A ANJHA 1 F H J= J D=O 6 2 A IACK @ ?=I ? ?=@= L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ ! A AH @A CH=B I @A AIJA JEF GKA ? F=HJA K L HJE?A =@ AI ! ,A AIJA @ D=O  CH=B I @A AIJA JEF 5E J = I " L HJE?AI A A IACK @ @A I ?=I I AIJ= I J = @ J @ I I L HJE?AI @A @ GKA ? ? K J @A =HEIJ=I IA FKA@A J =H ?K= GKEAH IK>? K J @A ? K J @A IKI =HEIJ=I )I D=O 26 1 A L=? O= DA I ? IE@AH=@  CH=B I @A AIJA JEF + ?K=JH L HJE?AI A A FHE AH @A I ?=I I I @A IECKEA JA JEF 5E ? JEA A = 1 O= AIJ ? IE@AH=@ I FKAI A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I AI L=? 5E ? JEA A = 1 A J ?AI F @A I J =H K = @ I JHAI @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? JEA A )I @A AIJA JEF D=O 7 6 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF 3 ,A EI @ F=H= # L HJE?AI ,A>A ? JA AH = 1 O IA FKA@A J =H  ! " @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A 0=O A J ?AI 15 6 4 + $ L HJE?AI @A>A ? JA AH = 1 O D=O GKA J =H @A  = # @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? JEA A D=O (25 1) 6 + % L HJE?AI D=O GKA ? IE@AH=H ?K= GKEAH IK>? K J @A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I I= L A L=? GKA O= AIJ ? IE@AH=@  - J ?AI D=O 26 1 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF

- AH?E?E !$

5AC A JA HA = @A -K AH K CH=B =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= IE J @ I IKI L HJE?AI AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= O I CH=@ I @A IKI L HJE?AI I J @ I AH I F=HAI - A ?=I @A CH=B ? F AJ Kn ?=@= L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ n 1 A J ?AI IAH AK AHE= IE O I = A JA IE n E F=H - A ?=I @A ?E? Cn A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI F H GKA IEA FHA =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= - A ?=I @A Wn D=O L HJE?AI @A CH=@ ! F H GKA =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A E C ?=I JAIA GKA J @ I AIJ I CH=B I I ? AN I

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%%

- AH?E?E !% *=IJ= AI?HE>EH J= J I FK J I ?

=I  ? K =I JA C= = =JHE K AH @ I IAC A KC=H @A IK HAIFA?JEL= = - JHA ?=@= F=H @A FK J I i O j IA HAFHAIA J= J= J=I =HEIJ=I IAC A J I GKA K A A FK J K AH=@ ? = i ? A K AH=@ ? = j ? E @EGKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I A A IK J H E Aij

- AH?E?E !& 5A ? IE@AH= =

5A KI= A JA HA = F H A A AH @A =HEIJ=I + =@O=?A JAI ? A J A A A J I @A = = i IE

=JHE ? K = EIJ= ? @ I IK> @E?AI GKA = IK = @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI LA?AI A CH=@ @A K L HJE?A AI A AH @A L HJE?AI ?AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A i IE AI = IK = @A I = @A = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A CH=B

- JH=@= a11 ann S := 0 . Hi=1J n . Hj=1J n S := S + aij 5= E@= S/2 5E A J= = @A = A JH=@= AI n A AH @A L HJE?AI @A CH=B = ? F A E@=@ AI ?K=@H JE?= FKAI A >K? A E JAHE H IA HAFEJA n LA?AI ?=@= LA GKA i J = K ?EAHJ L= H

- AH?E?E !' 2HE AH D=O GKA ?

FH >=H GKA J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= LAH FH ?JE?= @A =F A 7 = LA DA?D AIJ L= I ? FKJ= @ I CH=@ I @A ?=@= L HJE?A O LEA @ IE AI F=H - JH=@= a11 ann S := 2 . H i = 1 J n MDE A Smod2 = 0 S := 0 . Hj=1J n S := S + aij 1B Smod2 = 0 JDA R :=-I AK AHE= 5= E@= R

A IA R :=

AI AK AHE=

+ IE@AH= @ n A J= = @A = A JH=@= O IE ? IE@AH=H A FH > A = @A = ? ANE A = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= FKAI D=O @ I >K? AI = E@=@ I GKA IA HA= E = n LA?AI ?=@= K O A ?=@= HAFAJE?E ABA?J = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI

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+)2 67

/4). 5

$ H@A =@ HAI L HJE?AI O $ ?=> AI =HEIJ=I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K ?=> A AI 0.1 -I A J ?AI K ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E ? FH >=>E E@=@ @A NEJ 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH = A I @ I NEJ I AI

- AH?E?E " E 5A JH=J= @A K = HA@ ?

6 k=2

6 (0.1)k (0.9)6k . k
ACKA ?KHHA ?K= @ IA @= = I ?=> AI @A ? K J

EE = E?= = AH= @A GKA = E B H =?E = = LA A ?=> A {1, 2} O = A I K @A

{{1, 5}, {5, 4}, {4, 3}, {3, 2}}.

2 H J= J =I ? HAIFA?JEL=I 0.1 O IE@AH=@ I I IK?AI I E @AFA @EA JAI @A FH >=>E E@=@AI

4 k=1

4 (0.1)k (0.9)4k . k

- HAIK J=@ FA@E@ AI A FH @K?J @A = >=I FH >=>E E@=@AI F A JAI ? AN=I = GKA B H = I L HJE?AI {1, 2, 3, 4} O IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I O = GKA B H = I L HJE?AI HAIJ= JAI O IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I ,A AIJA @ AI ? AN FKA@A IAH K H> 5E = =@E I = =HEIJ= {1, 5} A KAL CH=B AI ? AN FAH ? JEA A K ?E? B H =@ F H I L HJE?AI ! O " F H GKA IECKA IE IAH K H> 6 = @ I L HJE?AI A A H@A GKA E @E?= = =JHE = IK?AIE @A IKI CH=@ I AI JH= ? I= GKA = IK = @A I J H E I @A ?=@= = =I gr(1) = 1 gr(2) = 3 gr(3) = 2 gr(4) = 2 gr(5) = 1 gr(6) = 2 gr(7) = 2 gr(8) = 1 ) = =@EH = =HEIJ= {1, 5} A CH=@ @A I L HJE?AI  O # =K A J= A K = K E@=@ 2AH F H A A F A CH=@ @A L HJE?A & IECKA IEA @ E F=H F H GKA A CH=B FKA@A IAH AK AHE=

- AH?E?E " - CH=B G JEA A @ I ?