Fundamentals of Sound lastic Gouna can be defined as a wave motion in air or other media (stimulus) or as that excitation of the hearing mechanism that results in the perception of sound (sensation). Which definition applies depends on whether the approach is physical or psy- chophysical. The type of problem dictates the approach to sound. If the interest is in the disturbance in air created by a loudspeaker, it is # poubleus in phypivs. Tf the interval is how il svunds (ye petsuu eat the loudspeaker, psychophysical methods must be used. Because this book addre tion to people, both sound will be treated. These two views of sound are presented in terms familiar to those interested in audio and music. Frequency is a characteristic of peri- odic waves measured in hertz (cycles per second). readily observable on a cathode-ray oscilloscope or countable by a frequency counter, The ear perceives a different pitch for a soft 100 Hz tone than a loud one. The pitch of a low-frequency tone goes down, while the pitch of a high-frequency tone goes up as intensity increases. A famous acoustician, Harvey Fletcher, found that playing pure tones of 168 and 318 Hz at a modest level produces a very discordant sound. At a high intensity, however, the ear hears the pure tones in the 150-300 Hz octave relationship as a pleasant sound. We cannol equate frequency and pitch, but they are analogous oustics in rel oof CHAPTER Copyright 2001 ‘The McGraw-Hill Companies, Ine. Cliek Here for Terms ot Use.7 CHAPTER ONE ‘The same situation exists between intensity and loudness. The rela- tionship between the two is not linear. This is considered later in more detail because it is of great importance in high fidelity work. Similarly, We velaliousip between waveform (or spectrum) and perceived quality (or timbre) is complicated by the functioning of the hearing mechanism. As a complex waveform can be described in terms of a fundamental and a train of harmonics (or pattials) of various amplitudes and phases (more on this later), the frequency-pitch inter- action is involved as well as other factors The sine wave is a basic waveform closely zelated to simple harmonic motion. The weight (mass) on the spring shown in Fig, 1-1 is a vibrating system. If the weight is pulled down to the —5 mark and released, the spring pulls the weight back toward 0. The weight will not, however, stop al zero; ils inertia will carry it beyond 0 almost to +5. The weight will continue to vibrate, or oscil- FIGURE 1-1 late, at an amplitude that will slowly [Avweight on a spring vibrates at its natural frequency Oetrvase due ty [:ictivual lussts iu the sprians, because of the elasticity of the spring and the iner- the air, ete. tia of the weight. The weight in Fig, 1-1 moves in what is called simple harmonic motion. The pis- ton in an automobile engine is connected to the crankshaft by a con- necting rod. The rotation of the crankshaft and the up-and-down motion of the pistons beentifilly iTlustrate the relationship between rotary motion and linear simple harmonic motion. The piston position plotted against time produces a sine wave. It is a very basic type of mechanical motion, and it yields an equally basic waveshape in sound and electronics. Tia ballpoint pen is fastened to the pointer of Fig. 1-2, and a strip of paper is moved past it at a uniform speed, the resulting trace is a sine wave. In the arrangement of Fig. 1-1, vibration or oscillation is possible because of the elasticity of the spring and the inertia of the weight.FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND a < Paper motion So’ [5 r. So \S/ PO A ballpoint pen fastened to the vibrating weight traces a sine wave on a paper strip moving at uniform speed. This shows the basic ralationship between simple harmonic motion and the sine wave. Elasticity and inertia are two things all media must possess to be capa- dle of conducting sound. Sine-Wave Language The sine wave is a specific kind of alternating signal and is described dy its own set of specific terms. Viewed on an oscilloscope, the easiest value to read is the peak-to-peak value (of voltage, current, sound pressure, or whatever the sine wave represents), he meaning of which is obvious in Fig. 1-3. If the wave is symmetrical, the peak-to-peak value is twice the peak value. The common ac voltmeter is, in reality, a de instrument fitted with axoctifier that changes the altemating sine current to pulsating unidi- rectional current. The de meter then responds to the average value as ‘2 however, almost univarsely cal ibrated in terms of rms (described in the next paragraph). For pure sine wa indicated in Fig 1-8 Such moter this is quite an acceptable fiction, but for nonsinusoidal wave- shapes the reading will be in error. An alternating current of one ampere rms (or effective) is exactly equivalent in heating power to 1 ampere of direct current as it flows through a resistance of known value, After all, alternating current can heat up a resistor or do work no matter which direction it flows, it is just a matter of evaluating it. In the right-hand positive loop of Fig. 1-3 the ordinates (height of lines to the curve) are read off for each marked