‘I

Early Childh00d Principle

Professional early childhood educators Ose instruct ive guidance to help children develop healthy personalities and
social and moral competence.
The critical foundations for healthy personality development are laid duri ng infancy and early childhood, and the strength of
these foundations determines the extent to which individuals continue to develop and sustain a healthy personality throughout
their lives. There are three important psyc hosocial goals of early childhood development and indeed all human development.
1. A healthy personality V
2. Social competence
3. Moral competence
Becoming socially and morally competent depecds ox iwtttaciot.s with othe rs who help children construct social and moral
meaning. Positive interact ions help children view themselves as accepted and decent and guide them toward more mature
behaviors and constructive relationships with others. Developmentally appropriate expectations and constructive guidance facilit
ate early development of healthy personalities and the construction of social and moral meaning. This chapter is about facilitating
such development.
After reading this chapter you should be abk to:
• Discuss the major goals of developmentally appropriate guidance of young children.
• Define and explain the concept of emerging development.
• Distinguish between instructive guidance and discipline.

Discuss the importance of the early stages of personalj’ development and self-esteem to the development of social and moral
competence.
• Describe how prosocial development emerges and is nurtured and sup ported.
List ways early childhood educators and caregivers facilitate work and play behaviors that lead to positive self-regard, wise
decision making, self-control, prosocial interactions, and a sense of community.
UNDERSTANDING EMERGING DEVELOPMENT
Christalyn, now eight months old slaps at her caregiver’s face, throws objects from her crib and cries when they are not retrieved,
cries upon sepa ration from her parents, and turns away from people she does not know.
Two-year-old Luke is very physical in his play behaviors with others in his child care group. He takes what he wants, does not
share, cries when others take his toys from him, has been known to bite, gets frustrated easi ly, Clings to his parents, and resists
nap times.
Four year-old LaDonna loves dramatic play and spends most of her prekindergarten morning in the sociodramatic center. She
assumes the lead role and establishes rules for who can and can’t play and what roles will be assigned to whom. Sometimes she is
very assertive in this activity. When classmates rebel, she becomes angr} When an adult intervenes, she cries.
Regelio, a kindergarrener tattles incessantI He is watchful of behaviors of others, is easily frustrated when others do not follow
group rules, and is often in a verbal “t&e-à-téte” with a classmate over how things are supp osed to be.
Seven-yearold Patrice is very self-critical, has developed feelings of being treated unfairly if others receive privileges that she
does not get. Her friends hips are often transient, though she forms strong attachments to her current “best friend.” She prefers to
play with girls. She appears anxious when sepa rated from familiar people and places. She is slow to get started after arrival at
school. Patrice is a child with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA).
What do the behaviors of Christalyn Luke, LaDonna, Regelio, and
Patrice have in Common? Do these behaviors represent inappropriate par-
enting practices or ill will on the part of the child? Should these behaviors be corrected? . . . punished? Is there cause for concern?
Actually all of these behaviors are, in a developmental sense, “good” behaviors. You are probably asking, “How can hitting,
bossing, tattling, refusing to share, resisting nap times, and crying when adults intervene Poss ibly be labeled as ‘good’
behavior?” These can be thought of as “good” behaviors because they indicate emerging development or increasing matur itv.
These behaviors are age appropriate and represent expected social and emotional development. These behaviors can segue into
more socially

Understanding Emerging Development

acceptable forms when met with sensitive, developmentally appropriate, and instructive guidance techniques.
We begin this chapter with the concept of emerging development because we want to stress that growth and development are
ongoing and that immature behaviors, some of which are often troublesome, are for the most part indications of progress toward
more mature behaviors. Successful guidance of young children depends on this understanding.
As well, basic to guidance of young children is an understanding of parental goals and expectations and the diversity of these
goals represented in any one group of children. Setting developmentally appropriate social and moral goals always takes into
consideration the socialization context of the home and family.
The concept of emerging development helps early childhood educators view what might otherwise be thought of as inappropriate
(or misbehavior) as healthy signs of progressing growth and development. Developmentally appropriate guidance of young
children conveys acceptance and respect and is instructive. Appreciating emerging development helps early childhood educators
to maintain focus on the “big picture” and long-term outcomes while assisting children with their immediate needs. Responding
appropria tely to age-related behaviors helps children build the foundations of a healthy personality (trust, autonom); initiative,
and industry), positive self- concepts, and more mature forms of interacting with others.
Often adults, failing to recognize emerging development such as that which Christalyn, Luke, LaDonna, Regelio, and Patrice
exhibit, respond in corrective rather than in instructive and supportive ways. They may believe

298 Chapter & Guiding Young ChiIdr,,

that these behaviors call for some form of discipline through reprimand or punishment Inappropriate correcting or reprimanding
of “normal” behavi or such as these mitigates against the developrne of trust, autonomy, init iative, and industry and interferes
with the developm of self-directing beha’iors Positive self-regard and social and moral competence in the long run (Bronson,
2000; Katz, McClellan, Fuller & Walz, 1995). Negative responses can actually impede this forward growth and development
while positive, affirming interactions that teach and offer alternatives facilitate it. Understanding emergent developrnn helps
early childhood educators keep longter goals in the forefront while to immediate child behavi ors in instructive and Supportive
ways (Sylwester 2000a)
Healthy Personality developme0 is a life-long process building upon each Preceding foundational accomplishment from birth
through adult life (Revisit Figure 3—2). Becoming socially and morally, competent is also a long- term Process. These are goals
that will not be fully realized during the course of a year, but progress toward them will be evident to early childhood educ ators
as they observe and work with young children on a dav-today basis.
Connecting in Meanjn Ways with Famihes
Planning for individual and group emotional and social well-being entails communicating with parents about their desires and
goals for their chil dren, what they expect their children to achieve during their early care and education, and how they guide (or
discipline) their children at home. As discussed in chapter 5, the more we know about family expectations life circumstances
interests and cultural values the more effectj.e1 we intera ct with children and their families.
That home and early childhood programs constjwte different social environments for children is a given. Understanding that
parents often diff er from teachers in their deeply held views, child.rea ring practices and behavior expectations is important to
establishing Positive familyschool or familycenter relationships.
Developing collaborative relationships with parents begins when child ren enter the early childhood program Communicating and
collaborating on how best to meet mutual goals, communicating school Policies and proc edures relating to guidan techniques
and Planning for ongoing commu nicatioiis help parents to understand and support the guidance goals of the early• childhood
program. When children experience continui, in their guidan in both settings they fee a greater sense of predictability, and Secur
it and can grow more readily toward self-control
Understanding the Cultural Conte, of Ch,ld Behaviors There are cultural differences in behavior expectations of
children Some cultures stress cooperation over competit;o; others competition and win-

Healthy Psychosocial Development 299

fling. Some stress unquestioned obedience to authority figures. The manner
in which respect is communicated varies among cultures. Some cultures —_________ stress independence and self-determination. Most
cultures have gender-
related social rules and norms; most have expectations regarding contexts
in which emotions may or should not be expressed.,Social conventions and
skills are derived from one’s culture.
Professional early childhood educators are not required to know about
all cultural social norms. However, in interacting xvith the Young children
in one’s group or class, it is important to respect cultural expectations,
while facilitating each child’s integration into the group and the culture of
the center or school (Katz, McClellan, Fuller, & Walz, 1995; Small, 2001).
HEALThy PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
In chapter 3, you were introduced to Erik Erikson’s (1963) theory of psyc
hosocial development. Erikson’s stages of personality development are
particularly relevant to our discussion of guidance of young children. While
Erikson outlined eight stages (or critical periods) that advance from birth
through adulthood, for our discussion, the first four states—trust, autorio
my; initiative, and ,industry—are described.
Erikson’s Early Stages of Personality Development
Erikson proposed that each stage of personality development presented a
psychological “crisis” in which there are two opposing personality potent
ials. Think of these opposites as resting on a balance scale. The goal of
healthy personality development is to tip the scale in favor of trust, autono
my, initiative, and industry over their polar opposites, mistrust, shame and
doubt, guilt, and inferiority Certainly there may be elements in each of
these polar Opposites that are necessary, such as mistrust of strangers, skept
icism that avoids gullibility, guilt that nudges the conscience, and discomf
ort with performance that causes one to try harder next time. The point of
Erikson’s theory is to stress the need for a tipped scale in favor of the posit
ive characteristics over the negative ones.
Trust versus Mistrust
Trust, the first “step” in healthy personality development, is an outgrowth
of early bonding and attachments in infancy. Trust relies on predictable, relia
ble, supportive, warni, and nurturing care. Adults who respond readily to
infant cues for nourishment, attention, warmth, playfulness, and discomfort
help the infant develop a strong sense of trust. From these nurturing and supp
ortive interactions, the infant develops trust in others as well as himself and
his ability to communicate and elicit responses. A basic sense of trust is fund
amental to healthy intra- and interpersonal relationships.

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Chapter & Guiding Young Children

Infants who do not develop a healthy sense of trust do not form strong attachments with parents and primary caregivers during
infancy and early childhood. Nor do they later form attachments or strong relationships with extended family members, friends,
and playmates. Misttust interferes with all human relationships, including spousal and workplace relationships later on.
Individuals who mistrust are less open to new experiences and ideas, risk taking, and creative thinking. As such, learning is
affected. A strong sense of trust in self and others paves the way for the next stage of psychosoal development, that of developing
a sense of autonomy.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Between ages one and three years, children are gaining increasing motor, language, cognitive, and social abilities. The’ have
mastered fundamental motor skills of walking, climbing, and running; they can feed themselves; they have some ability to handle
their clothing; and they mai be gaining bladder and bowel control. At this point in growth and development a sense

Healthy Psychosocial Development 301

of autonomy emerges and becomes an overriding psychosocial issue for the
child. This period of development is often tumultuous as the toddler begins
to assert his or her will. Determined yet still unskilled attempts to dress and
undress, to turn the door knob, to fasten the seat belt, to turn on and off a
light, to make decisions about what to wear, to decide whether to be carr
ied or to walk independently, for example, signal a healthy and growing
sense of autonomy.
The toddler’s sense of autonomy is enhanced through guidance that
encourages choices and independence and avoids power struggles in which
the child is frequently disempowered by a bigger and stronger person who
insists on compliance. The child’s successes in locomotion and other motor
coordinatjons build a sense of competence and self-determination.
Mealrimes that respect food preferences, hunger, and satiety (feeling of has’i
ng had sufficient food) support an emerging sense of self as independent.
Supportive experiences in toilet learning are particularly important as todd
lers assume control over their bodies. Pretend play and opportunities to
interact with other children encourage autonom) Guidance that is over-
restrictive, overprotective or unclear, unpredictable, or too permissive
interferes with the developing sense of autonomy. Rather, guidance needs to
be firm with clearly stated, predictable limits or boundaries and conseq
uences that relate to misdeeds. We will discuss these characteristics of
guidance later in this chapter. Upon a firm foundation of trust and autono
my, a sense of initiative emerges.
The opposite of autonomy is a sense of shame and doubt. When todd
lers are squelched in their attempts to develop a sense of autonomy, the
scales can tip too far in the opposite direction, resulting in a potentially
debilitating sense of shame or doubt. When this occurs, children may
exhibit feelings of guilt and penitence, self-consciousness reluctance to try
new things, overdependence on adults, and overreliance on the will and
wishes of others. These feelings and behaviors, if allowed to persist, interf
ere with success with the ensuing stages of personality development and
can remain a part of the personality into adulthood.
Initiative versus Guilt
Children between the ages of three and six years are eager to master new
skills. It is a period during which children ask many questions and exploit
their new sense of autonomy. Social play becomes more intense and
focused, as do conversations with others. Children during this period enjoy
involvement in planning and anticipating special events such as a holiday
celebration, special projects, family outings, and class field trips. Play duri
ng this period becomes more social and elaborate. Dramatic play particul
arlv is complex and creative, with sociodramaric scenarios that are rich
with fantasy and imagination.
Adults support this emerging sense of initiative through their encoura
gemelir of play and the provision of play-based curricula. Because this is a

peak age for pretend pla4; it is important for young children to have a vane rv of props to support their dramatic play
themes of mail carrie beautic ian in a salon, passenger on a plane or train trip, and grocer store clerk, for example.

By encouraging children’s creativity, early thildhood educators support children’s psychosocial development.

It is also important that creativity be encouraged during this period of psychosocial development, as children learn to rely on their
own ideas to carry them out. Providing assorted raw materials from which children exec ute their own creations supports both
creative ability and initiative. Including children in group planning and assignment of responsibilities, giving and accepting child
choice, and acknowledging efforts at prosocial behaviors are important to the development of a sense of initiative.
Out-of-bounds initiative occurs when children become overly assertive, perhaps aggressive, in their efforts to carry out their own
ideas. Out-of- bounds initiative requires firm yet sensitive guidance. On the one hand, constructive initiative should be
encouraged; on the othe initiative that hurts or endangers self or others or is destructive must be curtailed fimlv and promptly.
Shoving someone out of the way to be “first in line” or exploring off-limit areas of the school building or grounds are examples
of out-of-bounds initiative. Responding appropriately means taking the child’s perspective and considering the child’s intentions.
Teaching perspective taki ng and offering constructive alternatives helps children learn how to direct
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304

Chapter 8: Guiding Young Children

Psychoana/yI,c thear /siy ha-

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t l.3erk

their own behaviors in subsequent similar situations. It is also important at this stage to engage children in rule
making, being certain that the reasons for the rules are logical and clearly explained. When children have a hand in
developing class rules for which they have a clear understanding of their purposes, they are more inclined to
remember and follow the rules. Children who are developing a sense of initiative need mans’ opportunities to
engage in new and challenging activities and to participate in decision- making group projects and cooperative
activities.
An inadequate sense of initiative can lead to feelings of guilt. When feeli ngs of guilt are persistent, children begin
to seek undue assurances and perm ission from adults and playmates. They do not take personal risks, rry new
activities, or reach out to others. They may derive little satisfaction or joy from their own emerging capabilities.
Feeling thwarted in initiating their own ideas, interests, and activities is a deterrent to the developing sense of
initiative. When children have been unduly teased, ridiculed, or treated with disrespect, and when others respond to
their ideas and quest ions off-handedly or perhaps impatiently, the developing sense of initiative is deterred.
Industry versus Inferiorny
Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development is marked by the develo pment of a sense of industr Industry
begins to emerge around age six and is associated with mastering social and academic skills. The rich fantasy and
make-believe of earlier years turns to more reality-based endeavors. The developing sense of industry is exhibited in
the child’s desire to learn how things work and how to o real tasks. While Process was important during the three
preceding stages of psychosocial development, product becomes important during this stage. Children begin to take
pride in their writings, artw ork, and block constructions as products of their own efforts. Interest in learning “real”
skills carries over into interests in succeeding in school. Meaningful and relevant experiences with classmates,
teachers, curricula, and assessments set the stage for the development of a healthy sense of industry
Self-confidence and feelings of competence are particularly vulnerable to schooling experiences, as children are
forming images of themselves as learners. Children who experience unachievable expectations or too many failures
(academic or social) develop the Opposite of a sense of industry, that of a sense of inferiority Confidence and self-
worth suffer and social and academic efforts are less industrious.

EIfdnd’s Additional Psychosoc1j Challenges

David Elkind, a psychology professor and well-known scholar and author of Miseducation: Preschoolers at Risk
(1987), identified two additional psyc hosocial developmental challenges (1987). He describes these as belonging
versus alienation and competence versus helplessness According to Elkirid,

11

Healthy Psychosocial Development

during the period in which initiative is developing, children are interacting more and more with their peers, and therefore
experience the need to belong. The sense of belonging versus alienation is an associated psychosocial crisis to be resolved. In the
same way, Elkind associated the competence versus helplessness crisis with the developing sense of industry.
Belonging versus Alienation
From infancy, children acquire a sense of belonging within the family when parents include them in their activities such as
shopping for groceries, washi ng the car, taking care of household chores, engaging in meaningful conv ersations, and playful
interactions. Frequent visits or communication with extended family members also provide a sense of belonging within the
extended family. Where neighbors are mutually supportive and connected, children may also find a context in which they feel a
sense of belonging. As children extend their social interactions to playmates, they are confronted with learning how to make and
maintain friends, enter play groups, and function in a manner that elicits positive responses and continued inclusion.
‘‘hile a sense of alienation interferes with social interactions and learni ng, Elkind suggests that the sense of belonging that is too
strong leads child ren to unquestioning conformance, yielding too willingly to the wishes and demands of the group or groups to
which they wish to belong. The reso lution of this psychosoial-crjsjs should lead the child to productive memb ership in the
group, while remaining sufficiently autonomous to neither overly conform nor become overly alienated.
Competence versus Helplessness
Elkind’s second psychosocial challenge is the development of a sense of competence versus helplessness. He suggests that
attaining a sense of comp etence that is stronger than a sense of helplessness can be related to the match between school curricula
and expectations and a child’s modes of learning. He mentions “push-down” curricula as causing feelings of helpl essness in
young learners. Tying a sense of helplessness to inappropriate curricula, Elkind explains that during the cognitive development
period of concrete operations, children should not be subjected to formal instruction that fails to respect the child’s need for
concrete materials and firsthand experiences in order to learn. (Parenthetically, recent brain research, ment ioned in chapter 3,
suggests that premature formal instruction [works heets, flash cards, memorization of decontextualized materialj actually
interferes with the brain’s ability to make the neurological connections necessary for such learning). Inappropriate instructional
practices ignore children’s natural capabilities and leave the learner feeling frustrated, helpl ess, and incompetent.
Play is also very important to the young child’s developing sense of comp etence. Through play, children practice social
interaction skills, apply new
concepts to their play themes, and grow in social awareness. Play can do for

12

306 chapter 8: Guiding Young ChiIdre,,

young children what ego-defense mechanisms do for older children and adults. It can protect the ego from undue insult by
providing a medium for role-playing assertive behaviors, pretending to be strong and powerful and in control (Elkind, 1987). In
effect, through play, children test and practice their social abilities and growing sense of competence. Successful resolution of
these psychosocial crises depends not only on parents but also on care- givers and teachers as well. Elkind (1987) said it best:
Schooling practices become as important as parenting practices in the outcome
of the crises of personality potentials. Just as we know what parenting pracr ices encourage and support trust, autonomy,
initiative, and belonging, so do
we know what schooling practices encourage industry and competence. When we recognize the young child’s unique modes of
learning and
adapt educational practices to them, we engage in healthy education. When we ignore what we know about how young children
learn, and expose them to teaching practices appropriate to children at older age levels, we iniseduc are them and put them at risk
for a sense of inferiority and helplessness. (pp. 157—158).
Self-Esteem
self-esteem one’s posi- Self-esteem is a by-product of these earlier accomplishments along with the
tive or negative self child’s continual self-evaluations and assessments of how dthers respond to
evaruation. him or her, particularly their most important others—parents, siblings,
grandparents, caregivers, teachers, and playmates.
Professional early childhood educators understand the critical import ance of positive self-concepts and self-esteem. They know
that self-esteem
in young children is fostered when adults recognize the young child’s need
for acceptance, self-determination, and authentic accomplishment. Self-
esteem is also enhanced when adults provide challenging yet achievable
tasks and curricula for young children. Self-esteem is supported through
guidance that builds a sense of autonomy and competence, a sense of
belonging and worth, and the knowledge that one’s contribution to the
• family and classroom group is valued.
Self-Esteem and Children with Special Needs
Children who are physically, emotionally, or cognitively challenged face numerous obstacles in growing up. They share the same
needs for affection, acceptance, belonging, achievement, respect, and dignity as do other less challenged children. A common
issue for young children with disabilities is the feeling of being different or being singled out for special treatment. Sensitive
early childhood educators provide comfortable, accessible, user- friendly Classroom environments, materials, and activities.
These teachers structure the environments and play and work groups to facilitate dialogue, interaction, peer assistance, and
mutuality. Promotion of group sensitivity,
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understanding, and acceptance is an important part of the teacher’s intera ctions with class members. Setting age-
and individually appropriate social and academic expectations is particularly important for the development of
healthy self-concepts and positive self-regard.
SOCIAL COMPETENCE
A definition of social competence is difficult to construct. The socialization
process through which social competence emerges begins in the home and

Social Competence

307

In inclusive classrooms, all children learn about disabilities and develop mutual respect.