Qualità in Progettazione Taguchi e DOE 2012-2013

Qualit robusta
Maria Caridi
1 GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi
La qualit secondo Taguchi

La qualit una propriet dei prodotti (e dei processi utilizzati) misurabile attraverso il costo indotto alla societ. Tale costo include costi di rilavorazione costi per garanzia e interventi di assistenza costi di inefficienza per scarsa qualit del prodotto.
Overall loss = quality loss (after s ipping) ! factory loss
GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi
Lapproccio tradizionale Zero defect

La misura oggetto di specifica a una distribuzione uniforme
"(y)
y
Tolleranza di specifica
Lapproccio tradizionale Zero defect

L%azienda paga costi per i prodotti fuori specifica
#(y) $ (costo di riparazione)
a b
c y Tolleranza di specifica
La funzione di costo di Taguchi (1/2

#(y) #(y) = &'(y ( )O*)+
!alore target per una deter"inata caratteristica di prodotto
!alore misurato per una deter"inata caratteristica di prodotto
y )O* (val. nominale)
La funzione di costo di Taguchi (2/2

#(y) $ (costo di riparazione)
funzione di costo di Taguchi

y Tolleranza di specifica
funzione di costo approccio #zero difetti$
%istri&uzione di frequenza
Taguc i
,-ero difetti%
y Tolleranza di specifica
Tolleranza di circolarit' la circonferenza di ciascuna sezione tras!ersale retta de!e essere co"presa fra due circonferenze co"planari e concentriche distanti t ""
t ""
.sempio/ cilindro 0 122 mm con tolleranza di circolarit attuale 3 245 mm6 costo di rilavorazione per pezzi fuori specifica/ +5 76 volume produttivo +2.222 pz8anno 9i ipotizza di avere l:opportunit di installare un macc inario pi; preciso c e consenta di ottenere una tolleranza di 3 24+5 mm 9i ipotizza una distribuzione ,uniforme% $urva di costo per pezzo la Taguc i/ #(y) = 122'(y ( 122)<+
diametro y =mm> 78pezzo costi la Taguc i per +2.222 pz8anno
(()*+ 2*)++ 2*+++
(()** 2+)2* 2+2*+
((),+ 1,)++ 1,+++
((),* 12)2* 122*+
(()-+ ()++ (+++
(()-* ,)2* ,2*+
1++)2* ,)2* ,2*+
1++).+ ()++ (+++
1++).* 12)2* 122*+
1++)/+ 1,)++ 1,+++
1++)/* 2+)2* 2+2*+
1++)*+ 2*)++ 2*+++
?isparmi annui =7>
1@5.222
La curva di Taguc i porta alla consapevolezza di questi corsi4 c e non sono invece modellati dalla curva di costo ,tradizionale% (-ero defect)
>nalisi funzione di costo di Taguchi

0(1 2 3 4 (1 5 678 9 0(1 2 3 4 :1(i 5 678;9 / 6 :per 1 pezzo; :per 6 pezzi;
0(1 2 3/6 4 :{1(i 5 8(1 } < {8(1 5 678};9 0(1 2 3/6 4 :{1(i 5 8(1 }9 < {8(1 5678}9 < 2 4 (8(1 5678 4 {1(i 58(1 }; e infine) essendo {1(i 58(1 }2 +) 0(1 2 3 4 :=(1 <{8(1 5 678}9;
8ini"izzazione funzione di costo

Aer minimizzare la funzione di costo alla Taguc i occorre perciB minimizzare sia =*(y) ( )O*>4 cio l%errore sistematico c e l%intero lotto presenta rispetto al valore nominale sia C(y) (varianza)4 cio gli scostamenti casuali della caratteristica dei singoli esemplari rispetto al valore medio del lotto
Al "etodo di Taguchi
ipotizzare le pertur&azioni (ru"ori) noises che possono influire sullotteni"ento di ogni specifica funzionale (segnale) signals ela&orare differenti ?progetti del prodotto definendo i !alori delle specifiche tecniche (o le!e di progetto sottoporre i progetti a esperi"enti pianificati scegliere il progetto pi@ ?ro&usto ossia che "assi"izza il rapporto signal/noise
Tipi di fattori in relazione alleffetto

Scaling factor positivo: al variare del valore assegnato alla leva di controllo, variano sia la media sia la varianza della prestazione. La varianza cresce al crescere della media componenti con effetto non lineare! Scaling factor negativo: al variare del valore assegnato alla leva di controllo, variano sia la media sia la varianza della prestazione. La varianza decresce al crescere della media Scaling factor nullo: al variare del valore della leva di controllo, varia in modo significativo solamente la varianza es.: relazione periodica con ampiezza piccola! Levelling factor: al variare del valore della leva di controllo, varia in modo significativo solo media della prestazione Leva inefficace: al variare del valore della leva di controllo non si "anno variazioni significative nella prestazione
GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi 1.

Bli Scaling factors !engono utilizzati per "ini"izzare la dispersione della risposta attorno alla "edia (per ottenere cioC un progetto ?ro&usto rispetto ai distur&i D Bli Scaling factors nulli per"ettono di "ini"izzare la dispersione senza "odificare significati!a"ente la "ediaD Ee si utilizzano anche Scaling factors positivi o negativi) il progetto con dispersione "ini"a a!r una prestazione "edia general"ente non coincidente con il !alore no"inale' occorrer in tal caso qualche Leveling factorD

A Leveling factors 5 che influiscono poco sulla dispersione 5 !engono utilizzati per far colli"are la prestazione "edia con il !alore no"inaleD Ee non si indi!idua nessun Leveling factor) le alternati!e sono' tro!are un co"pro"esso tra riduzione della dispersione e raggiungi"ento del !alore no"inaleF riesa"inare il progetto per introdurre un Leveling factor (ad ese"pio un controllo lineare D L%utilizzo combinato degli Scaling factors e dei Leveling factors rappresenta l%essenza della progettazione parametrica (parameter design)4 c e uno dei momenti fondamentali della progettazione.
1 Media piccol e Dev. std. "edie grandi
Gffetto della di"ensione delle ali Gse"pio di le!a a scaling factor positi!o
" *
1 Media assen ti Dev. std. piccoli grandi
Gffetto della di"ensione dei flaps posteriori Gse"pio di le!a leveling factorD Flaps assenti C il progetto "igliore
1 Media in gi@ Dev. std. assen ti in su
Gffetto degli alettoni laterali Gse"pio di le!a a scaling factor nullo
%esign of GHperi"ents (%7G
>BG6%>
Antroduction and origin Iasic concepts GHperi"ent Jith one factor 22 factorial design 2. factorial design Kractional designs/half fraction design
A6TM7%NLTA76
%esign of GHperi"ent is a statistics technique to i"pro!e industrial processes %7G is a test or series of tests that ena&le us to co"pare tJo or "ore "ethods to deter"ine Jhich is &etter) or deter"ine le!els of controlla&le factors to opti"ize the 1ield of a process or "ini"ize the !aria&ilit1 of the output An particular %7G help us to i"pro!e the processes &1' 1 screening the factors to deter"ine Jhich are i"portant to eHplain process !ariations and to tr1 to understand hoJ factors interact and dri!e the process (Lharacterization GHperi"ents 2 finding the factor settings that produce opti"al process perfor"ance (7pti"ization GHperi"ents
A6TM7%NLTA76
For example: Lets suppose that two machine produce the same part. The material used in processing can be loaded onto the machines either manually or with an automatic device. The experimenter might wish to determine whether the type of machine and the type of loading process affect the number of defects, and then to select the machine type and loading process combination that minimizes these defects.
OR ! " #"$%& 'TOR (%)*OL+T O"
DOE was developed by R. A. Fisher in England, and dates back to the 1920s. istorically, e!peri"ental design was not widely #sed in ind#strial $#ality i"prove"ent st#dies beca#se engineers had tro#ble working with the large n#"ber o% variables and their interactions on "any di%%erent levels o% the ind#strial processes &"prove"ent in co"p#ter so%tware has recently allowed DOE to beco"e an i"portant tool %or $#ality.
>BG6%>
%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts )he*behavior*o%*a*process*depends*on*several*%actors*s#ch*as,*"achine,* tool,*environ"ent,*etc

(achine )ool
'ara"eters
(aterial
'rocess
O#tp#t
+ot (ethods Environ"ent

Operator
(eas#re"ent* instr#"ent
%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts

%7G uses this sche"e to descri&e a process'
'rocess variables, on which the designer can act to obtain the re$#ested per%or"ances
1ontrollable*%actors*.design*%actors0
5i 6i 'rocess
4i -ncontrollable*%actors*./oise*%actors0
2ariable*o%*response
)he*"eas#re"ents*o%* $#ality*characteristics* o%*the*process
'rocess variables, the control o% which is very e!pensive or indeed i"possible. )hey are divided in the %ollowing types, 3 E!ternal noises .environ"ental conditions0 3 &nternal noises .deterioration o% parts o% the "achine0 3 /oises d#e to di%%erences in the lot o% "aterial

"actors 2 process !aria&les that affect the !aria&le of response of the process "actor levels 2 !alues of the factor for Jhich the tests are conducted >n eDperiment is a specific set of factors and factor le!els to pro!e Gach predeter"ined setting of the eHperi"ental conditions that is used to o&tain a !aria&le of the response is a run. > gi!en set of !alue of the factors (run can &e replicated one or "ore ti"esD Kor each replication of a run Je o&tain an o&ser!ation) that is the !alue of the !aria&le of the responseD
Factors Run 0 1 2 3 .achine .acchina%# .acchina%# .acchina%4 .acchina%4 .ethod #utomatic .anual #utomatic .anual /0 Observations%,n/1 /2 /3 Total
An an eHperi"ent Jith " factors in Jhich each factor can assu"e Q le!els Je ha!e Q" runs Rith the groJth of m the nu"&er of runs drasticall1 increases Kor eHa"ple if " 2 , and Q1 2 Q2 2S2 Q" 2 1+ Je ha!e 6 21+, tests
The nu"&er of eHperi"ents depends on the nu"&er of factorsD Eo"eti"es it is too largeD There doesnt "aQe sense to include all factors in an eHperi"ent progra" &ecause usuall1 onl1 so"e of the" are i"portant) Jhile the effects of the others can &e considered as rando" !ariationD To select the #!ital ones$ and to discard #the trial ones$ Je can use Jell QnoJn "ethods of brainstorming or cause(and(effect diagra"sD The factors Jhich are neglected can &e' 5 Qept constant during the eHperi"entD An this case the o&tained results Jill &e true for the chosen constant !alues of these factors 5 left to !ar1 during the eHperi"entD An this case their effects are considered as rando" and this increases the response !arianceD
)xperiments< typologies
5ith%one%factor% to%study
The%output%of%the%process% depends%on%only%one% controllable%factor
$esign% experiment
'eries%of%tests
#One*at*a*ti"e$ e!peri"ents
$esign%in%which%the%levels%of%the%factors% vary%one%at%a%time t%doesnt%allow%for%the%study%of% interactions%between%the%factors%and% conse6uently%important%interactions% may%remain%undetected
5ith%more%than%one% factor%to%study
The%output%of%the%process% depends%on% plus%controllable%factors
Full%factorial% Factorial*e!peri"ents
$esign%in%which%the%factors%are% varied%together%in%order%to%%% estimate%the%effects%of%each% factor $esign%that%allows%for%all% possible%combinations%of%the% factor%levels
Fractional%factorial%
$esign%that%allows%for a% fraction%of%the%experiments% only%the%most%important% combinations%of%the%factor% levels
n%an%experiment%with%m factors%in%which%each%factor%can%assume%7 levels%we%have%7m runs 5ith%the%growth%of%m the%number%of%runs%drastically%increases For%example%if%m%8%9%and%70%8%71%8:8%7m%8%0;%we%have%"%80;9 tests

>BG6%>
GOPGMA8G6T RATT 76G K>LT7M T7 ETN%U
At is the si"plest eHperi"entD The output of the process depends on onl1 one controlla&le factorD An this case Je stud1 the response of the process for different le!els of the factorD
GHa"ple of eHperi"ent Jith one factor
> "aQer of paper for shopping &ags Jants to i"pro!e the tensile strength of the productD Lurrent "anufacturing process specifications require a hard5Joos concentration of 1+ V in the paper pulpD Rith this concentration the paper has an a!erage tensile strength of a&out 1* psiD The process engineer "aintains that the tensile strength is a function of the hard5 Joods concentration in the pulp and that the strength increases Jith greater concentration Kor econo"ic reasons the range of the concentration of hard5Jood is &etJeen * and 2+ VD 7n the &asis of this e!aluations the process engineer decide to stud1 four le!els of concentration of hard5Jood' * V) 1+ V) 1* V and 2+ VD An addition he decides to produce siH test sa"ples for each le!el of concentrationD
This is an eHperi"ent Jith one factor (concentration of hard5Jood D The ta&le &eloJ shoJs the !alues of the eHperi"entsD
>!erage Mun Kactor Tard5Jood concentration (V 1 2 . / * 1+ 1* 2+ 1 2 7&ser!ations Total . / * ,
12 1/ 1(
W 11W 2*
1* 1. 1( 22
11 1W 12.
( 1( 1, 1W
1+ 1* 1W 2+
,+ (/ 1+2 12EFE
1+)++ 1*),1-)++ 21)1154G@
The anal1sis of the results shoJs that hard5Jood concentration has a strong effect on the tensile strength of the productD >nal1zing the !aria&ilit1 for each !alue of the factor Je find that the tensile strength is reasona&l1 s1""etric and that the !aria&ilit1 doesnt change "uch &1 changing the !alue of the concentrationD
>BG6%>
Antroduction and origin Iasic concepts GHperi"ent Jith one factor 22 factorial design 2. factorial design Kractional designs/half5fraction design
K>LT7MA>L GOPGMA8G6TE
GHperi"ents in Jhich the factors are !aried together
The purpose of a factorial eHperi"ent is to esti"ate the effects of each factor
Kull factorial' eHperi"ent in Jhich all possi&le co"&inations of the factor le!els are fulfilled
Kractional factorial' eHperi"ent in Jhich onl1 a fraction of the eHperi"ents are conducted
KNLL K>LT7MA>L %GEAB6
An a full factorial design all possi&le co"&inations of factor le!els are fulfilled That is) in a full factorial eHperi"ent) responses (o&ser!ations are "easured at all co"&inations of the eHperi"ental factor le!els (run D The nu"&er of all possi&le factor le!el co"&inations in a full factorial design is 6 2 Q1) Q2) S) Q") Jhere ki is the nu"&er of the le!els of the i5th factor Jhile m is the nu"&er of factorsD An general an eHperi"ent Jith " factors at Q le!els ha!e Q" co"&inations Rith the groJth of m the nu"&er of runs drasticall1 increasesD Kor eHa"ple if " 2 , and Q1 2 Q2 2S2 Q" 2 1+ Je ha!e 621+, runsD
TR75LG=GL KNLL K>LT7MA>L %GEAB6 (22
An a tJo5le!el full factorial design) each eHperi"ental factor has onl1 tJo le!els The eHperi"ental runs are / These include all co"&inations of the factor le!elsD
Factors Run 0 1 2 3 # = > = > 4 = = > > ,0a b a%b /0
Observations%,n/0 /0 /0 Total
An general in %7G Je use these standard s1"&ols' 5 a capital letter to indicate the factor of the eHperi"ent 5 a s"all letter to indicate a runD An particular if a letter is present the correspondent factor is fiHed in the run at a high !alue Kor eHa"ple) in a 22 eHperi"ent Je ha!e' 5#a$ is the run Jith >< and I5 5 #&$ is the run Jith >5 and I< 5#a&$ is the run Jith >< and I< 5 (1 is the run Jith >5 I5
b 8 7 3
ab 8 7
.10 3
3 8 a
TR75LG=GL KNLL K>LT7MA>L %GEAB6 (22 8ain effect of a factor

8ain effect of a factor' !ariation in the le!el of response caused &1 the change in the le!el of a factor (fro" the loJ le!el to the high le!el Re can calculate the "ain effect Jith tJo different "ethods' >!erage of the !ariations at the tJo le!els of tJo other factor =ariazione della "edia ai due li!elli del fattore
( YA B A=
+
Y A B + Y A+ B + Y A B + 2
) (
A = Y A+ Y A = = Y A+ B + Y A+ B + 2 Y A B + Y A B + 2
YA B ' "edia (sulle replicazioni della risposta

per la co"&inazione di li!elli AB
YA ' "edia (sulle replicazioni e sui li!elli dell

altro fattore della risposta al li!ello A
An ter"ini di totali di tratta"ento si ha'
A=
(a (1) ) + (ab b )
2r
A=
a + ab (1) + b a + ab b (1) = 2r 2r 2r

8ain effect of a factor' !ariation in the le!el of response caused &1 the change in the le!el of a factor (fro" the loJ le!el to the high le!el Re can calculate the "ain effect as' =ariation of the responses a!erage at the tJo le!els of the factors
A = Y A+ Y A = = Y A + B + Y A+ B + 2 Y A B + YA B + 2
2
A=
a + ab (1) + b a + ab b (1) = 2r 2r 2r
Y A

a + ab b (1) 2r B= b + ab a (1) 2r
A=
b 8 7
ab 8 7 3
b 8 7
8 ab 8 7 3 a
3 .10 3
3 .10 3
Braphic of the "ain effects
Y A+
Positi!e effect
Y A
Y
X
<
YA Y A+
6ull Gffect
Y A
6egati!e effect
YA+
<
<
TR75LG=GL KNLL K>LT7MA>L %GEAB6 (22 Anteraction &etJeen the factors

%ifference &etJeen the effect of the factor > at the le!el high of I and the effect of > at the loJ le!el of I di!ided &1 2
( Y AB = A B
+
Y A B + Y A+ B Y A B 2
) (
b 3 8 7 3 .10 3
ab 8 7
( ab b ) (a (1) ) (1) + ab a b AB = =
2r 2r
3 8 a
Braphic of the interactions
Y
6ull Anteraction
YA B +
B+ B
YA+ B +
Y
YA B + YA B
B+ B
YA+ B +
YA B
YA+ B
Positi!e interaction
X
YA+ B
<
Y A <
Y A B +
B+ B
Y A B
YA+ B YA+ B +
6egati!e interaction
X
<
GO>8PLG 7K 22 K>LT7MA>L %GEAB6

Lets consider a che"ical process for Jhich ha!e &een identified as i"portant factors in his 1ield' te"perature and ti"e reactionD Re Jant to design the factorial eHperi"ent that considers tJo le!els
Factors%,mTemperature%,Y(Time%reaction%,min0;; 9; Level%,701; ?@
Eince the eHperi"ent is designed to anal1se the effect of tJo le!els of each factor) then there are 22 2 / possi&le co"&inations to test
Run 0 1 2 3 Temperature%,Y(0;; 0;; 01; 01; Time%,min9; ?@ 9; ?@
Gach co"&ination should &e perfor"ed in a rando" fashion to eli"inate an1 potential s1ste"atic &ias

Factors Run # ,Temperature%= Y(0 1 2 3 0;; 01; 0;; 01; 4 ,Time%%= min9; 9; ?@ ?@ ,0a b a%b /0 /1 Observations%,n/2 /3 #verage% observation% A@ B; AA A;
The "ain effect of the factor > at the different le!els of I is gi!en &1 the difference &etJeen the a!erage in Jhich > is at a higher le!el (>< and the a!erage in Jhich it is at a loJer le!el (>5 > 2 U>< 5 U>5 U >< 2 (a <a& /2n U>5 2 (& <1 /2n > 2 U >< 5 U >5 2 (a <a& /2n 5 (& <1 /2n 2
1 2n
b 8 7
ab 8 7
9a*8*ab*:b*:.10; 2 31,<
3 .10 3
3 8 a
Factors Run # ,Temperature%= Y(0 1 2 3 0;; 01; 0;; 01; 4 ,Time%%= min9; 9; ?@ ?@ ,0a b a%b /0 /1
Observations%,n/2 /3 #verage% observation% A@ B; AA A;
The "ain effect of the factor I at the different le!els of > is gi!en &1 the difference &etJeen the a!erage in Jhich I is at higher le!el (I< and the a!erage in Jhich it is at loJer le!el (I5 I 2 UI< 5 UI5 U I< 2 (& <a& /2n UI5 2 (a <1 /2n
1
b 3 8 7 3 .10 3
ab 8 7
3 8 a
I 2 U I< 5 U I5 2 (& <a& /2n 5 (a <1 /2n 2

9b*8*ab*: a*:.10; 2 3=,<
2n
Factors Run # ,Temperature%= Y(0 1 2 3 0;; 01; 0;; 01; 4 ,Time%%= min9; 9; ?@ ?@ ,0a b a%b /0 /1
Observations%,n/2 /3 #verage% observation% A@ B; AA A;
)he*interaction*A7 is*esti"ated*by*"eans*o%*the*di%%erence*o%* the*averages*o%*the*diagonals ab*8*.10 A7*> 2n
b 8 7 3 .10 3
ab
a*8*b* > 2n
1 2n
9ab*8*.10*3 a*: b; 2 3 ?,<
8 a
Factors Run T t /0 /1
Observations%,n/2 /3 #verage% observation A@ B; AA A;
0 1 2 3
0;;%,=01;%,>0;;%,=01;%,>-
9;%,=9;%,=?@%,>?@%,>-
,0a b a%b
A@ B; AA A;
A >
1 2n 1
1 9a*8*ab*: b*: .10; > 2 1 2 9ab*8*.10*3 a*: b; > 1 2 9@0*8*@<*3 90*3 @@; >3?,< 990*8*@0*3 @@*3@<; > 31, 9@@*8*@0*3 90*3@<; >3=,< 8 7 3 .10 3 7
ab
7 >
2n
A7 >
1 2n
8 a
KNLL K>LT7MA>L GOPGMA8G6TE Ta&le of contrast (ta&le of signs
The quantit1 in square &racQets of the equations of the "ain effects and the interactions of the eHperi"ent are called #contrast$ These contrasts can &e achie!ed &1 a ta&le of the signs plus and "inus T e signs for t e main effects are obtained giving a plus at t e ig level and a minus at t e loH level The signs of the other colu"ns are o&tained "ultipl1ing the colu"ns of the "ain effects Kor eHa"ple the signs of the colu"n >I are o&tained "ultipl1ing the signs of the colu"ns > and I An a 2Z2 eHperi"ent) Je can calculate the "ain effects and the interactions using the folloJing for"ula' Lontrast Gffect (or interaction as Jell 2 5555555555555 n2
# ,0b a ab =0 =0 0 0
4 =0 0 =0 0
yield 2@ 3; @; 9;
"easure"ent settings
# ,0b a ab =0 =0 0 0
4 =0 0 =0 0
yield 2@ 3; @; 9;
Gffect esti"ates
# ,0b a ab =0 =0 0 0
4 =0 0 =0 0
yield 2@ 3; @; 9;
Gffect esti"ates
Gffect > 2 [(5.* 5 /+ < *+ < ,+ 2 1-D* Gffect I 2 [(5.* < /+ \ *+ < ,+ 2 -D*
# ,0b a ab =0 =0 0 0
4 =0 0 =0 0
#4 C C C C
yield 2@ 3; @; 9;
Effect AB = (60-40) - (50-35) = 2.5

# ,0b a ab =0 =0 0 0
#4
yield 2@ 3; @; 9;
] ] ]
=0 0 =0 0
= = = =
0 =0 =0 0
AB equals the pro uct of colu!"s A a" B
Effect AB = (60-40) - (50-35) = 2.5

>BG6%>
KNLL K>LT7MA>L GOPGMA8G6TE Three5le!el Kull Kactorial %esigns Jith tJo factor (2.
An a tJo5le!el full factorial design Jith . factors) each eHperi"ental factor has tJo le!elsD The eHperi"ental runs are W) that include all co"&inations of the factor le!elsD
Factors Run # 0 1 2 3 @ 9 ? A =0 0 =0 0 =0 0 =0 0 4 =0 =0 0 0 =0 =0 0 0 ( =0 =0 =0 =0 0 0 0 0 ,0a b ab c ac bc abc y0 y1 :.. Tot ,0a b ab c ac bc abc Observations%,n-
The main effects are the following:
The interactions between the factors are the following:
A = Y A+ Y A = = Y A+ B C + Y A+ B + C + Y A+ B C + + Y A+ B + C + 4 Y A B C + Y A B + C + Y A B C + + Y A B + C + 4
A=
a + ab + ac + abc (1) + b + c + bc a + ab + ac + abc (1) b c bc = 4r 4r 4r
A
bc c ac abc c bc
B
abc ac c bc
C
abc
<
ac b
<
ab b (1
X
b (1
<
a
X
ab a (1
ab
X
a
ABC =
( AB )C
1 Y A+ B + C + 2
( AB )C = 2 Y A B + C + Y A+ B C + Y A B C +
+
) (
2
) (YA B C
+ +
Y A B + C Y A+ B C Y A B C 2
) (
bc
abc
ABC =
4r 4r (a + b + c + abc ) ((1) + ab + ac + bc ) = 4r
(abc bc ) (ac c ) (ab b ) (a (1) ) =
ac
ab
(1
< 2X
2
contrast
2. %esign' ta&le of contrast (ta&le of signs Ta&le of the signs of the factorial design 2.
> (1 a & a& c ac &c a&c 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 I < 5 5 < < 5 5 < L 5 5 5 5 < < < < >L < 5 < 5 5 < 5 < IL < < 5 5 5 5 < < >IL 5 < < 5 < 5 5 <
2. %esign' ta&le of contrast (ta&le of signs
# ,0a b ab c ac bc abc
4 = = > > = = > >
( = = = = > > > >
/ield @ 1 ? 0 ? 9 B ?
= > = > = > = >
sche"e 2. design
bc=$ c=#
abc=# ac=6
Gffect > 2 ^(<1,52W 25.
%
(1)=5
b=#
ab=1 a=2
B A
sche"e 2. design
bc=$ c=#
Gffect >I 2 ^(<2+52/ 2 51
abc=# ac=
6
%
(1)=5
b=#
ab=1 a=2
B A
GO>8PLG 7K 2. K>LT7MA>L GOPGMA8G6T>L %GEAB6

.Dperimental Iesign for Testing Jattery Aerformance
> lot of enthusiasts of re"ote control (ML "odel car racing &elie!e that spending "ore "one1 on high5qualit1 &atteries) using eHpensi!e gold5 plated connectors) and storing &atteries at loJ te"peratures Jill i"pro!e &atter1 life perfor"ance in a raceD To test this h1pothesis) an electrical test circuit Jas constructed to "easure &atter1 discharge under different configurationsD Gach factor (&atter1 t1pe) connector t1pe) and te"perature Jas e!aluated at tJo le!els) resulting in 2. 2 W eHperi"ental conditions shoJn in the ta&le &eloJ'
#$perimental %esign for Testing &atter' (erformance

)xperimental% Run 0 1 2 3 @ 9 ? A 4attery Type &igh%cost &igh%cost &igh%cost &igh%cost Low%cost Low%cost Low%cost Low%cost (onnector%Type 4attery% Temperature #mbient (old #mbient (old #mbient (old #mbient (old $ischarge%Time% ,minutes3B2 3B; 3AB 901 B3 ?@ B2 ?1
!old=plated !old=plated 'tandard 'tandard !old=plated !old=plated 'tandard 'tandard

)xperimental% Run 0 1 2 3 @ 9 ? A 4attery Type &igh%cost%,>&igh%cost%,>&igh%cost%,>&igh%cost%,>Low%cost%,=Low%cost%,=Low%cost%,=Low%cost%,=(onnector%Type 4attery% Temperature #mbient%,=(old%,>#mbient%,=(old%,>#mbient%,=(old%,>#mbient%,=(old%,>$ischarge%Time% ,minutes3B2 3B; 3AB 901 B3 ?@ B2 ?1
!old=plated%,>!old=plated%,>'tandard%,='tandard%,=!old=plated%,>!old=plated%,>'tandard%,='tandard%,=-
Factors Run
Iatter1 t1pe Lonnector T1pe Iatter1 Te"perature
Observations%,n-% ,$ischarge%Time%= minutes/0 ,0a b ab c ac bc abc /1 :.. #verage B2 3AB B3 3B2 ?1 901 ?@ 3B;
0 1 2 3 @ 9 ? A
=0 0 =0 0 =0 0 =0 0
=0 =0 0 0 =0 =0 0 0
=0 =0 =0 =0 0 0 0 0
Calculations of t"e main effects are as follo)s:

&atter' t'pe Lo) * +, - ./ - +0 - .1!21 * 3/.0 minutes 4ig" * 56, - 1.7 - 1./ - 13.!21 * 0,6 minutes Main effect * 4ig" 8 Lo) * 1/+.0 minutes Connector t'pe 9old:plated * .1 - +0 - 1.7 - 1./!21 * ,33 minutes Standard * +, - ./ - 56, - 13.!21 * /65.0 minutes Main effect * Standard 8 9old:plated * ,3.0 minutes Temperature Cold * +, - +0 - 1.7 - 56,!21 * /6,.,0 minutes ;mbient * ./ - 13. - 1./ - .1!21 * ,.,.,0 minutes Main effect * ;mbient 8 Cold * ,7 minutes
)hese res#lts s#ggest that high cost batteries do have a longer li%e, b#t that the i"pacts o% gold plating or battery te"perat#re do not appear to be signi%icant. 7eca#se only one %actor appears to be signi%icant, calc#lation o% interaction e%%ects are not re$#ired.
>BG6%>
KM>LTA76>L K>LT7MA>L GOPGMA8G6TE
An a full factorial eHperi"ent) responses are "easured at all co"&inations of the factor le!els) Jhich "a1 result in a prohi&iti!e nu"&er of runsD Kor eHa"ple' An a full factorial eHperi"ent 2. Je ha!e to perfor" W runs and Je o&tain these results' 5 three "ain effects' >) I) L 5 three interactions &etJeen tJo factors' >I) >L) IL 5 one interaction &etJeen the three factors' >IL An a full factorial eHperi"ent 2/ Je ha!e to perfor" 1W runs and Je o&tain these results' 5 four "ain effects' >) I) L) % 5 siH interactions &etJeen tJo factors' >I) >L) IL) >%) I%) L% 5 four interactions &etJeen three factors' >IL) >I%) >L%) IL% 5 one interaction &etJeen the four factors' >IL%
An a full factorial eHperi"ent 2, Je ha!e to perfor" ,/ runs and Je o&tain these results' 5 , "ain effects 5 1* interactions &etJeen 2 factors 5 2+ interactions &etJeen . factors 5 1* interactions &etJeen / factors 5 , interactions &etJeen * factors 5 1 interaction &etJeen , factors An a tJo5le!el full factorial design Jith ( factors (2( requires *12 runsD To "ini"ize ti"e and cost) 1ou can eHclude so"e of the factor le!el co"&inationsD "actorial eDperiments in H ic one or more level combinations are eDcluded are called fractional factorial experiments An this case onl1 a fraction of the full factorial design is conductedD The pro&le" is hoJ to choose the fraction
The "ain effects postulate states that s1ste"s are controlled &1 the "ain effects and &1 the interactions of loJ order (that is interactions of onl1 a feJ factors Jhereas the interactions &etJeen three or "ore factors are nor"all1 negligi&le Kractional design "aQes use of this postulate &1 sacrificing interactions to reduce t e number of t e runs T e ig fraction order interaction H ic ig order
is sacrificed is called generator of the
KM>LTA76>L GOPGMA8G6TE Talf5Kraction Kactorial %esign

K alf(fraction design reduces t e number of potential eDperiments by one( alf >n half fraction factorial design 2Q51 contains a nu"&er of runs that is the half of the eHperi"ental design 2Q Kor eHa"ple the eHperi"ental design 2.51 is the half fraction of the factorial design 2. The ta&le of contrasts (or ta&le of the signs of the factorial design 2. is the folloJing'
A (1 a & a& c ac &c < < < < < < <
> 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 I < 5 5 < < 5 5 <
L 5 5 5 5 < < < <
>L < 5 < 5 5 < 5 <
IL < < 5 5 5 5 < <
>IL 5 < < 5 < 5 5 <
a&c < Caridi GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria
Le can reduce t e design to a alf fraction by suppressing eDperiments H ic result in t e (1 level for t e ig est order interaction (KJ$) KJ$ is t e generator of t is particular fraction 9ince it results M = KJ$4 t en M = KJ$ is called defining relation of t is design A (1 a & a& c ac &c a&c < < < < < < < < > 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 I < 5 5 < < 5 5 < L 5 5 5 5 < < < < >L < 5 < 5 5 < 5 < IL < < 5 5 5 5 < < >IL 5 < < 5 < 5 5 <
Lets consider the ta&le of contrast Jhich result fro" this choice' A a & c a&c < < < < > < 5 5 I 5 5 < < L 5 5 < < >L 5 < 5 < IL < 5 5 < >IL < < < <
Re can notice that the colu"n for the factor > is identical to the colu"n for the IL interactionD There is no "eans &1 Jhich this eHperi"ent design can separate these tJo effects' the > factor or the LI interactionD T ese tHo are called confunded or aliased in t is reduce designD ToJ is it that a design Jith one factor aliased or confounded Jith a higher order interaction is useful_ The ansJer is that A ha!e so"e independent infor"ation Jhich tells "e that either the factor > is significant or the LI interaction) &ut not &othD Therefore) e!en though the tJo are aliased A can decide Jhich of the" "1 eHperi"ental data deter"inesD 7ther effect aliased are' I 2 >L) L 2 >I
KM>LTA76>L GOPGMA8G6TE Talf5fraction design

Gffects full factorial design 2. > 2 IL) I 2 >L) L 2 >I Gffects half5fraction design 2.51

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Qualit robusta

1 GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

La qualit secondo Taguchi

Lapproccio tradizionale Zero defect

Lapproccio tradizionale Zero defect

#(y) $ (costo di riparazione)

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

La funzione di costo di Taguchi (1/2

!alore target per una deter"inata caratteristica di prodotto

!alore misurato per una deter"inata caratteristica di prodotto

y )O* (val. nominale)

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

La funzione di costo di Taguchi (2/2

funzione di costo di Taguchi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

diametro y =mm> 78pezzo costi la Taguc i per +2.222 pz8anno

(()*+ 2*)++ 2*+++

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>nalisi funzione di costo di Taguchi

8ini"izzazione funzione di costo

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

Tipi di fattori in relazione alleffetto

Tipi di fattori in relazione alleffetto

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

Tipi di fattori in relazione alleffetto

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

1 Media piccol e Dev. std. "edie grandi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

1 Media assen ti Dev. std. piccoli grandi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

1 Media in gi@ Dev. std. assen ti in su

Gffetto degli alettoni laterali Gse"pio di le!a a scaling factor nullo

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

%esign of GHperi"ents (%7G

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

OR ! " #"$%& 'TOR (%)*OL+T O"

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts )he*behavior*o%*a*process*depends*on*several*%actors*s#ch*as,*"achine,* tool,*environ"ent,*etc

+ot (ethods Environ"ent

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%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts

%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

n%an%experiment%with%m factors%in%which%each%factor%can%assume%7 levels%we%have%7m runs 5ith%the%growth%of%m the%number%of%runs%drastically%increases For%example%if%m%8%9%and%70%8%71%8:8%7m%8%0;%we%have%"%80;9 tests

GRPS 2012-2013 - Maria Caridi

(()+ 2)++ 2*+++

1++)+ 2)++ 2*+++

%GEAB6 7K GOPGMA8G6TE Iasic concepts )hebehavioro%aprocessdependsonseveral%actorss#chas,"achine, tool,environ"ent,etc

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