Higher Order Modelling for

Computational Electromagnetics
Roberto D. Graglia
Dipartimento di Elettronica
Politecnico di Torino Italy
e-mail: roberto.graglia@polito.it

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Higher Order Modelling for

Computational Electromagnetics
Roberto D. Graglia
Dipartimento di Elettronica e Telecomunicazioni
Politecnico di Torino Italy
e-mail: roberto.graglia@polito.it

Considered equations & problems

We deal with Electromagnetic problems modelled by
Maxwells equations.
The techniques described have applications to many
practical problems, e.g.: EMC & EMP; Shielding radiation
from printed circuits; Microwave hazards; Electromagnetic
radiation from and penetration into vehicles, aircrafts,
ships, missiles; Antennas near ground; Design of
frequency selective surfaces for reflector antennas and
radomes; Radar scattering; Propagation in optical
components & systems; etc.

Numerical methods (for linear problems)

- in 3 slides For a linear, inhomogeneous equation:

Introduce a set of testing functions {wm}, and a suitable inner product

Then obtain a matrix equation

with

for a square, non-singular matrix

The solution

may be exact

or approximate depending on the choice of {fn} and {wm}

if wn=fn Galerkins method
10

How to choose {fn}, {wm}?

The set {fn} (linearly independent functions) has to
approximate f reasonably well;
The set {fn} could be chosen in order to satisfy the
BCs (FEM applications) ;
The set {wm} (linearly independent functions) has to
be chosen so that <wm, g> depends on relatively
independent properties of g;
The choice depends on the desired accuracy of the
solution;
The ease of evaluation of matrix elements;
The realization of a well-conditioned matrix [m,n].
11

Representations of Fields in Terms of Potentials (Frequency-Domain)

Solutions of Maxwells equations can be expressed in terms of potentials:

12

Representations of Fields in Terms of Potentials (Frequency-Domain)

Solutions of Maxwells equations can be expressed in terms of potentials:

13

 To invert the differential operator is to solve the problem

to do this one has to know (find) the Green function
G of the given problem;
If G is known, then the solution is simply obtained by
integration;
Unfortunately, for all problems of practical interest G is
unknown numerical approaches to
differential/integral problems are required because of the
ignorance of the Green function;
The numerical problem could be well- or bad-posed; this
depends on the properties of the operator;
14

 In general, in integral formulations, use of the proper

(unknown) G is avoided by resorting to general
principles (e.g., equivalence principle), or to integral
theorems (e.g., Green theorems);
Integral formulations guarantee the BCs and all the
physical properties of the solutions, as a matter of
fact, in many cases, the proper integral equations are
obtained only at the moment of imposing the BCs (in
the finite region);
This is why IE are widely used in EM (since radiation
conditions / far-field conditions are automatically
satisfied);
Because of the Green kernel, the matrix approximation
of the problem is given by a dense matrix.
15

FEM

MOM

Differential formulation

Integral formulation

Non linear problems can be dealt

with

Applications to linear problems are

well known

BCs have to be enforced

BCs automatically satisfied

Infinite domains: there is some

problems

Infinite domains: no problem

Sparse matrices

Dense matrices (problems in

dealing with very large problems)

The integrals to be evaluated are

simple

The singularities of the kernel

render numerical integration quite
difficult

Complex geometry are easily dealt

with

Higher order models have been

introduced more recently

16

Higher order modelling

Required:
To better represent the geometry of the problem.
To reduce the L2 (least squares norm) of the
solution error on regions of interest.
-

It usually improves the convergence of the results and/or reduces the

size of the numerical matrices.

Higher order modelling

Regarding the geometry of the problem;
need to approximate the curvature of the geometry;
need to approximate small details in multiscale problems.

use subsectional bases thereby subdividing the geometry into

simple (curved) elements of small size.

18

Use subsectional bases thereby subdividing the geometry

into simple (curved) elements of small size.

Pablo Picasso: "Retrato de Ambroise Vollard (1910).

19

Regarding the geometry of the problem

Contribution from specular points (in the optical limit).
Points of reflection on the body at which the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection relative to the observation point.

e.g., the RCS of a metallic sphere of radius a is =a2

20

In the high-frequency range, the PEC-sphere models shown

here poorly model the commonly used sphere-benchmark (see
below)

NASA Communications Satellite

Echo Project (1960-1969)

21

Regarding the geometry of the problem

Travelling waves (contribution from points with high curvature).

e.g., estimation of the near-nose-on

cross-sections of long, thin bodies.

22

Regarding the geometry of the problem

Creeping waves

of importance for the analysis in the shadow region

(the importance of the creeping waves depends on the
dimension in wavelength of the body).
23

Higher order modelling

Regarding the expansion/testing functions used in the
numerical application.
reduce the L2 (least squares norm) of the solution error on
regions of interest;
improve convergence of the results;
reduce the size of the numerical matrices.
use vector functions of high polynomial order.

24

How to get curved (i.e., distorted) elements.

Source: Zinkiewiczs book

25

How to get curved / distorted elements.

Any curved cell is obtained by mapping a parent cell into the
object domain.
The parent cell for triangular patches is a rectilinear triangle.
In object space, the 3 edges are the zero-coordinate lines 1, 2,
3=0.
i is the area coordinate i = Ai /AT
Dependency relations: 1 + 2 + 3 = 1

How to get curved / distorted elements.

The rectilinear triangle on the right-hand side is
r = 1 r1+ 2 r2+ 3 r3
Where 1, 2, 3 are 3 linear shape functions, each associated
to a different corner node of the cell.

Interpolatory polynomials
for shape functions.

Use Lagrange interpolation polynomials written in

terms of interpolatory polynomials of Silvester.

Interpolatory polynomials of Silvester

Use polynomials of degree i in , where is in the interval
[0, 1].
The parameter p indicates the number of uniform subintervals
into which the interval is divided.
The polynomial is unity at =i/p and has zeros at =0, 1/p, 2/p,
, (i-1)/p

1 i 1
k 0 ( p k ) 1 i p
Ri ( p, ) i!

1
i0

Silvester polynomials: example for p=1

There are 2 polynomials: one of 0th and one of 1st degree.
Please draw the polynomials on the interval [0, 1].

R0 (1, ) 1; R1 (1, )
1 i 1
k 0 ( p k ) 1 i p
Ri ( p, ) i!

1
i0

Silvester polynomials: example for p=1

There are 2 polynomials: one of 0th and one of 1st degree.
Please draw the polynomials on the interval [0, 1].

R0 (1, ) 1; R1 (1, )

Silvester polynomials: example for p=2

Three polynomials: one of 0th, one of 1st and one of 2nd degree.
Please draw these polynomials on the interval [0, 1].
R0 (2, ) 1; R1 (2, )

2
2 (2 1)
; R2 (2, )
1
1 2

1 i 1
k 0 ( p k ) 1 i p
Ri ( p, ) i!

1
i0

Silvester polynomials: example for p=2

Please draw these 3 polynomials on the interval [0, 1].
2 (2 1)
2
R0 (2, ) 1; R1 (2, )
; R2 (2, )
1
1 2

Scalar Lagrangian interpolation on the

canonical elements: the segment.
There are two coordinates: 1, 2 .
These are dependent coordinates (1+2 =1)
ij(1, 2 )=Ri(p, 1)Rj(p, 2 ) with i+j=p
is a p-th order Lagrangian polynomial
interpolating points within a segment whose
normalized coordinates (1, 2 ) are (i/p, j/p).

34

Interpolation on a segment, example for p=1

There are two interpolatory polynomials of 1st degree.
ij(1, 2 )=Ri(p, 1)Rj(p, 2 ), (with i+j=1).
Please draw the polynomials on the interval 1=[0,

1].

10 (1 , 2 ) R1 (1, 1 ) R0 (1, 2 ) 1
01 (1 , 2 ) R0 (1, 1 ) R1 (1, 2 ) 2
35

Interpolation on a segment, example for p=1

10 (1 , 2 ) R1 (1, 1 ) R0 (1, 2 ) 1
01 (1 , 2 ) R0 (1, 1 ) R1 (1, 2 ) 2

36

Interpolation on a segment, example for p=2

Example for p=2: there are three interpolatrory
polynomials of 2nd degree.
ij(1, 2 )=Ri(p, 1)Rj(p, 2 ), (with i+j=2).
Please draw the polynomials on the interval 1=[0, 1].

21 (21 1)
20 (1 , 2 ) R2 (2, 1 ) R0 (2, 2 )
2
11 (1 , 2 ) R1 (2, 1 ) R1 (2, 2 ) 21 2 2
2 2 (2 2 1)
02 (1 , 2 ) R0 (2, 1 ) R2 (2, 2 )
2
37

Interpolation on a segment for p=2

21 (21 1)
20 (1 , 2 ) R2 (2, 1 ) R0 (2, 2 )
2

11 (1 , 2 ) R1 (2, 1 ) R1 (2, 2 ) 21 2 2
2 2 (2 2 1)
02 (1 , 2 ) R0 (2, 1 ) R2 (2, 2 )
2

38

Scalar Lagrangian interpolation

on a segment.

For the p-th order Lagrangian polynomial

interpolation of a segment there are (p+1) interpolating
polynomials of p-th degree.

39

Parameterization of the points on a triangle.

Recall that the coordinates of a rectilinear triangle may be

parameterized as
1 1 2 2 3 3 ,
where ri is a vertex position vector for vertex i.

40

Parametrization of the points on a triangle.

A Lagrange parametrization of order q for a curvilinear

triangle can be expressed in terms of interpolating
polynomials of the Silvester form as:

i , j ,k 0

ijk

Ri (q, 1 ) R j (q, 2 ) Rk (q, 3 ), i j k q

where a triple indexing scheme is used to label the position

vector rijk interpolating the point with normalized coordinates
(1, 2, 3)=(i/q, j/q, k/q).

Geometry description for a triangle.

Normalized coordinates related by 1 + 2+ 3 =1
Edge vectors derived from the independent coordinates 1 and 2
i=r/ i , i=1,2,
from which the edge vectors that follow are found:

Edge vectors of a triangle.

1 = - 2,
2 = 1,
3 = 2 - 1

Gradient vectors of a triangle.

The gradient vectors are determined from the edge
vectors as:
i = (n x i ) /J
where n = 1 x 2/J is the unit vector normal to the
triangle while J= | 1 x 2| is the Jacobian.

Edge and gradient vectors of a triangle.

The above definitions for edge, (height) and gradient vectors
apply for triangles on curved surfaces with an extended
interpretation

Triangle tangent to a curvilinear triangle at a point. The curvilinear

and (rectilinear) tangent triangles have the same element coordinates,
Jacobian, edge vectors, and height vectors at the point of tangency.

Why to use curved (i.e., distorted) elements?

the same model (that is, the same database) used by
structural /mechanical engineers can be used this is a
big plus!!!
better approximations of boundaries are obtained
with very small error in volume/surface/line models (no
rescaling)
usually a smaller number of unknowns is needed whenever
higher-order expansion functions are used shorter
computation time

46

Why to use curved (i.e., distorted) elements?

mixed approaches (FEM + MoM) are facilitated because
the expansion functions of the two methods can be chosen
within the same set.
there is the possibility to construct singular functions able
to model singular current or field behaviors (though
applications of this are rather new).
But, is there any problem?

47

But, is there any problem?

In FEM applications you now have to use quadrature to
evaluate the matrix entries, whereas for non-distorted cells
there are often closed form results possible.
For MoM applications people are already using quadrature,
but the treatment of the Green's function singularity might be
different with curved cells.
The main cost of curved cells is
(1) the additional data structure necessary in the model,
(2) the additional computation arising from the quadrature.

48

Vector functions
We first consider the lowest order functions.
Then we move on and consider higher-order vector
functions.

49

The family of generalized triangle basis

functions (for current representation)

Source: Don Wiltons notes

50

Div-Conf functions on a triangular element

Divergence-conforming functions of the Nedelec type

maintain only normal continuity across element
Boundaries (they do not prescribe tangential continuity).

51

Div-Conf functions on a triangular element

They eliminates spurious solution of the EFIE operator

while discarding the highest order degrees of freedom
associated with the nullspace of the divergence operator in
the EFIE operator.
52

Divergence-conforming bases on triangles.

1
1 2 3 3 2 , Zeroth-order bases.
J
Three vector basis
functions of first order.
1
2 3 1 1 3 , They have constant
normal and linear
J
tangential (CN/LT)
components at element
1
edges.
3 1 2 2 1 .
J

53

Curl-conforming bases on triangles.

n :
1 2 3 3 2 ,
2 31 1 3 ,
3 1 2 21.

Zeroth-order bases
Three vector basis functions
of first order.
They have constant
tangential and linear normal
(CT/LN) components at
element edges
(prove this by use of eq.
(48) of 1997 paper).

54

Completeness of zeroth order triangular bases

(we consider only the curl-conforming ones).

1 2 3 3 2 ,
2 31 1 3 ,
3 1 2 21.
The basis set is incomplete to first order since 6 degrees of
freedom are required to model linear variations in two
independent vector components on a surface.

55

Completeness of zeroth order triangular bases

(we consider only the curl-conforming ones).

1 2 3 3 2 ,
2 31 1 3 ,
3 1 2 21.
To render the bases first-order complete one must include the
curl-free combinations:

11 ,
2 2 ,
1 2 21.
56

Completeness of zeroth order triangular bases

(we consider only the curl-conforming ones).

1 2 3 3 2 ,
2 31 1 3 ,
3 1 2 21.
Completeness to zeroth-order is proved by noticing that the
following linear combinations are able to represent two
independent basis vectors on a 2D element (verify this by
yourself and express 3).

2 3 1 ,
3 2 2 .

57

Completeness of zeroth order triangular bases

(we consider only the curl-conforming ones).

1 2 3 3 2 ,
2 31 1 3 ,
3 1 2 21.
The Nedelec conditions also require completeness of the
curl to the same order as the bases. Completeness of the curl
to zeroth-order follows from (verify this by use of (50, 53)
of the 1997 paper).

2
n , 1, 2, 3
J

58

Higher order vector bases

59

Higher order bases

One can construct higher order bases complete to order p by
forming the product of zeroth-order bases with complete
polynomial factors of order p.
The set of polynomials factors used may take one of several
different forms chosen for convenience.
homogeneous : 1r 2s 3t , r s t p
inhomogeneous :

ir js , 0 r s p, i j

interpolatory : R r (p, 1 )R s (p, 2 )R t (p, 3 ) , r s t p

hierarchical : H ijk (1 , 2 , 3 ) , 0 i j k p
60

Interpolatory vector functions

For interpolatory vector functions the key idea is to use shifted
polynomials of Silvester to move interpolation points away
from two of the edges-those along with the tangential (for curlconf.) and the normal (for div.-conf.) components of the 0thorder basis factor vanish.

Interpolation nodes for curl- or divergence-conforming bases on triangular

elements. Only nodes in basis subset 1i j k or 1i j k for p = 3 are shown.
61

Interpolation nodes for curl- or divergence-conforming bases on

quadrilateral elements. Only nodes in basis subset 3ik; j or 3ik; j for
p = 2 are shown.
62

Interpolatory vector functions

The polynomials with interpolating nodes as shown in figure
are of global order p=3, and have the form:
Ri ( p 2, 1) R j ( p 2, 2) R k ( p 2, 3)
i 0,1, , p; j , k 1, 2, , p 1
with i j k p 2

Interpolation nodes for curl- or divergence-conforming bases on triangular

elements. Only nodes in basis subset 1i j k or 1i j k for p = 3 are shown.

63

Volumetric Elements

64

Volumetric Elements

65

Volumetric Elements

66

Volumetric Elements

67

Example of results for surface elements:

INHOMOGENEOUSLY FILLED WAVEGUIDES
3

2.5
5

3
kz/k0

a=2b, h=0.1b
r =10

1.5

m=1

1
0

68

analytical
+, * FEM

0.5

2
0

3
0

5
k0*a

10

INHOM. FILLED WG - RELATIVE ERROR

0

10

-1

RELATIVE ERROR

10

P=1

-2

10

-3

10

-4

10

P=2

P=3

-5

10

10

69

10
MATRIX DIMENSIONS

10

Normal field component at the air-dielectric interface.

Fundamental mode
P=3

P=2

Eya/Eyd

15

r
a

10

a =2b, h =0.2 b
r =10, k0a =7

P=1
5

~ 1800 UNKNOWNS

P=0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

x
70

1.4

1.6

1.8

P
0
1
2
3

N
1641
1873
1897
1681

Image waveguide
- - p=0, (37 incognite), mesh densa

- p=3, (325 incognite), mesh lasca

espansione modale [1]

40

a`

a =1.3 mm, b=1.6 mm,

FREQUENZA

GHz

b`

a` =0.55 mm, b`=0.82 mm

rx =170, ry = ry 85

24 triangoli
19 nodi

291 triangoli
166 nodi

35

modo 2

30

modo 1

25

20

[1] J.I.Askne, E.L. Kolberg, L. Pettersson,``Propagation in a waveguide partially filled with

anisotropic dielectric material``, IEEE Trans. MTT, vol.30, n5, pp.795-799, Maggio 1982.

71

4
K

mm -1

Hierarchical Vector Basis Functions for Meshes with

Hexahedra, Tetrahedra, and Triangular Prism Cells
Roberto D. Graglia*, and Andrew F. Peterson
* Politecnico di Torino ITALY
Georgia Institute of Technology USA
e-mail: roberto.graglia@polito.it ; peterson@ece.gatech.edu

72

NEW VECTOR BASES

Hierarchical curl / divergence-conforming vector bases of
the Nedelec kind for 2D and 3D cells that:
A.Allow one to mesh a structure with differently shaped cells
2D
Triangles & Quadrilaterals
3D
Tetrahedrons & Bricks & Triangular Prisms

B.Yield well-conditioned system matrices, even in case of

high order bases

73

Why Nedelec spaces?

The Nedelec curl-conforming spaces eliminate the degrees
of freedom associated with the gradient of a higher degree
polynomial.
They do this locally, without introducing global constraints
that complicate the definition of basis functions, the
sparseness of the FEM system, boundary conditions, etc.
These are the easy degrees of freedom to discard
(eliminating all the gradient DoF requires global
operations, matrix partitioning, etc.)

Other existing vector bases

In the open literature, only one group has developed (curlconforming) bases with similar features; however those bases
do not satisfy Nedelecs constraints:
S.Zaglmayr, High order Finite Element Methods for
electromagnetic field computation, Ph. D. Thesis, Johannes
Kepler Universitt, Linz, Austria, July 2006.

75

OUR PAPERS ON THIS HIERARCHICAL SUBJECT FOR

TRIANGULAR & TETRAHEDRAL cells,
QUADRILATERAL & BRICK & PRISM cells;
1. A. F. Peterson, R. D. Graglia, Scale factors and matrix conditioning associated with
triangular-cell hierarchical vector basis functions IEEE Antennas and Wireless
Propagation Letters, vol. 9, pages 40-43, 2010.
2. R. D. Graglia, A. F. Peterson, and F. P. Andriulli, Curl-conforming hierarchical vector
bases for triangles and tetrahedra, IEEE TAP, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 950-959, Mar. 2011.
3. A. F. Peterson, R. D. Graglia, Evaluation of hierarchical vector basis functions for
quadrilateral cells, IEEE Trans. Magn., due to appear May 2011.
4. R. D. Graglia, and A. F. Peterson, Hierarchical curl-conforming Nedelec elements for
quadrilateral and brick cells, IEEE TAP, accepted for publication, Dec. 2010.
5. R. D. Graglia, and A. F. Peterson, Hierarchical curl-conforming Nedelec elements for
triangular-prism cells,'' in preparation, Nov. 2010.
6. R. D. Graglia, and A. F. Peterson, Hierarchical divergence-conforming Nedelec elements
for volumetric cells,'' Mar. 2011.

76

HIERARCHICAL BASES: The basis of order m is a subset of the

basis of order (m+1). In FEM and MoM applications, these bases
enable different expansion orders on different elements in the same
mesh (p-adaptation)
Example 2D-polynomial hierarchical bases:
0__

1__

x ______ y

2__

x2 ___ xy ____ y2

3__

x3 __ x2 y ____ x y2 __ y3

4__

x4 __ x3 y __ x2 y2 ___ x y3 __ y4

77

Our idea
We define and work only with hierarchical
polynomial bases;
Then define a redundant complete vector set by
multiplying the zeroth-order vector functions with
the hierarchical polynomials of the base;
and then eliminate redundancy to define the
(unisolvent) hierarchical vector bases.
Same scheme used to define interpolatory
vector bases on elements of different shape.
78

Our idea
or what we actually do
We linearly combine the terms of the existing
HIGH-ORDER INTERPOLATORY VECTOR
bases to form
HIGH
bases

ORDER

HIERARCHICAL

VECTOR

R. D. Graglia, D. R. Wilton, and A. F. Peterson, Higher order interpolatory vector

bases for computational electromagnetics, special issue on Advanced Numerical
Techniques in Electromagnetics, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 45, no. 3,
pp. 329342, Mar. 1997.
79

For the curl-conforming bases, the Generating

Polynomials are subdivided from the outset into three different
groups of edge (E), face (F), and volume-based (V) functions.
For each family, the number of the generating polynomials
and their maximum polynomial order is the same as in the
interpolatory family.

80

The orthogonalization along edges leads to

Legendre polynomials
(Pro) are hierarchical and could define edge-based polynomials;
(Pro) are either symmetric or antisymmetric;
(Con) are orthogonal on the cell edge but not on the faces attached to that edge.

Linear combinations of the face-based polynomials are added

to the edge-based ones to make them orthogonal on the face
also.
81

Linear combinations of the volume-based polynomials

are added to the face-based polynomials to make them
orthogonal on the volume also.

82

Curl-conforming bases
Thus, the definition process for the curl-conforming
case is:
1) First define the volume-based polynomials;
2) Then the face-based ones;
3) Finally the edge-based ones.

83

Div-conforming bases
The generating polynomials are subdivided from the
outset into two different groups of face (F), and
volume-based (V) functions.
For each family, the number of the generating
polynomials and their maximum polynomial order is
the same as in the interpolatory family.
The definition process for the divergence-conforming
case is slightly simpler than the curl-conforming:
1. First define the volume-based polynomials;
2. Then the face-based ones.
84

Div-conforming bases
In this case, the zeroth-order functions are not
associated to the edges but to each cell-face.
Thus, there is the need to choose two reference
parent variables on each cell-face to write the
generating orthogonal polynomials in a way to
easily ensure the continuity of the normal
component of the vector functions across adjacent
elements (i.e., by sign adjustment).
The other face variables are obtained from the
dependency relations.
85

Div-conforming bases
The reference-variables are easily individuated by the
pivoting edges of the face.
The pivoting edges depart from the face corner-node with
the lowest global node-number, and each referencevariable vanishes only on one of the two pivoting edges.

86

To obtain and write down these polynomials

symmetry considerations are extensively used.
This is done to make the tangent (or normal)
vector component continuous across adjacent
cells by sign adjustment only.
The zeroth-order vector functions ALSO show
some symmetry properties.

87

To obtain and write down these polynomials

symmetry considerations are extensively used.
The polynomials at issue are functions of the
element parent variables; keep in mind that:

Line element
Triangular
Quad. & Tetra.
Prism
Brick

2 dependent parent variables;

3 dependent parent variables;
4 dependent parent variables;
5 dependent parent variables;
6 dependent parent variables.

88

There are two important issues

one has to consider in the process
of defining a base
1. Possibly, the orthogonality of the elements in
the base [this requires us to introduce
appropriate inner products!!], and
2. The scale-factor of each element in the base.

89

Example: 3 different bases for vectors on-a-plane.

Which is the best? How do we get it?

90

We normalize the polynomials

in some clever manner
(inner-product definition):

the integral over the edge for edge-based

polynomials Ep
the integral over the face for face-based
polynomials Fp
the integral over the volume for volumebased polynomials Vp
91

 ALL the edge-based polynomials are made

orthogonal over their associated edge, face, and
volume;
ALL the face-based polynomials are made
orthogonal over their associated face and
volume;
ALL the volume-based polynomials are made
orthogonal over the associated volume.

92

Some of the polynomial bases follow

Brick div-conforming bases

93

Few polynomial bases follow

Quadrilateral & brick curl-conforming bases

94

The polynomial bases are normalized

Quadrilateral & brick curl-conforming bases

95

Some numerical results

96

Obtained by use of the Triangular family

97

Obtained by use of the Triangular family

98

Obtained by use of the Quad/Brick family

99

Comparison for quadrilateral bases

The Table shows the matrix condition numbers arising from an 18cell model of a 2:1 rectangular cavity, constructed from a 6 by 3
model with identical, uniform rectangular cells (3 rows of 6
columns each). These results are also obtained from the set of 24
quadratic-tangential/cubic-normal (QT/CuN) bases from each
family.

100

Comparison for quadrilateral bases

The Table compares the matrix condition numbers arising from the
regular 18-cell model of a 2:1 rectangular cavity, constructed from a 6 by
3 model with identical, uniform rectangular cells (3 rows of 6 columns
each).
101

Comparison for quadrilateral bases

The Table shows the matrix condition numbers arising from a different 18-cell
model of a 2:1 rectangular cavity, constructed from a 6 by 3 model with
interior nodes irregularly located to produce skewed quadrilateral cells. This
example also used the set of 24 quadratic-tangential/cubic-normal (QT/CuN)
bases from each family.

102

Comparison for quadrilateral bases

Since the Jorgensen and Graglia functions of order p=2 outperformed the
other families, their performance for order p=3 was also investigated. For
this comparison, the set of 40 unscaled p=3 bases (using just the original
scale factors) was employed, producing a system of order 612. The Table
presents the condition numbers, for the two 18-cell models considered
above.

In summary, the Graglia and Jorgensen bases perform in a very similar

manner as indicated by their matrix condition numbers. The other basis
families produce more ill-conditioned matrices, suggesting that their
linear independence is not as good.

103

For completeness, this Table reports the eigenvalues obtained for the
regular 18-cell mesh, for orders p = 0, 1, 2, and 3, compared to the exact
results.

104

CONCLUSION
With our construction scheme we have obtained the bases for
triangular & quadrilateral cells.
With our construction scheme we have obtained the curl-conforming
bases for tetrahedral, brick and prism cells.
With our construction scheme we have obtained the divergenceconforming bases for 3D elements: tetrahedron, brick and prism.
Our curl-conforming basis family produce well-conditioned matrices;
the other basis families produce more ill-conditioned matrices,
suggesting that their linear independence is not as good.
The transitioning strategy for p-refinement is reported elsewhere.
Our bases can be used to mesh a structure with differently shaped
cells.

105

Singular vector bases

106

Circular vaned waveguide FEM application

=0

elements type and conformity

=1/2

107

Circular vaned waveguide: eigenmodes

=1/2
Singular behavior
Numerical precision
Regular mode
Singular mode

108

Modeling capability: very small thickness

Double-vaned Circular homogeneous waveguide
=2/3

109

Modeling capability:
Multiple singular verteces and
curvilinear singular elements

=/2

=2/3
=
=1/2

=2/3
=3/4

110

The square PEC-plate problem at normal incidence

MoM Application

The results at left (a, c) were

obtained by using the zerothorder regular base (p = 0) on the
dense mesh A.
The results at right (b, d) were
obtained by using the coarse
mesh B and the singular base of
order [p = 2, s = 0].
111

The square PEC-plate problem at normal incidence

112

(10 1) PEC-strip
Normal incidence Ex
Singualar bases p = 2, s = 0

113

The circular PEC-plate at normal incidence

114

The circular PEC-plate at normal incidence (d = /100)

115

Normal incidence on a (1 1) square PEC-plate with a hole of radius r = /10

centered at (x = 0.15, y = +0.15);
the incident magnetic field is polarized in the y-direction.

116

Spherical PEC-shell of radius a = /(2 and aperture angle = 120

illuminated by a planewave propagating in the positivez direction

117

FEM Analysis of Dielectric

Loaded Waveguides with Additive
Hierarchical Singular Vector Elements
Roberto D. Graglia*, Andrew F. Peterson
Ladislau Matekovits*, and Paolo Petrini*
* Politecnico di Torino ITALY
Georgia Institute of Technology USA
APS/URSI 2014, Memphis, TN, USA Thursday, July 10, 2014.
e-mail: roberto.graglia@polito.it ; peterson@ece.gatech.edu
118

Scope of Presentation:
Treatment of vertex singularities in a 2D
triangular-cell mesh
wedge angle singularity with known exponents

High order hierarchical representations

scalar (already done and published)

vector curl-conf (done and in publication)
vector div-conf (future work)
substitutive vs. additive

Examples from cavity/waveguide FEM problems

119

References
R.D. Graglia, A.F. Peterson, L. Matekovits, Singular, hierarchical scalar
basis functions for triangular cells, IEEE Trans. AP, vol. 61, no. 7, pp. 36743692, July 2013.
R.D. Graglia, A.F. Peterson, L. Matekovits, and P. Petrini, Hierarchical
additive basis functions for the finite-element treatment of corner
singularities, Special Issue on Finite Elements for Microwave Engineering,
Electromagnetics, vol. 34, pp. 171-198, March 2014.
R.D. Graglia, A.F. Peterson, L. Matekovits, and P. Petrini, Singular
hierarchical curl-conforming vector bases for triangular cells, IEEE Trans.
AP, due to appear July 2014.
R.D. Graglia, P. Petrini, A.F. Peterson, and L. Matekovits, Full-wave
analysis of inhomogeneous waveguiding structures containing corners with
singular hierarchical curl-conforming vector bases, IEEE AWPL, April 2014.

120

Conclusions from previous works

(PEC edges or corners)
Can achieve true high order behavior, even with edges
However, representation in edge cells requires an additive
expansion with multiple integer exponents and multiple
fractional powers

Relative error for kc 1st TE mode

cells often a quarter wavelength or more in dimension

10

purely polynomial

10

p,1,0
p,1,1
p,2,2

10

p,p,p
limit of accuracy

10

121

PEC Wedge Singularity

n
n
(2 )
Use the infinite wedge solution to identify the series of
fractional exponents needed

122

Dielectric Wedge Singularity

Ez ~
Et ~

n 1

n coeffs. for dielectric wedges (rel. =10)

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

Unbounded fields region

45

90
135
180
225
270
Wedge aperture angle (degrees)

315

360

Use the infinite wedge solution to identify the series of

fractional exponents needed

123

Substitutive vs Additive:
Substitutive: replace one regular basis function
with a singular function
Not recommended for high order bases

Additive: keep original basis functions and add

singular functions to that set
necessary for high order/accuracy
maximum flexibility
difficulty: matrix condition numbers
124

Conclusions from previous works

As expected, conditioning is a problem with additive
functions
some orthogonalization essential
more complete orthogonality leads to lower condition
numbers
(in MoM applications the CN can often be lowered by
using a non-Galerkin approach)

125

Proposed singular bases:

Singular bases to be added to regular, hierarchical
bases without changing the regular bases
Hierarchical
Accommodate a general set of exponents
may have any number of exponents
(may also have singularities at more than one vertex)
may be orthogonal to any number of regular
polynomial bases

126

The key idea:

Field component approximation:
q

Fz Fz poly a zn n
n 1
q

Ft Ft poly
n 1

n
d

an an
d
n k

b0 b
n

127

Notation:
Modified coordinates
i1 i1
1 i
1 i
Singularity incorporated
through radial functions
Rn (k, , )
n: index of exponent
k: number of polynomials used in R to enforce
orthogonality to regular basis functions
: exponent (for the singular functions we use only
the non integer ones)
128

Orthogonality
Rn is orthogonal to shifted Legendre polynomials
1

P (2 1) R (k , , ) d 0,
0

m 0,1, , k 1

and to Ri , for all i<n (3 possibilities)

A:
B:
C:

R (k , , ) R (k , , ) d 0
0

Ri' (k , , ) Rn' (k , , ) d 0
Ri (k , , ) Rn (k , , )

d 0
129

Normalization
(3 possibilities)
nA :
nB :

Rn2 (k , , ) d 1

R (k , , )
1

'
n

d 1
2

Rn (k , , )
nC :
d 1

130

Singular scalar basis functions:

Combine radial dependence with Jacobi
polynomials in to obtain
1
4
1
i 1
j1 R j ( )
4
jm R j ( ) fm 2 ( ) 1 2

ij 1
0 Rj ( )

where

(2m 5)(m 3)(m 4) (2,2)

f m ( )
Pm ( )
32(m 1)(m 2)
131

Singular vector basis functions:

hierarchical polynomial basis subsets are those used in
Graglia, Peterson, Andriulli, Curl conforming
hierarchical vector bases for triangles and tetrahedra,
IEEE Trans. AP, March 2011
Idea is to construct vector bases from gradients of the
scalar bases; these form gradient bases functions with
zero curl
Then we define also (irrational) non-zero curl vector
functions
Linear combinations with regular bases used to minimize
matrix condition numbers
132

Singular vector basis functions:

The (irrational) zero-curl subspace is modelled by:

1
1 2

; Rn (k , , ) f 2
Rn (k , , )
;

8
4

1
1 2

; S n (k , , ) f 2
S n (k , , )

4
8

with:

n k

n
j
an bnj

j 1

n k

1
n 2
j
S n (k , , ) an
bnj
cn
j 1

1
Rn (k , , )
cn

133

Singular vector basis functions:

The (irrational) non-zero-curl subspace is modelled by:

Vn S n (k , , ) 2 1 P i

n
Vn Tn (k , , ) 2 1 P
J

with:
1
S n (k , , )
cn

n k

j 1
an bnj

j 1

dS
Tn (k , , ) 2 S n n
d

134

Singular vector basis functions:

What is new with respect to what we did for the scalar
bases:
The radial functions are obtained numerically by using
a recursive algorithm that involves the solution of a
square linear system. (The normalizing coefficients are the
square root of quadratic forms.)
The list of the singularity coefficients does not consider
the integer singularity coefficients BUT can be changed
according to the aperture angle of the wedge.

135

136

Waveguide problem formulations

Scalar Formulation
T Field Formulation

AS

kc2 B S

AT et kc2 BT et

A 0
TL Field Formulation

0
0

TL

B
C
et
2

e k z
C
D
z

TL

et
e
z

The mass-matrices are the B-matrices

For homogeneous waveguides k z2 k 2 kc2
137

CN TE problem with purely polynomial bases

Homogeneous waveguides can

be studied with all formulations

10

10

purely polynomial, all formulations

1
0.5

10

singular bases

Scalar formulation
Tfield formulation
TLfield formulation

2
3
4
p order of the polynomial subset

10

Scalar formulation
Tfield formulation
TLfield formulation

10

limit of accuracy
10

1.5

10

CN TE problem with singular bases

Relative error for kc 1st TE mode

10

2
3
4
p order of the polynomial set

10

10

10

Scalar formulation
Tfield formulation
TLfield formulation

10

2
3
4
p order of the polynomial subset

138

25

300

20

Propagating modes
Evanescent modes
Complex Modes
Backward Wave

z rad/m

250

15

10

y=6mm

200
150
100

50

0
5

10

15

20

25

30

24 X 24mm metal box;

12 X 12mm rod with rel=37.13;

z Np/m

50
100
150
2

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.2

3.4

3.6

Frequency GHz
25

25

20

20

15

15

10

10

0
0

First (regular) mode

5

10

15

20

0
25

Backward mode
5

10

15

20

25

139

Continuity of Dnormal
along the red line

2.5

First mode with

Mesh 22
Mesh 38

polynomial base
2.0

25

1.5

20

15

1.0
10

y=6mm

0.7
0

2.5

12

18

First mode with

Mesh 22
Mesh 38

singular base

0
0

10

15

20

25

24

30

25

2.0
20

1.5

15

10

y=6mm

1.0

0.7
0
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

12

18

x (along the y=6mm line)

24

140

Continuity of Dnormal
along the red line

2.5

Backward mode with polynomial base

2.0

25

1.5

20

15

1.0
10

y=6mm

0.7
0

2.5

12

18

24

Backward mode with singular base

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

25

2
20

1.5

15

10

y=6mm

0
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

12

18

x (along the y=6mm line)

24

141

The field is unbounded

at the corners
25

1.2

Backward mode with polynomial base

1
0.8

20

0.6

15

0.4

10

y=6mm
5

0.2
0
0
1.2

0
0

10

15

20

25

18

24

18

24
142

Mesh 22
Mesh 38

30

25

Backward mode
singular base

20

0.8
15

12

0.6

10

y=6mm
5

0.4
0.2

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

0
0

12

x (along the y=6mm line)

Polynomial bases
Singular bases

Polynomial bases

10

10

10

10

Singular bases
First mode
Backward mode

Polynomial bases
Singular bases

limit of accuracy
8

10

p order of the polynomial subset

2500

10

p order of the polynomial subset

Degrees of freedom

Relative error

10

Condition number

10

2000

1500

1000

500

p order of the polynomial subset

143

Conclusion:
Additive basis sets offer flexibility and possibility
of true high order accuracy when singularities are
present
Matrix conditioning is a major issue
more orthogonalization = lower condition numbers

144