Riv 18 1

METALLURGICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
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Vol. 18 No. 1
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A Journal published by
Editorial Panel
Paolo ANTONA Materials Consultant Aurelio BURDESE Professore Emerito, Facolt di Ingegneria, Politecnico di Torino Giuseppe CAGLIOTI Professore di Fisica dello Stato Solido, Facolt di Ingegneria, Politecnico di Milano Carlo DONISELLI Professore di Costruzione di Autoveicoli, Facolt di Ingegneria, Politecnico di Milano Merton C. FLEMINGS Head Department of Materials Science and Engineering, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass. Sergio GALLO Libero docente di Chimica Applicata presso il Politecnico di Torino, Presidente Onorario Teksid S.p.A. Claudio MUS Innovazione Centrale Teksid S.p.A. Walter NICODEMI Professore di Siderurgia e Impianti Siderurgici, Facolt di Ingegneria, Politecnico di Milano
Direttore Responsabile: Sergio GALLO Registrazione presso il Tribunale di Torino n. 3298 del 12 maggio 1983 Associato alla Unione Stampa Periodica Italiana Authors are asked to supply two typewritten copies of their papers. These should be laid out in accordance with the Instructions for authors on the inside back cover. All correspondence should be addressed to:
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Segreteria di redazione Metallurgical Science and Technology Teksid S.p.A. Via Pianezza, 123 10151 Torino (Italy) - Tel. +39.011.6854.111 No part of the texts published in this journal may be reproduced, whether in the original language or in translation, without permission in writing from Teksid. Papers submitted for publication as a rule should illustrate unpublished original research works, experiments, or critical reviews. Publication will depend on the approval of the Editorial Panel. Publication distributed free of charge Copyright 1983 Teksid S.p.A. - All rights reserved. Editorial coordination: Immagine e Comunicazione Esterna Graphics and layout: EMMEDI pencil & mouse - C.so Francia, 121 - To Printed in Italy: Graficat - Via Cuniberti, 47 - Torino
Metallurgical Science and Technology

A journal published by Teksid twice a year
Vol. 18 No. 1, June 2000
Page
S. Brusethaug, Y. Langsrud
Aluminum properties, a model for calculating mechanical properties in AlSiMgFe-foundry alloys Use of gamma titanium aluminide for automotive engine valves Mechanical behaviour of 6082-T6 aluminium alloy welds Thixoforming of aluminium alloy for weight saving of a suspension steering knuckle Development of mixed (ferrito-ausferritic) structures for spheroidal graphite irons Teksid Innovation Technical Center
3 8 12 19 24 30
D. Chandley
S. Missori, A. Sili
A. Fuganti, G. Cupit
D. Rousire, J. Aranzabal
S. Gallo, C. Mus
Vol. 17 (2) (1999)
Aluminum properties, a model for calculating mechanical properties in AISiMgFe-foundry alloys

*Stig Brusethaug, **Yngve Langsrud *Hydro Aluminium, R&D Materials Technology, Sunndalsera-N **Hydro Raufoss Automotive Structures, Raufoss-N
Abstract A semi-empirical model named ALPROP has been developed for the calculation of tensile properties and hardness in AlSiMg(Fe) Foundry Alloys. With chemical composition, dendrite arm spacing (DAS) and heat treatment parameters as input the model calculates tensile properties and hardness for material in as cast, solid solution heat treated and in artificially aged condition. The model, which takes into consideration the relationship between the different input parameters and the link to basic metallurgical features, shows good agreement with experimental results. The ALPROP model has proved to be a useful tool for tailoring mechanical properties by correct choice of chemical composition and process parameters, for analysing consequences and identifying possible actions when having unintended process variations, identifying improvement potensials and for training of foundry staff.
Riassunto Un modello semi-empirico denominato ALPROP stato elaborato per il calcolo delle propriet trazionali e della durezza delle leghe AlSiMg (Fe) di fonderia. Utilizzando quali parametri di ingresso la composizione chimica, lintervallo del braccio dendritico (DAS) ed il trattamento termico, il modello calcola le propriet trazionali e la durezza di un materiale nelle condizioni as cast, trattato termicamente in soluzione solida, o artificialmente invecchiato. Il modello prende in considerazione il rapporto tra i parametri dingresso ed il collegamento con le caratteristiche metallurgiche di base. Vi anche un buon accordo tra i risultati forniti dal modello e quelli sperimentali. Il modello ALPROP si pure dimostrato essere utile come strumento per la regolazione delle propriet meccaniche tramite la giusta scelta dei parametri della composizione chimica e del processo, per lanalisi delle conseguenze e lindividuazione delle azioni da intraprendere nel caso di varizioni del processo indesiderate, per lidentificazione delle possibilit di miglioramento e per la formazione del personale della fonderia.
INTRODUCTION
Hypoeutectic AlSiMg primary foundry alloys combines excellent castability with the possibility of obtaining castings with high ductility, fracture thoughness and fatigue properties. In addition, moderate to high strength can be achieved by applying heat treatment to the castings. These properties makes the alloys suited for demanding applications within the automotive segment. Products as wheel rims, master brake cylinders and structural parts (f.ex. sub frames) are made from AlSiMg primary foundry alloys. Mechanical properties are linked to the microstructure in the material which again is determined by chemical composition (trace elements, alloying elements), heat treatment parameters (time, temperature combinations) and casting conditions (solidification rate, temperature gradients, casting defect). With so many parameters influencing the microstructure and mechanical properties both individually and coupled, it is difficult to predict precisely the effect of a change in one or several parameters on the product properties. The best way of achieving this is to evaluate and systemise available information into a computer program, also taking into consideration the relationships between the different parameters and the link to basic metallurgical understanding of what is behind the effects observed. These ideas were the origin to the development of the AlProp model, and the motivation was to establish a tool to be used in technical support to Hydro Aluminiums Foundry Alloy customers.
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

Model concept AlProp consists of a set of equations relating microstructure parameters to chemical composition, secondary dendrite arm spacing (DAS) and the heat treatment parameters. Another set of equations link the tensile properties to the microstructure parameters. The equations are based on physical and metallurgical conceptions on the formation of the microstructure and how it determines the mechanical properties. Fundamental equations are, however, not very applicable to complex multi-phase systems such as AlSiMgFeSr, and the mathematical descriptions are therefore motivated by the need of reproducing experimental data. The present version of the AlProp model is microstructure-controlled, i.e. the effect of porosity and inclusions on the mechanical properties is not calculated. Input and output The calculations of mechanical properties are based on the following input parameters: Composition, i.e. Si (5-12 wt%), Mg (0.01-0.9 wt%), Fe (0.01-0.8 wt%) and Sr (0-500 ppm weight) The secondary dendrite arm spacing (10-150 m) The solid solution heat treatment temperature (500-550C) and time The intermediate room temperature time before artificial age hardening (0.1-200 hrs) The time and temperature (150-200C) for a one or two step artificial age hardening treatment. Output is as follows: i) Microstructure parameters after solidification and changes in them during solid solution heat treatment: Solid solubility of Mg and Si Fraction of eutectic structure The size and shape of the Si-particles (as observed in 2 dimensions) The fraction of other constituents, such as the -AlFeSi (Al5FeSi), Mg2Si and -AlMgFeSi (Al18Si10Mg7Fe2) [1] ii) Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, total elongation, the quality index (function of tensile properties) and Vickers hardness for the three conditions: as cast after solid solution heat treatment and prescribed room temperature storage time after artificial age hardening including a two-step process.
The Software AlProp is written in Borland Turbo Pascal for Windows 3.11, but runs perfectly with Windows 95 and Windows NT. Input can be fixed, specified with one variable or even specified with one variable and two different values of a second parameter. The results are presented in tables and graphs with options for specifying the validity range of the axis and the density of calculation points. AlProp offers printing directly from the program or from spreadsheets reading a result file generated by the program. Calculation of mechanical properties
Mechanical properties as cast
In AlProp yield stress, YS, of the eutectic fraction and the pre-eutectic fraction is calculated separately and combined with a simple law of mixture to obtain the final yield stress. While the pre-eutectic fraction is only a function of Mg (closely related to Mg in solid solution), the eutectic part is also a function of the fibrousity of the Si-particles. A fibrous structure reveals a higher resistance to yielding, as shown by [2] and [3]. We have observed a significant increase in strength
160 140 120 Rp (MPa) 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 Mg (wt%) DAS=30 m DAS=10 m
Fig.1: Calculated as cast yield strength in AlSi7Fe0.1Mgx. Squares are experimental results from DC-cast material (DAS= 10 m) and triangles from gravity die cast plates (DAS = 30 m)
by increasing cooling rate, and a term including DAS has therefore also been included. Fig. 1 gives an example of calculated and measured yield stresses. The tensile test itself with strain hardening, local necking and local deformation before final fracture is too complicated to model, especially for a complex structure as found in commercial AlSi-alloy. We have therefore developed an empirical expression for the total elongation in a tensile test (A5type geometry) based on the following concept: The total elongation A decreases with: increasing fraction of eutectic structure (increasing Si)
increasing Mg in solid solution increasing average area of Si-particles (function of Sr and DAS) increasing maximum length of Si-particles (function of Sr and DAS) decreasing average shape factor (function of Sr and DAS) increasing fraction of -AlFeSi. The maximum length of Si-particles and the fraction of AlFeSi is combined in one parameter so that the detrimental effect of Fe becomes relatively more important when the structure is modified. Despite the fact that so many parameters are included, an additional DAS-adjustment proved necessary. The reason is that by decreasing DAS all the size parameters are reduced and the total elongation increases. However, the yield stress also increases as DAS is lowered, meaning that the elongation improves less than calculated from the particle size parameters alone. The uniform part of the total elongation, Au, is expressed by the following empirical equation: Au = A-0.03*A1.5 (1)
ing a gradual decrease of the yield stress of the eutectic fraction in accordance with the calculation of the particle breakup and spherodization. The room temperature aging effect is calculated on an empirical basis. The total elongation is represented by a complex formulae. It reflects that the improvement in the elongation compared to the as cast condition is less for the modified structure and also less when Fe is high. The p-AlFeSi morphology (large platelets) is relatively stable. Therefore, the total elongation in T4 will be increasingly dependent on the Fe content, and less dependant of the eutectic structure, as the Fe level increases. The reduction in total elongation with room temperature aging is also calculated on an empirical basis. The ultimate tensile stress is calculated as explained in eq.25, but with a slightly higher value for K when Mg is high, because strain hardening during the tensile test is promoted by elements in solid solution. The age hardening model The concept of Shercliff and Ashby [4] was applied as a starting point for constructing age hardening curves. The model has a physical basis in the sense that the strength is built up of an intrinsic stress (the yield stress of the AlSiFealloy without Mg), a solid solution term that gradually decreases during aging, and an aging term that develops. In AlProp the T4-strength corresponds to the sum of the two first factors plus the effect of room temperature cold aging. The aging term is calculated on the basis of a metastable solvus at the aging temperature, giving the amount that can precipitate, and a precipitate coarsening model. The strength contribution from particles pinning dislocations (Orowanmechanism) and from cutting the particles (Fridel-mechanism) reach a maximum at a certain particle size corresponding to the peak of the aging curve. The model does not distinguish between the different precipitate stages, and is in that sense incomplete. The important point, however, is that it offers a semi-physical mathematical description that can be further extended. In its original form the shape of the curve is fixed, i.e. only the peak level is adjusted. In our version of the model the shape is dependent on the Mg content, the room temperature aging time and the solid solution heat treatment temperature. The model by Shercliff and Ashby applies a temperature compensated time parameter. This takes into account that the temperature may vary during the heat treatment. This has been utilized in order to model a two-step aging process, especially suitable for calculating the effect of a high temperature lacquering treatment following the artificial aging heat treatment. The effect of room temperature storage on the T6-strength has been discussed by several authors, [5], [6], [7]. Most authors seem to agree that the T6-strength drops with in5
The equation simply expresses that the post-uniform elongation constitutes a relatively larger part of the total elongation when the total elongation increases. Knowing the uniform elongation, the ultimate tensile stress UTS can be calculated if the strain hardening of the tensile sample is known. AlProp applies a Ludvig stress-strain law for this purpose: UTS = YS + K*un (2)
where K = (250 + 100*Mg)e3.5/DAS (3) u = ln(1+Au/100) (4) n = 0.5 (5) The equation expresses that the strain hardening increases with increasing Mg and decreasing DAS. The value 0.5 is prescribed as a typical value for n in aluminium alloys when Ludvigs law is written as in eq. 2. Vickers hardness HV is expressed by the same stress-strain law, making the assumption that a hardness indentation in average causes a true strain of 0.08. The proportionality factor this strain, between the stress and the hardness is 3: HV = 1/3(YS+K*0.08n) Mechanical Properties in solution treated condition (T4) The drop in the yield stress which is realized after solution treatment of A1SiMg foundry alloys is calculated by assumVol. 18 (1) (2000)
(6)
creasing room temperature storage for high M2Si levels, while an opposite effect can be found for low Mg2Si. [6] suggests that excess Si reduces the detrimental effect on T6 strength from intermediate room temperature storage. Our results are shown in fig.2. The figures show the importance of measuring the whole aging curve. It is quite clear that room temperature storage delays the aging response, and in the underaged regime, room temperature storage will have a strength reducing effect. With a prolonged aging time (over-aging) the conclusion is the opposite. However, by ensuring a sufficient aging time, the detrimental effect of intermediate room temperature aging is almost zero. The total elongation has a minimum for the peak situation, and the evolution of the total elongation with age hardening time is similar to that of the yield stress, but with an opposite sign. The effect of Mg is obviously strong, and also a combined effect of Fe, Si, Mg and DAS compared to the solid solution heat-treated condition is included in order to reproduce experimental results. The ultimate tensile strength is again modeled as in eq.2-5, but with a slightly lower value for K than in the solid solution heat-treated condition. This is due to the fact that age hardened samples work harden less during the tensile test.
Mg=0.14 wt%
100 90 80 RTS=0.1 hr. 70 60 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Tim e (hrs.) at 160 C
RTS=7 days
HV1
Mg= 0.24 wt%

110 100 90 HV1 80 70 60 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Tim e (hrs.) at 160 C
RTS= 7 days RTS=0.1 hr.
Mg=0.43 wt%
140 130 120 110 HV1
VERIFICATION AND USE OF THE MODEL

Model calculations have been compared with literature data. The difference between results from different sources makes the comparison difficult but the overall conclusion is that the model predicts the tensile properties fairly good. When comparing calculations with DC cast material, which is considered to be almost free of defects, we find that the calculations are in very good agreement with measurements. The model has been utilized by Hydro Aluminium in technical support activities to foundry alloy customers. In particular, the use of the model for tailoring of properties by correct choice of Mg content and heat treatment conditions has proved to be successful. Further, use of the model to reduce heat treatment times (reduced cost, increased productivity) without reducing the material properties has proved valuable. In two cases, the calculations showed the potential for a fifty percent reduction of the heat treatment time a 50% reduction of the without affecting properties and the implementation of the new time/temperature combinations proved successful.
RTS=7 days RTS=0.1 hr.
100 90 80 70 60 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Tim e (hrs.) at 160 C
Fig.2: The effect of intermediate Room Temperature Storage time on Vickers hardness after age hardening at 160 C
CONCLUSIONS
A model for calculating microstructure parameters, tensile properties and hardness of AlSiMg(Fe,Sr) foundry alloys has been developed. The equations used in the model are based upon physical and metallurgical conceptions on how microstructure is formed and how it determines the mechanical properties. Evaluation of the model reveals that it reproduces the available experimental data satisfactorily, and use of the model in technical support to foundry alloy customers have proved to be valuable. Typical applications for the model is: tailor mechanical properties for castings by correct choice
of chemical composition and process parameters (heat treatment, casting conditions etc.) study the effect of different parameters on mechanical properties in order to: - analyze consequences of process variations (out of chemical specifications, variations in heat treatment
conditions etc.) - identify possible actions when having process variations - identify improvement potentials training of foundry people, illustrate the effect of the different parameters on the product properties.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] Simensen, C.J: Production of p-phase, Sintef-report STF24 F96046 (1994) 11 pages. Hafiz, M.F. and Kobayashi, T.: A study on the microstructure-fracture behaviour relations in Al-Si Casting Alloys, Scripta Metallurgica et. Materalia, vol.30 (1994), 475-480. Paul, J. and Eckart, H.E.: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the Age-Hardening Eutectic Aluminium-Silicon Alloy G-AlSi12(CuMgNi), Z. Metallkde. BD.81 (1990), H.11, pp. 816-825 Shercliff, H.R and Ashby, M.F.: A process model for age hardening of aluminium alloys, Acta metall. mater. Vol. 38, No. 10 (1990) 17891812. [5] [6] Allen, T. and Crosky, A.: Preageing effects in Al-7%Si-0.6%Mg foundry alloys, ALUMINIUM.66 (1990). 11, 1079-1083. Murali, S., Arunkumar, Y., Chetty, P.V.J., Raman, K.S., Murthy, K.S.S.: The Effect of Preaging on the Delayed Aging of Al-7Si-0.3Mg, JOM, (Feb. 1997), 29-33. Zhen, L., Kang, S.B., Kim, H.W.: Effect of natural aging and preaging on subsequent precipitation process of an Al-Mg-Si alloy with high excess silicon; Mat. Sc. and Tech. Vol. 13, (Nov 1997), 905-910.
[3]
[7]
[4]
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
Use of gamma titanium aluminide for automotive engine valves

Dixon Chandley, President Metal Casting Technology
Abstract Titanium aluminade is considered an interesting material for the automotive industry when applied to light hot components because of their peculiar properties. In particular the tensile strenght which is higher in the 700-800 C range there at room temperature. Compared with special steel used at high temperature (21-2N) the titanium aluminide is 50% lower in density and the termal expansion is also interestihgly lower. A suitable casting technology has been developed with the goal of having a low cost transformation process. Unalloyed TiAl has been proven adequate for automotive valves.
Riassunto Gli alluminiuri di titanio vengono considerati una famiglia di materiali inter metallici di interesse per applicazioni automotive viste le loro particolari propriet. La resistenza a rottura in temperatura 700-800 C risulta superiore rispetto a quella a temperatura ambiente. La resistenza a fatica in temperatura (800 C) mantiene livelli superiori ai materiali normalmente usati per applicazioni a caldo (valvole di scarico). A confronto con tali materiali (es. 21-2N) gli alluminiuri di titanio presentano un peso specifico ridotto del 50% e un coefficiente di espansione termica sensibilmente pi bassi. Ad oggi disponibile una tecnologia di trasformazione qui descritta in grado di produrre componenti a costi competitivi (es. valvole motore).
BACKGROUND
General Titanium and aluminum form three principal compounds called titanium aluminides, TiAl, TiAl2, TiAl3,. The TiAl compound, called gamma, is the one which has the highest melting point and other properties that make it useful for engineering purposes. It is nominally 50 atomic percent (35 weight %) aluminum. As with other metals, elements may be added to improve properties. The nature of these alloys is such that hot forming is not practical, so essentially all parts tested have been in cast form. All properties and parts mentioned in this paper are from the investment casting process, which is being used extensively in automotive applications today. For automotive engine poppet valves, unalloyed TiAl has been proven adequate for three engines, but small additions of chromium, silicon, and/or niobium (a percent or less) may be required to improve creep resistance, oxidation, and ductility for other engines. Niobium is the only element that increases cost significantly.
Properties The properties of TiAl that make it interesting for a valve can be seen from the following side by side comparison with 21-2N, a commonly used exhaust valve steel: TiAl 3.9 21-2N 7.7
Density, grams/cc Tensile strength, Mpa (ksi) Room Temperature 760C (1400C) Therm.Cond. (W/M.K) at 1400F Fatigue str., 108 cycles, smooth 440C MPa (ksi) 816C MPa (ksi) Hardness, BHN Room Temperature 760C Modulus, GPa (106psi), 75F Coefficient of thermal expansion, microns/meter
560 (80) 600 (86)
1090 (150) 400 (57)

Fig. 1: Macro etch, about twice size, of the cross section of the head and stem of a typical automotive valve. Structure is not refined by heat treatment.
28
25
326 (46) 220 (31)
-165 (24)
260 240 170 (24) 12.2
300 140 200 (29) 18.4
Figure 2 shows a valve with some microstructures at different magnifications, after HIPping. There is some recrystallization where the pores are closed, but the structure is about the same as cast, almost fully laminar, which is the desired structure.
In air, the oxidation resistance of TiAl is quite good to 70C (1300F), and has been proven satisfactory in the combustion atmosphere of two engines. If not, an addition of 1% niobium makes it satisfactory up to 870C (1600F). While the ductility of the TiAl alloys is only around 1%, it should be adequate for valves, since Si3N4 has run well as a valve material. Even the lowest ductility alloy can easily be processed and handled. Microstructure Figure 1 shows the macroetch of the head and a section of the stem of an engine valve. It is possible to get equiaxed structures with low casting temperatures, but as with all titanium casting, temperature control is difficult. The fine columnar structure becomes equiaxed in the part center. The part showed in Fig. 1 was gated into the head of the valve, which is sound as cast. The stem contains varying amounts of centerline shrinkage, depending on the alloy. Thus, it is normal to Hot Isostatic Press the valves to close all internal porosity. That is very expensive due to the high temperatures involved, so tests in which the centerline shrinkage is left in the valve are underway.
Fig. 2: Microetches, at different places in a TiAl valve after HIPping at 1200C and 1200 Kgf/cm2 for one hour.
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
Status of development The potential for light weight valves was recognized as early as 1994. Calculations showed that the use of solid TiAl valves to replace solid steel valves would permit increasing the limiting speed of a push rod engine from 6000 rpm to 6900 rpm in a large engine. Recent works [1] showed that in a smaller overhead cam engine, the limiting speed could be increased from 13,700 rpm, to 14,400 rpm. During this time frame, valves were run in several engines, including stoichiometric operation and excellent performance was obtained. In some cases, plasma carburizing was used to improve wear resist-
ance, but in others, the valves were tested uncoated. Very wear resistant coatings can be applied to TiAl, if engine test shows they are required. All valves tested to date have been hot isostatically pressed to eliminate all internal porosity in the cast valves. The tests to date show that the TiAl valves will give a power increase over steel valves of about 8% due to the increase in rpm allowed. In addition, if engines are improved to enable stoichiometric operation, further benefits might be obtained. Many other parts of the engine would also have to be changed due to higher temperature of stoichiometric operation.
CASTING TECHNOLOGY
As mentioned, casting is the most cost effective way to form TiAl parts. While some work has bean done in permanent molds and there is a potential for use of a modified sand casting process, only investment casting has been used enough to be called a reliable process. However, if TiAl valves made by investment casting go into production, more work would undoubtably be done to achieve success in the lower cost processes. Hitchiner believes its CLIX process (US Patent 5,299,619) is currently the lowest cost way of preparing cast valve blanks. The process is shown schematically in Figure 3. Titanium scrap is preheated under vacuum, 3a. The chamber is backfilled with argon, the cover is removed and molten aluminum is poured into the hot titanium as shown in 3b. Power is applied to the charge, which soon causes the titanium and aluminum to exothermically react, forming the TiAl molten alloy, 3c. Quickly, before the melt has time to react with the ceramic crucible, a mold in a vacuum chamber with a fill pipe extending out is moved so the pipe extends into the melt and fills the mold when a vacuum is established in the mold chamber, 3d. Each time a mold is cast a new crucible with a new charge is loaded into the melting chamber. To date almost all valves have been cast in investment shell molds, but a few tests of permanent molds and sand molds showed promise. If either of these mold types could be used costs would be lowered by around 15%.
REACTION MELTING BY CLI PROCESS
Under vacuum, titanium in a graphite lined crucible is outgassed
Chamber is backfilled with argon, molten aliminum is poured into the titanium and power is applied
As soon as all is melted, a cover is removed for casting
Argon is sucked into the mold, and it is lowered with vacuum on to cast metal
Fig. 3: a-d. Steps in melting and casting TiAl by the CLI process.
MACHINING
Some concerner on the machinig of titanium aluminides are still in place. Recent works [2] showed that if vitrified SiC wheels dressed with diamonds were used to grind TiAl, there
was about a 34% increase in grinding costs as compared to stainless steel. However, if you increased the surface speed from 32 to 45 ft/sec and increased the machine stiffness from 15.6 to 24 Kw, the TiAl could be ground faster than stainless steel. Several companies have experience grinding TiAl valves and it is expected grinding could be done economically.
10
COATING
It is possible that a hard coating on the valve tips and a wear coating on the valve stems will be needed, depending on loads applied to the valve. There are a variety of coatings that have been used nitriding, CVD coatings, plasma carburizing, and platings of various kinds. There are some indications that a carbon addition to the TiAl would increase its resistance to mushrooming on the tip, which might eliminate the need for a tip coating of some kind. Clearly, there is need for quite a bit of work, mostly testing, in this area to achieve the most economic process. Figure 4 shows some wear data obtained up to now.
SUMMARY
Titanium aluminide is still very much an experimental material for use in automotive. The very first production of TiAl parts is for turbocharger wheels for a low volume application in Japan. The wheels are being made by Daido Steel Co. Ltd. TiAl poppet valves have been run in at least five engines and have performed well, even under stoichiometric operation. The big problem is the high cost of the material, which will preclude its wide use for the forseeable future. It currently can compete cost wise with sodium cooled and solid nickel alloys valves, however.
COST
The cost per kilogram of the raw materials for 21-2N is around $0.70 and for those of TiA1 is $6.30. Even on a volume basis it is $0.7 vs $3.11. Processing costs for TiAl are also higher, so its use must generate a big benefit in engine performance to be cost effective. On a volume basis it is much lower in cost than nickel base superalloys such as INCO 751, and processing costs are comparable. Thus, there is no question that, from a cost standpoint, TiAl is a viable candidate for valve applications requiring nickel alloys or sodium filled valves. For normal passenger cars, a careful trade off analysis must be done to determine the economics of TiAl. Even with optimization of design and the processes described it would be expected the price of finished TiAl valves would be in the range of $3.50-4.50 per valve.
Fig. 4: Wear test results for the plasma carburization which has proven to be more than adequate for most engines.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] Development of a high performance TiAl Engine valve, Maki et al, SAE 1996. Titanium aluminider machining, Schmite-Cincinnati Millicron - February 12, 1995 Symposium. Development of titanium aluminide turbocharger rotors, Nishiyama et al, TMS/ASM, Indianapolis-IN, October 5, 1989.
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
11
Mechanical behaviour of 6082-T6 aluminium alloy welds

*S. Missori and **A. Sili *Dipartimento Ingegneria Meccanica - Universit di Roma - Tor Vergata - Italy **Dipartimento Chimica Industriale e Ingegneria dei Materiali - Universit di Messina - Italy
Abstract
In the utilisation of aluminium alloys for structural applications, one difficulty to be overcome is the reduction of mechanical properties of welded joints as compared to the parent material, consequent upon the weaker strength of the Weld Metal (WM) and the deterioration in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) due to welding thermal cycles. In this paper the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of joints welded with Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) procedure, made of plates of 6082-T6 alloy, are investigated. Experimental work included Vickers microhardness test, tensile test, fatigue rotating bending test, Charpy V impact test and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) fractography. Diagrams of fatigue stress - cycles for parent and welded material were compared. Static tensile tests showed minimum strength in the HAZ, while fatigue strength and fracture toughness have minimum value in the WM. Fracture toughness in terms of K IC, estimated by empirical relations, showed the lowest value in the melted zone.
Riassunto Un problema che si presenta nellutilizzo delle leghe di alluminio per applicazioni strutturali la riduzione delle propriet meccaniche dei giunti saldati nei confronti del metallo base. Ci a seguito della minore resistenza del metallo fuso (WM) e del deterioramento della zona termicamente alterata (HAZ) conseguente ai cicli termici di saldatura. In questo lavoro vengono investigate la microstruttura e le propriet meccaniche di giunti saldati ottenuti da lamiere in lega 6082-T6 mediante procedura Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Il lavoro sperimentale comprende misure di microdurezza Vickers, prove di trazione, prove di fatica a flessione rotante, prove ad impatto Charpy V e osservazione frattografiche mediante microscopia elettronica in scansione (SEM). Vengono posti a confronto i diagrammi resistenza a fatica - numero di cicli per il metallo base e per i giunti saldati. Le prove statiche di trazione hanno mostrato che la minima resistenza meccanica si verifica nella HAZ, mentre la resistenza a fatica e la tenacit a frattura hanno valore minimo in corrispondenza del WM. La tenacit a frattura, espressa in temini di KIC, valutato mediante relazioni empiriche, presenta il valore pi basso in corrispondenza della zona fusa.
INTRODUCTION
Aluminium alloys have been more and more extensively utilised in structural applications and transportation industry [1,2] for their light weight and attractive mechanical properties achieved by thermal treatments. In the Al-Mg-Si alloys, that are widely used in welded structures, the strengthening mechanism is associated to a well known sequence of precipitation in four distinct stages, during aging after solution heat treatment and quenching, as validated by numerous experimental works [3,4,5]. This precipitation may significantly increase hardness and tensile strength of the Al-Mg-Si alloys depending on precipitate structure, size and distribution [6]. In the utilisation of these alloys, one difficulty to be overcome is the general reduction, as compared to the parent material, of mechanical properties of welded joints. This is consequent upon the weaker strength of the WM and deterioration in the HAZ due to the welding thermal cycles that may profoundly affect the initial precipitation structure. The precipitate sequence and morphology in these alloys are well known in literature [7]. In particular, a process model based on established principles of phase equilibria, precipitate coarsening and dislocation precipitate interactions, was developed by Shercliff and Ashby to describe the ageing of the age hardening Al alloys [8,9]; moreover the works of Myhr and Grong [10,11] deal with the microstructural stability of the 6082-T6 Al alloy at elevated temperatures and show some applications to the prediction of strength losses in the HAZ of fusion welds. But the studies concerning the effects produced by the heat of welding, which are peculiar of both the process and alloy considered, are not exhaustive; in fact a variety of phenomena, such as overaging associated to precipitation process [12] or liquation cracking [13], may be induced and the resulting metallurgical and mechanical properties deterioration can be controlled by the alloy starting temper conditions or, when it is possible, by the postweld aging procedure [14]. In this paper the microstructural evolution and mechanical
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characteristics of joints welded with GMAW procedure, made of plates of 6082 aluminium alloy in the T6 conditions, are investigated. The alloy here considered, belonging to the class 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si), is the European near equivalent of 6061 (the American variant). It was reinforced by solution at 535C and water quenching treatment, followed by final aging at 175C for 8-10 hours (treatment reported as T6). In a previous paper [15], the microstructural evolution of this alloy, due to welding, was investigated by means of SEM observations and microanalysis measurements and correlated
to the results of tensile and microhardness tests. In the present paper the results of additional Vickers microhardness tests and other mechanical tests, such as fatigue rotating bending tests and Charpy V impact tests, are reported and analysed on the basis of the microstructural evolution. In particular diagrams of fatigue stress - cycles for parent and welded material are compared and discussed. Values of fracture toughness are estimated in terms of KIC, by empirical relations, from impact test energy data. Moreover fractured surface observations through SEM fractography are showed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the welding trials are utilised plate, 10 mm thick, made of aluminium alloy type 6082-T6 (AlSiMg0.9Mn0.7), quenched and thermally aged. As shown in fig. 1, this material is characterised by an aluminium matrix with the presence of a rounded and elongated shape constituent (1-10 m length), identified by SEM microanalysis as (Fe,Mn)3SiAl12, and of extremely fine particles and micropores (~ 0.1-0.5 m size), uniformly distributed. The particles were assumed to be the phase Mg2Si, not completed dissolved during the solution treatment, and the micropores were attributed to their removal during polishing and etching operations. GMAW process was performed in four passes on bevelled plates, with the joint geometry showed in fig. 2. A filler wire having a composition type 4043 (~ 5% Si), which is one of the materials commonly recommended for obtaining a crack-
Fig. 1: SEM micrograph of the structural characteristics of 6082-T6 aluminium alloy.
Fig. 2: Joint geometry (dimension in mm).
TABLE 1 - Characteristics of materials (*)

Type Specification Size (mm) Si Fe max
0.50 0.8
Cu max
0.10 0.3
Composition Mn Mg Cr max
0.4 to 1.0 0.05 0.6 to 1.2 0.05 0.25 -
Zn max
0.20 0.1
Ti max
0.10 0.2
Al
Al 6082-T6 thickness 0.7 Solution-treated Plate UNI 9006/4 10 to and aged 1.3 Al-Si5 Filler wire ASTM 4043 1.6 5.0
bal. b a l .
(*) Nominal values from specifications
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free melt zone [16], was utilised. The compositions of both parent and filler materials are reported in table 1. The GMAW process parameters are given in table 2.
The storage time between welding operations and mechanical tests was of some weeks.
TABLE 2 - Parameters of GMAW procedure

N. of pass Argon flow rate Voltage Current Wire feeding speed Welding speed l/min. V A m/min m/min I 20 190 5.1 0.381 II 20 22 200 5.5 0.414 22 200 5.5 0.407 22 200 5.5 0.387 III IV
The experimental work includes: a) Tensile tests on both welded and unwelded specimens, with 20x10 mm2 rectangular section and 80 mm gage length. b) Vickers microhardness tests (500g, 10 s) along traverses on the cross welded section, in order to distinguish the effects of the various passes. Moreover Vickers microhardness measurements were performed along the specimens previously fractured by fatigue rotating bending test. c) Fatigue rotating bending tests on unnotched specimens of cylindrical shape, diameter 9 mm, smoothly finished. A number of 17 specimens taken from parent metal and 15 from welded sample were submitted to a standard rotating bending test (ratio of the minimum stress amplitude to the maximum stress amplitude R = -1). The load was imposed by four symmetrically located bearings, in order to obtain a pure bending along the central portion of the specimen. d) SEM observation and fractography of both unwelded and welded fatigue specimens. e) Charpy V impact tests on both unwelded and welded specimens, 7.5 mm thick, standard notched. Welded samples were divided into two groups: the first one with notch location in the WM and the second one with notch location in the HAZ, centered at about 6 mm from fusion line.
values of the parent metal. Five samples of the six fractured in the HAZ, the sixth one fractured in the WM (table 3). In the HAZ, rupture is localised at a certain distance (about 6 mm) from fusion line. Vickers microhardness test The Vickers microhardness survey along four traverses (named 1...4 in fig. 3) on the cross weld section showed the following results: in the WM the average hardness was always about 60 HV; in the HAZ, from the initial value of about 100 HV measured in the parent metal, different behaviours for the various traverses are observed, characterised by a general reduction, with a minimum around at 60 HV recorded at a distance variable in the range 5 to 7 mm from the weld metal boundary line, in the region where the rupture during tensile test was observed. The Vickers microhardness survey along the welded specimens fractured by rotating bending test showed the following results (fig. 4):
TABLE 3 - Tensile tests results

N. Sample Tensile Location Elongation strength of rupture (%) (MPa) 276 269 177 178 180 154 165 158 HAZ HAZ HAZ HAZ WM HAZ 8.9 8.8 7.0 6.5 5.5 6.3 5.6 6.3
RESULTS
Tensile test Results of tensile tests on both unwelded and welded samples, performed in a previous paper [15], are here mentioned. These tests showed a remarkable reduction of both tensile strength (from ~270 MPa down to 160-170 MPa) and elongation (from ~ 9% down to ~ 6%) as compared with nominal
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Base material
As welded
Fig. 3: Vickers microhardness survey on as-welded samples. Distances from external surface (right side) of lines 1, 2, 3, 4: 1, 9.3, 2, 8 mm respectively. The indication I, II, III, IV refers to the order of deposition of the four passes.
in the WM higher values (about 80 HV) are found near to the external surface (line 5, 6, where higher values of stress are applied) with an increment of 20 HV in comparison with values measured on samples not submitted to fatigue tests. On the other hand no increment of hardness is recorded in the nearto-axis zone (no stress applied). in the HAZ and in the parent metal, where the applied stress are very lower than the yield strength, no remarkable changes are observed, as compared to the corresponding values in not-cycled samples (line 3, 4 of fig. 3).
Fig. 4: Vickers microhardness survey on fractured welded specimens after fatigue rotating bending test. a) fractured surface; b) WM; c) cut surface (after fatigue fracture) for microhardness test. Distances from external surface (measured before cutting, right side) of lines 5, 6: 2, 8 mm respectively. 15
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Fatigue test The results of fatigue test are reported in the stress - cycles diagram of fig. 5 and show in comparison fatigue strength of welded and parent metal. The experienced values of fatigue rupture stress fall in the range 130 to 280 MPa for unwelded specimens and in the range 70 to 100 MPa for welded specimens, when the number of cycles is ranging between 105 and 2x106. All of welded specimens fractured in the weld metal.
SEM examination SEM metallographic examination showed in the WM solidification cells of aluminium matrix, surrounded by Al-Si eutectic particles, and in the HAZ the same structures which characterised the parent metal (rounded and elongated shape constituent, fine particles and many micropores). Fractured surface appearance under fatigue bending tests are shown in fig. 6 and 7, for both the cases of unwelded and welded specimens. In welded specimens fracture occurred in all cases within the melted zone. Charpy impact test Charpy V impact tests showed that minimum values of absorbed energy were obtained in the specimens having notch location in the WM (~ 6.9 J), thus exhibiting a remarkable reduction of toughness. In the unwelded specimens the representative value is about 10.6 J, while in the welded specimens having notch location in the HAZ a higher average value (~13.0 J) was recorded (table 4).
Figure 5: Stress - Cycles diagram resulting from fatigue rotating bending test for both unwelded and welded samples.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 6: SEM fractography of unwelded sample after fatigue rotating bending test: a) general view; b) initiation zone; c) propagation zone; d) final rupture zone.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 7: SEM fractography of welded samples after fatigue rotating bending test: a) general view; b) propagation zone; c) detail of porosity; d) final rupture zone. 16
TABLE 4 - Charpy impact test data, estimated yield strength and calculated fracture toughness values
Samples Notch location Charpy V impact data (average) J 10.6 6.9 13.0 Vickers hardness (average) HV 100 60 70 Estimated yield strenght MPa (*) 242 132 162 Estimated Fracture toughness KIC MPa m (**) 32.5 20.2 32.9
1..6 (unwelded) 7..12 (welded) 13..18 (welded)

(*) (**)
Base material WM HAZ
Estimated using the regression formula (2) Calculated from empirical relation (1)
DISCUSSION
Metallographic observations and SEM microanalysis measurements in the parent metal and HAZ, performed in [15], have shown the presence of two different constituents and many micropores in the aluminium matrix. Both these constituents are initially present in the parent metal and they can not be associated to thermal alteration consequent upon welding. The microstructural evolution of the Al-Si-Mg alloys during welding and, in particular, the reduction of tensile strength and the location of the minimum hardness values in the HAZ are to be related to the mechanisms of deterioration of constituents initially present in the alloy, due to over aging in the portion of the metal submitted to temperatures high enough to produce the evolution of precipitate, according to a well studied sequential formation [12]; so the hardness distribution in the HAZ of the Al-Mg-Si alloys depends on the interplay between dissolution and reprecipitation, which are competing processes [10]. Considering the distribution of maximum temperatures reached during welding in the HAZ [17], as well known, the more distant the zone from fusion line, the lower is the peak local temperature experienced by the alloy. Thus, the following heat affected sub-zones have been envisaged. A resolubilization zone, in the portion of metal undergoing a temperature greater of 500 C, with complete dissolution of hardening phases and possible partial fusion in the vicinity of melt zone. Here a partial recovery of hardness is occurred, possibly due to some degree of natural aging during the storage time (some weeks) between welding operations and mechanical tests. An over-aging zone in the portion of the metal submitted to temperatures lower than required to resolubilize the precipitates, but sufficient to produce the transformation (the strengthening metastable precipitate) (the intermediate metastable phase) (the equilibrium phase), in the range 500-380C, and , in the range 380240C, where 380 and 240C are the assumed superior limits of existence of phases and respectively. A slightly affected zone, experiencing peak temperatures lower than 240C, in which supposedly no transformaVol. 18 (1) (2000)
tions of phases have been occurred, except some possible coalescence of constituent . The above said transformations can explain also the location of the region exhibiting the minimum hardness and the location of fracture of the tensile samples, which is in most cases in the HAZ, at a distance from the fusion line variable in the range 5 to 7 mm, according to the location of the hardness traverse. Here the strengthening phase may be transformed, with consequent loss of hardness and strength. This transformation occurs when material experiences a temperature between 240-380C, which is believed to be the interval of existence of phase . The results of fatigue tests, which report compared fatigue strength of welded and parent metal (fig. 5), show rather reduced values of fatigue resistance for welded specimens. It is interesting to notice that, in spite of the fact that tensile tests generally gave rise to a fracture in the HAZ, all the welded fatigue specimens fractured in the melted zone, starting from outer surface. As far as we consider hardness values after a number of cycles, it appears that weld metal cyclically hardens (measured increment of about 20 HV) near the external surface of samples, where the applied stress reaches the highest values, close to the yield strength. Both parent metal and HAZ, submitted to stresses very lower than the yield strength, keep their initial hardness. SEM images of fatigue fracture surface allow to identify the initiation, propagation and final rupture zones (see fig. 6 and 7). The aspect of fracture surface in the unwelded samples shows an initiation zone (lower part of the figure 6a) which suggests a multiple crack origin, near to the outer surface, that formed a single crack front progressing toward the centre (fig. 6b). The propagation zone (middle part) exhibits cleavage steps (fig. 6c); striations are not distinctly visible. The final fracture zone (upper part) has a slant section, suggesting dimples (fig. 6d). The aspect of fracture surface in the welded samples shows an initiation zone (lower/left part of the figure 7a) without an evident crack origin. The propagation zone (middle part of the section) exhibits cleavage steps; some striations are also visible (fig. 7b). Quite numerous pores, coming from welding process, are visible. The lower fatigue resistance of welded
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specimens is likely to be referred, in addition to the lower mechanical properties of melt zone, to the negative influence of porosity (fig.7c), which is responsible of a local stress raise for notch effect. The final fracture zone has a slant section, with cleavage step appearance (fig. 7d). Charpy V impact tests showed that minimum values of absorbed energy were obtained in the melt zone (~ 6.9 J). In the parent metal the representative value is about 10.6 J, while in the HAZ a higher average value (13.0 J) was recorded. The behaviour of the weld metal can be related both to the reduced toughness of the Al-Si5 alloy and to the presence of some porosity in the solidification structure. Instead, HAZ toughness is higher than in parent metal, probably due to the above described evolution of the precipitate, which gives rise to a structure with reduced strength, but more ductile. Moreover, the fracture toughness values of parent metal, WM and HAZ can be evaluated by using the following empirical relation [18]:
K IC CVN = 0.64 0.01 YS YS
(1)
where KIC (MPa m ) is the plain-strain fracture toughness, CVN (J) is the Charpy V impact test value and YS ( MPa) is the yield strength. Values of yield strength of the base metal, WM and HAZ were roughly estimated according to Vickers hardness (HV) by the use of the following regression formula [11]: (2) YS = 3 HV 48.1 Results of such evaluation are reported in table 4. It can be noticed that the minimum values of toughness and KIC are obtained in the WM, where toughness is negatively influenced by the presence of some porosity. Base metal and HAZ have the same KIC values, because in the HAZ low YS values are balanced by high CVN data.
CONCLUSIONS
a) Tensile strength of welded joints of 6082-T6 Al alloy, under the experienced welding conditions, undergo a remarkable reduction of the initial value. The residual strength of the welded joint is around 60% of the parent metal; this is consistent with indications of design norms such as in [19], assessing a reduction of allowable design stress of 57% for this class of welded joints. b) In the HAZ both tensile strength and hardness reduce to a minimum at a distance from the weld fusion line of about 6 mm, presumably due to over-aging consequent to the transformation of the strengthening metastable precipitate. c) In most of the experienced cases, fracture in tensile tests is located in the HAZ; on the contrary, fatigue test specimens fractured in the WM in all cases. Fatigue fracture in the welded specimens occurred earlier than in the unwelded specimens, due to the presence of some porosity and to reduced mechanical properties (tensile strength and toughness) in the WM. Cyclic behaviour after the application of numerous cycles of loading, reveals that weld metal cyclically hardens (measured increment of about 20 HV), while both parent metal and HAZ (submitted to stresses lower than the yield strength) keep their initial hardness. d) Fracture toughness KIC, evaluated from Charpy V test impact energy data through an empirical relation, exhibits the minimum value in WM and the same values in HAZ and in parent metal.
10.
REFERENCES
11. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stol, I., Selecting manufacturing processes for automotive aluminum space frames, Weld. J., 73 (2), (1994), pp. 57-65. Irving, B., Building tomorrows Automobiles, Weld. J. 74 (8), (1995), pp. 29-34. Lutts, A., Pre-precipitation in Al-Mg-Ge and Al-Mg-Si, Acta Metallurgica, 9 (6), (1961), pp. 577-586. Panceri, C., and Federighi, T., A resistometric study of precipitation in an aluminum 1.4% Mg2Si alloy, J. of Institute of Metals, 94, (1961), pp. 94-107. Ceresara, S., Di Russo, E., Fiorini, P., Giarda, A., Effect of Si excess on the aging behaviour of Al-Mg2Si 0.8% alloy, Mat. Sci. Eng., 5, (1970), pp. 220-227. Hatch, J. E., (editor), Aluminium - Properties and physical metallurgy, Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1984) Miyauchi, T., Fujikawa, S., Hirano, K., Precipitation process of Al-MgSi alloys by aging, J. of Japan Institute of Light Metals, 21 (9), (1971), pp. 595. Shercliff, H. R., Ashby, M. F., A process model for age hardening of aluminium alloys-I. The model, Acta metall. mater., 38 (1990), pp. 1789-1802 Shercliff, H. R., Ashby M. F., A process model for age hardening of aluminium alloys-II. Applications of the model, Acta metall. mater., 38 (1990), pp. 1803-1812
12. 13.
14. 15.
6. 7. 8. 9.
16. 17. 18. 19.
Myhr, O. R., Grong, ., Process modelling applied to 6082-T6 aluminium weldments-I. Reaction kinetics, Acta metall. mater., 39 (1991), pp. 2693-2702 Myhr, O. R., Grong, ., Process modelling applied to 6082-T6 aluminium weldments-II. Applications of model, Acta metall. mater., 39 (1991), pp. 2703-2708 Malin, V., Study of metallurgical phenomena in the HAZ of 6061-T6 aluminum welded joints, Weld. J., 74(9), (1995), pp. 305s-318s. Miyazaki, M., Nishio, K., Katoh, M., Mukae, S., and Kerr, W., Quantitative investigation of heat-affected zone cracking in aluminum alloy A6061, Weld. J., 69 (9), (1990), pp. 362s-371s. Kluken, A. O., Bjrneklett, B., A study of mechanical properties for aluminium GMA weldments, Weld. J., 76(2), (1997), pp. 39-44 Missori, S., and Sili, A., Microstructural and mechanical properties of 6082-T6 aluminium alloy welds, Proceedings of the 30th International Symposium on Automotive Technology & Automation, Florence, 16th19th June 1997, pp. 241-246 Irving, B., Welding the four most popular aluminum alloys, Weld. J., 73 (2), (1994), pp.51-55 Myhr, O. R., Grong, ., Dimensionless maps for heat flow analyses in fusion welding, Acta metall. mater., 38 (1990), pp. 449-460 Barsom, J. M., and Rolfe, S.T., ASTM STP 466 (1970), p. 281. American Society of Mechanical Engineers-New York-ASME Pressure Vessel Code Sect. VIII.
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Thixoforming of aluminium alloy for weight saving of a suspension steering knuckle

A. Fuganti, Centro Ricerche Fiat, Chassis & Body Design Dept., Italy G. Cupit, Centro Ricerche Fiat, Advanced Process Technologies Dept., Italy
Abstract The employment of light alloys aimed at weight saving is becoming a stringent need in the transport industry due to the environmental and social pressure. Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are in fact strongly dependent on car weight and for such a reason, the automotive indutry is looking at both innovative process technologies which make use of light alloys and new design methodologies. On such a base, after a brief analysis of the approach to be adopted for meeting the environmental goal, the paper describes the development of a suspension steering knuckle through the application of thixoforming technology of an aluminium alloy. It is described the methodology which was used for material/technology choice and component optimisation. A component weight saving of about 30% was obtained, compared to the previous solution made of cast iron. Prototypes of the optimised steering knuckles were manufactured by using a thixoforming Bhler machine. The following metallurgical analysis and bench testing demonstrated the suitability of thixoforming process for the development of aluminium safety parts.
Riassunto Limpiego di leghe leggere finalizzato alla riduzione di peso sta diventando un bisogno stringente nellindustria dei trasporti per effetto della pressione ambientale e sociale. Il consumo di combustibile e relative emissioni sono fortemente influenzate dal peso della vettura e di conseguenza le aziende automobilistiche stanno valutando sia tecnologie e leghe leggere innovative che nuove metodologie di progettazione. Su tale base, dopo una breve analisi dellapproccio impiegato ai fini di raggiungere questo obiettivo ambientale, larticolo descrive lo sviluppo di un montante sospensione attraverso lapplicazione del processo di thixoformatura di una lega di alluminio. descritta la metodologia adottata per la scelta del materiale/tecnologia e per lottimizzazione del componente. stata raggiunta una riduzione peso del componente di circa il 30% se confrontato con la soluzione precedente in ghisa. Impiegando una pressa Bhler, sono stati prodotti un certo numero di prototipi di montanti sospensione ottimizzati. La successiva analisi metallurgica e le prove al banco hanno dimostrato che il processo di thixoformatura adatto allo sviluppo di componenti di sicurezza in lega di alluminio.
INTRODUCTION
Transport industry represents a really important sector for the economical and social world. In the last years the need of decreasing the vehicle weight is becoming stronger due to the environmental and social pressure which is backed by legislation. Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are directly dependent on engine efficiency and car weight. Engines have already reached a remarkable efficiency and so the improvement possibilities are limited. Concerning the weight reduction, the improvement field is by far wider. In fact it has been demonstrated that weight saving has a strong influence on fuel consumption reduction if seen not only on the single vehicle but considering the fleet economy. There are two ways of meeting these goals: optimising the component design employing the same material; replacing traditional materials with lighter ones. In the first case, it is important to acquire high knowledge of employed materials and processes in order to exploit at maximum their capabilities. Relating to the material replacement, the automotive industry is looking at innovative process technologies, new design
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
methodologies, development of light alloy applications. The objective concerns in particular cost reduction and mechanical properties improvement. In fact traditional processes are not all suitable for light alloys application both from a cost and reliability point of view. First of all the automotive industry is looking at components which permit to obtain an higher added value besides the weight reduction as safety, comfort etc. Structural components like suspension parts are nowadays taken into consideration because their mass reduction (unsprung masses) has a strong influence on the car comfort and handling. From the process point of view, the research is looking at process which can guarantee Near Net Shape (NNS) parts with the possibility to integrate more functions in order to reduce the manufacturing costs. For such a reason a great effort was addressed at the development of new casting processes. An example of this new trend is the instrument panel structure of Alfa Romeo 156 made of magnesium alloy by means of High Pressure Die Casting (Meridian). In this case more than 20 steel stamped and welded parts were replaced by just one cast piece which permitted to obtain at the same cost a weight reduction of about 50% with a stiffness increase.
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NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR NEW MATERIALS FOR SUSPENSION COMPONENTS

Replacement of traditional materials as steel or cast iron with light alloys (Al alloys, Mg alloys and Metal Matrix composites) for manufacturing suspension components determines many problems related to their functional class. In fact structural components as suspension arms, steering knuckle, suspension cross members, etc. are all safety parts which have to guarantee defined mechanical properties with high reliability. It is known that the mechanical properties of light alloys and in particular toughness are lower if compared with traditional materials. This aspect, as pointed out previously, stimulated the development of new CAE, transformation and assembling technologies such as: Developing advanced forming and joining methods; Developing codes for process numerical simulation; Establishing low cost sheet manufacturing processes, such as slab-casting; Improving material strength and corrosion resistance;
Improving the recyclability; Developing high-quality, high-strength structural castings. In particular referring at the last point, considering suspension parts, a lot of effort was addressed to an improvement of casting processes in order to achieve components with high quality and mechanical properties. Hereafter some processes developed lately are reported: Thixoforming HPDC under Vacuum (Vacural, Premium Die Casting, etc.) Squeeze Casting KPH (Kobe-Premium High Pressure Die Casting) LPDC (Low Pressure Die Casting) VRC/PRC (Vacuum Riserless Casting/Pressure Riserless Casting). It is the case of Al-alloys which from the performance/costs ratio point of view are the most candidate for such applications. Mechanical properties of the casting are related to its microstructure in terms of defects and grain size distribution. These factors play a fundamental role on toughness and yield strength which influence the component behaviour during impulsive and crash loads.
THIXOFORMING PROCESS
Thixoforming process consists of an injection into the component die of material at semisolid state. In order to get the thixotropic behaviour of the material (viscosity which decreases with increase of shear stress and time), its structure before injection has to be composed of solid globular dendrites dispersed in liquid eutectic fraction (rheocast structure). Therefore the material has to be undergone at a preliminary procedure for obtaining billets having the right structure suitable for thixoforming process. More methods are available for reaching this structure: electromagnetic stirring, mechanical stirring, passive stirring, grain refinement. Electromagnetic steering is the most used for aluminium alloys. During solidification, the steering breaks the tree dendrites which solidify with spheroidal shape. The following schema (Fig. 1) shows the different steps of thixoforming process.
.ECKHA 20
As shown in the schema, the long solid billets are cut in smaller ones according to the final component mass and then they are reheated to the semisolid state (4060% solid, according to the used process) and then injected into the die. The semi-solid metal is able to fill the die with a laminar flow, preventing any gas entrapment (porosity) in the final component. Therefore, besides the high quality reachable in
the as cast part, it is possible to improve the mechanical properties by heat treatments, not possible for castings made of HPDC. Other big advantages are achievable by thixoforming, due also to the fact that the material is heated and injected at a temperature of about 100C below the melting point: energy saving, tighter part tolerances (less shrinkage in the die, less residual stress, less component distortion), less machining operations Capabilities/Advantages of Thixoforming (near-net shape process), no dangerous molten metal handling etc. In the NNS process Fig. 2 process capabiliMachining cost reduction ties and advantages are reported. Complex shape capability Filling of thin sections (2 mm) Thixoforming process Heat treatable pieces was selected for the deALUMINIUM Low material porosity / gas entrapment velopment of a suspenFOR STRUCTURAL High mechanical properties sion steering knuckle, as PURPOSES described subsequently. Low thermal shock for the die
Longer die life Energy saving
High energy efficiency (30% Die Casting)
Safe working conditions Melting free foundry
Figure 2
COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT
The Fig. 3 reports the flow-chart used for the development/ optimisation of components. The main steps are: Original design verification Process and material choice Design optimisation Experimental analysis Cost analysis Taking into consideration the required targets (Ex.: weight reduction, performances increasing, cost reduction, etc.), the requirements of the component are evaluated in terms of performances and costs, necessary for the following analysis. Here in fact starts the simultaneous analysis for both process/material choice and design optimisation. The mechanical and geometrical characteristics needed by the component point out the limits for the choice of material and also a range of available processes. Using databases and results from experimental tests the right material and its heat
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OBJECTIVES: - WEIGHT SAVING - PERFORMANCES IMPROVEMENT - COST REDUCTION - ...........................
COMPONENT SELECTION DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND COST TARGET
MATERIAL SELECTION
PROCESS SELECTION
DATA BASE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
PROCESS CAPABILITIES
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
REDESIGN PROJECT OPTIMIZATION
PROTOTYPES MANUFACTURING TESTING
COMPONENT DELIVERY
Figure 3
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treatment are then definitively chosen. In the same time the process capabilities and limits are evaluated for defining the most suitable process. The geometry of the component is then optimised on the base of the mechanical properties coming from the defined process by means FEM structural analysis whereas the process parameters
are defined with the help of process numerical simulation. The next step is the prototypes manufacturing, taking a great care of the metallurgical aspects in order to reduce possible defects and in order to simulate the real production conditions, and finally component testing which has to represent the real working conditions.
DEVELOPMENT OF AL-ALLOY STEERING KNUCKLE FOR A FRONT SUSPENSION

The Fig. 4 shows the component which was taken into consideration in this analysis. It is the steering knuckle of a front Mc-Pherson suspension made of cast iron. The flow-chart followed for the component development is reported in Fig. 5. In this case, the objectives were weight saving, vehicle performance increase at sustainable cost. Looking at the flowchart, the component is subjected to fatigue loads, impulsive and crash loads; therefore it is important to guarantee min. mechanical properties of the material with high reliability. On the base of the geometrical features, thixoforming was defined as candidate process because it was studied to guarantee to obtain high strength and toughness properties, as required by the application. A357 treated T5 was chosen as most suitable material because it guarantees good mechanical properties without having a complete solution treatment.
Figure 4
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT FLOW-CHART

EXAMPLE: STEERING KNUCKLE
OBJECTIVES: - WEIGHT REDUCTION - PERFORMANCE
STEERING KNUCKLE -TOUGHNESS -STIFFNESS -FATIGUE -MACHINING REDUCTION
A357 - T5
THIXOFORMING
DATA BASE
FATIGUE TESTING IMPACT TESTING
PROCESS CAPABILITIES
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
REDESIGN PROJECT OPTIMIZATION
PROTOTYPES MANUFACTURING BENCH TEST ROAD TEST COMPONENT DELIVERY
Figure 5
22
This assures remarkable advantages because, besides to be more economical than T6 thermal treatment, the component deformation during quenching after solution treatment is reduced. For such a reason thinner machining allowance are necessary and therefore it will be possible to exploit completely the Near Net Shape capability of process transformation at semisolid state. This aspect is important for minimising the cost for obtaining the finished component, ready for assembling. The component redesign and optimisation suggested to modify heavily the component geometry in order to exploit at maximum process capabilities. The CAE analysis envisaged a
weight saving higher than 30% if compared with the actual steering knuckle made of cast iron. On the base of CAE analysis the thixoforming mould was produced and then the prototypes (Fig. 6) were manufactured by employing a Bhler thixoforming machine, by Stampal SpA plant. Some of the prototypes were analysed from a metallurgical point of view, showing fine and homogeneous globular structure and nearly zero porosity (Fig. 7). Some other components were bench tested; the positive results confirmed the results of virtual analysis and demonstrated the suitability of thixoforming process for manufacturing safety parts in aluminium alloys.
Figure 6
Figure 7
CONCLUSION
The design and optimisation of components requires more and more a simultaneous engineering approach in order to reduce as much as possible the time to market. This aspect appears fundamental when new material as light alloys are considered. This paper demonstrates that the material choice cannot be done without considering the final process for its transformation and the designer cannot be unaware of material features and process capabilities. Only by means of this route it is possible to really optimise the component, minimising the cost of manufacturing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the EC which founded this work through the BRITE Euram Project Advanced semisolid forming of complex structural components, contract BRPR-CT96-0220 and the other partners in this contract.
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
23
Development of mixed (ferrito-ausferritic) structures for spheroidal graphite irons

*D. Rousire, *Research & Development Department, Teksid France, France, **J. Aranzabal, **Metallic Materials Department, Fundacion Inasmet, Spain
Abstract For years in the automotive industry the objective is to reduce the weight of components for well known car performance and environmental reasons. One way is to use more resistant materials for instance in the area of suspension foundry castings. Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) is one of the most unique materials due to its particular mechanical properties. Some tests have been made on chassis parts like front knuckles which have confirmed the good mechanical results obtained about the tensile strength and elongation. Nevertheless, the impact test results can be improved by some metallurgical structure evolution. The combination of ferritization and ausferritization heat treatments for nodular SG irons should lead to a good compromise of characteristics between yield strength, elongation and impact test. The paper describes some of the works made according to this target acting on chemical and heat treatment parameters. Micrographic structures and mechanical properties obtained are shown. A comparison with existing ADI grades is established. Different structures and associated characteristics are described which allow to imagine a first orientation for chassis applications. Making use of a dilatometer several tests have been runned to define properly the quality of the structures.
Riassunto da anni che lindustria automobilistica si pone per ben noti motivi ambientali e di performance come obiettivo quello della riduzione del peso dei componenti dei suoi veicoli. Limpiego di materiali pi resistenti, ad esempio per le fusioni di sospensioni in fonderia, costituisce un passo in questa direzione. La ghisa austemperata (ADI) un materiale molto particolare grazie alle sue propriet meccaniche peculiari. Le prove su fusi a snodo anteriori ed altre parti del telaio hanno confermato i risultati dei test meccanici di resistenza alla trazione e di allungamento. Lo sviluppo della sua struttura metallurgica, tuttavia, potr portare al miglioramento dei risultati delle prove ad impatto. Combinando la ferritizazione con lausferritizazione per il trattamento termico della ghisa grafitica sferoidale (SG) si dovrebbe raggiungere un buon compromesso fra il limite di snervamento e lallungamento ed il comportamento nella prova ad impatto. I risultati di studi condotti in questo senso, agendo sui parametri dei trattamenti chimico e termico, vengono riportati con lillustrazione delle strutture e delle propriet meccaniche ottenute. Si fa pure il confronto con i gradi ADI gi conosciuti. Vengono anche descritte delle diverse strutture e le relative caratteristiche delle quali si pu prospettare un primo orientamento verso le applicazioni per la fabbricazione di telai. La giusta definizione della qualit delle stesse strutture stata determinata in una serie di test dilatometrici.
INTRODUCTION
We often use heat treatments in foundry industry to optimise the irons characteristics. Among those treatments we find the ausferritic (previously called bainitic) treatment which allows to get a structure based on austenite between perlite and martensite. The metallurgical phase obtained is called ausferrite and is composed of acicular ferrite and residual austenite saturated by carbon atoms. This last metallurgical component gives to the iron excellent characteristics and in particular a good relationship between a high elastic limit and good elongation. Ausferrite can be compared to steel bainite but this last one is composed of acicular ferrite and carbides. In case of irons the high silicon content avoids carbides precipitation and leads to a structure with acicular ferrite and residual austenite, called ausferrite. This kind of structure gives to spheroidal graphite (SG) irons (called in that case ADI, Austempered Ductile Irons) a good compromise of mechanical characteristics and physical properties, which supplies a great advantage towards conventional SG irons. During works target of which was to improve the impact test, we have seen that ADI irons did not have a deformation ability better than traditional ferritic SG irons. Nevertheless, this deformation ability is very useful when specified for car chassis castings for instance. Those structures can be made by two ways : modifying the chemical analysis, increasing the silicon content, modifying the heat treatment with a previous ferritization. The paper presents the works made according to the two ways and mains results obtained about mechanical characteristics, metallographic structures and dilatometric curves made to simulate the heat treatment.
24
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
In Inasmet prototype shop have been poured three batches of Y- bloc (ASTM A 395) samples type 25 mm thickness cast in resin sand moulds. Different chemical analysis have been proposed to define the elements influence on material characteristics. 3 Silicon levels have been selected: - pouring N1 : Low Silicon, - pouring N2 : Medium Silicon, - pouring N3 : High Silicon. Melting has been made with an electric induction furnace, medium frequency, 100 Kg capacity. Pouring temperature 1520C.
Ausferritization heat treatment has been conducted in ADISA company at Irun / Spain, which owns equipment composed of austenitizating furnace under controlled atmosphere and a salt bath for the isothermal treatment. Previous ferritization treatment occurred in a traditional laboratory furnace in the technical centre of Inasmet at San Sebastian/Spain. Mechanical characteristics have been measured using normalized samples 6mm diameter for tensile strength, 10x10 mm unnotched samples for impact test and hardness according to the Brinell standard specification 3000/10/15. Micrographic structures have been observed from cuts made in the tensile sample head, polished and etched by Nital 4%. Dilatometric curves have been traced with the help of a high speed DT1000 dilatometer.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Austenitization temperature (T) and time (t) influence according to chemical analysis. Following heat treatment has been applied: Ferritization with a fully ferritic structure. Austenitization in the () domain. Quenching and staying in the salt bath at the right upper bainite temperature (ausferrite). Mechanical properties Table 1 shows a synthesis of results got for tensile strength, hardness and impact test. Figures come from the all values population, according to different heat treatment parameters. Generally, tensile strength increases with austenitization temperature and time. This result is explained by a better level of structure transformation in the salt bath, as, the austenitization kinetic is higher and the carbon solubility in austenite is increased (1). Hardness levels are lower like the elastic limit. Elongation is acceptable in all cases, even with lower levels of transformation. The impact test shows a certain dispersion of values. Results with lower Silicon content are better. We know that hardening the ferrite, the Silicon reduces the material toughness (2). Micrographic structures Samples microscopic observation allows to make the following comments: samples from pouring N3 (medium Silicon) presents a ferritic structure with a little bit of residual austenite in grain boundaries and perlite in cells boundaries. Increasing austenitization temperature and time leads to more re-
TABLE 1 - Mechanical characteristics. Range of values

Values Tensile Yield Elongation Hardness Strength Strength % (HB) MPa MPa Impact (J)
Maxi Mini
850 606
571 437
20.0 9.3
243 193
86 23
Fig. 1: Pouring 3 (medium Silicon) a) T 1,t 1; b) T1,t2; c) T2,t2; d) T3,t 2. T 1<T2<T3 and t1<t2
sidual austenite and pearlite. If austenitization temperature is even higher, the ausferritic structure appears. We can see that kind of evolution on micrographic photos, below (Figure1). Samples from pouring N6 (High Silicon) present the same kind of evolution, but with a lower pro-eutectoid ferrite trans-
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
25
formation level, due to higher level of Silicon. Figure 2 shows this evolution. Talking about chemical elements influence on quenching TTT curves position, we can say that all elements move the curves on the right side, except Cobalt (3). This point is right for steels in which Silicon is under 0,5 %. In irons, with higher Silicon content, we have seen that when the Silicon content
increases, the hardenability of other elements decreases (4). This fact, joined to other austenitisation temperature and time effects can explain the structures evolution (1). Effectively, figure 3 shows the structure obtained with pouring N1 (Low Silicon), treated in the same conditions as pouring 3 (medium Si) and 6 (high Si). We can see then an ausferritic structure with pro-eutectoid ferrite but without any pearlite.
Fig. 2: Pouring N6 (High Silicon) a) T1,t1; b) T1,t2; c) T2,t2; d) T3,t2. T1<T2<T3 and t1<t2
Fig. 3: Pouring N 1 (low Silicon). T1,t2
Dilatometric curves Dilatometric tests have been made on pouring 3 (medium Si) in order to know the structure evolution during heat treatment. It has been reproduced the process conditions corresponding to a 30 mm diameter cylinder. Test result confirms the no ausferritic creation for the low austenitization temperatures (figure 4) and microscopic observations made on metallurgical structures (pro-eutectoide ferrite, austenite and pearlite). Ausferritic structure appears for a higher austenitization temperature (figure 5). This last situation is also meet with pouring 1 (low Silicon level) what-
ever the austenitization temperatures. Need analysis for salt bath treatment As there is no ausferrite in some of the structures studied in 3.1, we have thought to suppress the isothermal treatment in the salt bath in order to simplify the heat treatment. A test has been made with pouring 3 (medium Silicon) in which a previous heat treatment cycle has been reproduced. Quenching in salt bath has been replaced by a direct quenching in oil at room temperature. Results are shown here after.
Fig. 4: Pouring N4 T1. Dilatation in fonction of time. No dilatation (without any ausferrite) during staying in salt bath. 26
Fig. 5: Pouring N3 T3. Dilatation in fonction of time. Dilatation (ausferritique reaction) during staying in salt bath.
Mechanical properties Table 2 shows tensile strength, hardness and impact test results.
TABLE 2 - Pouring N3. Mechanical characteristics
Ref. Tensile Strength Tensile Elastic Elongation (MPa) Limit (%) (MPa) 668 798 461 510 16 5.3 Hardness HB Individual values (J) 113 27 71 32 76 31 Impact test Average value (J) 86 30
Salt bath Oil bath
197 306
Generally, quenching in oil bath gives more tensile resistance and hardness but less ductility and less toughness than with quenching in salt bath for the same level of ferritization and austenitization. Micrographic structure With oil quenching, micrographies show the presence of martensite in the metallographic structure (figure 6). Dilatometric curves One dilatometric test has been made to confirm martensite creation during the oil quenching. On figure 7 we can clearly observe expansion due to martensite precipitation. Ms temperature can be situated around 100 C. Mechanical characteristics comparison Following the results analysis, mixed structures can be arranged in two classes, in function of metallurgical phases observed. Characteristic description and comparison with other traditional SG irons is made here after. Mixed structure 1 (pro-eutectoide ferrite, pearlite and austenite fig 1b) Structure from pouring N3 (medium Silicon) is well representative of this group. That kind of structure allows to get a tensile strength and elastic limit corresponding to a pearlitic structure and a ductility like ferritic structure (elongation). Hardness is situated in the middle. In comparison to ADI ausferritic structures we can notice that tensile and elastic limits are lower but that ductility is higher with a mixed structure.
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
Fig. 6: Pouring3 (medium silicon). Oil quenching
Fig. 7: Dilatation-temprature curve. Dilatation (martensite formation) during cooling at room temperature
Lastly, impact test values are close to ferritic or ausferritic ones.

27
Mixed structure 2 (proeutectoid ferrite and ausferrite (acicular ferrite and residual austenite), fig 3 Pouring 1 structure (low Silicon) is representative of this group.
TABLE 3
Irons
Tensile strength, elastic limit and hardness are higher than mixed structure 1. Values are very similar to pearlitic values but elongation is much higher near ferritic structure. Impact test result is close to mixed structure 1.
Tensile strenght (MPa) 400 700 800 690 785
Tranction Elastic imit (MPa) 250 420 500 490 535
Elongation (%) 15 2 8 17.5 13.5
Hardness (HB) 155 265 290 205 241
EN-GJS-400-15 EN-GJS-700-2 EN-GJS-800-8 Mixed N1 Mixed N2
Table 3 shows mechanical characteristics comparison of mixed structures 1 and 2 with other irons grades EN-GJS700-2 (pearlitic) et EN-GJS-400-15 (ferritic) issued from standard EN1563 :1997 and grade EN-GJS-800-8 (ausferritic) issued from standard EN1564 :1997. To summarise, we can say that mixed SG structures bring : In regards to pearlitic irons, a better ductility trough elongation and better impact test resistance. In regards to ferritic irons a better tensile resistance, higher hardness and same level of toughness. In regards to ADI ausferritic irons a lower tensile resistance, same toughness but better hardness (machinability) and ductility.
Fig. 9: Tensile strength versus Brinell hardness for different types of SG Irons
Fig. 8: Tensile strength versus elongation for different types of SG Irons.
In figure 8, is represented tensile strength versus elongation for different kinds of SG irons. Mixed structure area is separated from traditional areas occupied by ferritic and pearlitic irons. On the same way, on figure 9 is represented tensile strength versus Brinell hardness. In that configuration, mixed structures are revealed as a prolongation of ausferritic structures.
28
CONCLUSIONS
The heat treatment process which consists in making a ferritization treatment followed by an austenitization treatment in the domain () and then a salt bath isothermal quenching, leads to a mixed ferritic-ausferritic structure in SG irons. Depending on Silicon contents, mixed structures are made of pro-eutectoid ferrite, perlite and austenite with medium Silicon levels, or made of pro-eutectoid ferrite and ausferrite (acicular ferrite + residual austenite) with a high level of Silicon. Mixed structures lead to a good mechanical characteristics compromise, with a tensile resistance and hardness close to pearlitic structures and ductility and toughness close to the ferritic structures. According to those results, mixed structures can allow the foundryman to enlarge the application field of SG irons in particular when Austempered Ductile Irons cannot bring the ductility or deformation values needed. Moreover, mixed structures allow to get a better machinability than ADI castings.
REFERENCES
[1] Darwish N.and ElliotR. Austempering of low manganese ductile irons. Part 2, Influence of austenitizing temperature. Materials Science and Technology vol. 9. July 1993, 586-602. Cast Irons. ASTM Speciality Handbook. ASM International Materials Park, Ohio. 1996, 494p. Barralis J. and Maeder G.. Mtallurgie. Tome 2 Alliages ferreux. ENSAM. [4] Editions communications actives. Paris, 1983, 295p. Aranzabal J. and Rousire D. Desarrollo de piezas de seguridad en fundicion ADI. Proyecto privado, AT systmes Inasmet . San Sebastian, Junio 1997, 74p. Blacmore P.A.and Harding R.A. The effects of metallurgical process variables on the properties of austempered ductile irons. Report 1590. BCIRA, 1984, 13p.
[2] [3]
[5]
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
29
Teksid Innovation Technical Center

S. Gallo, C. Mus, Teksid Innovation Center, Borgaretto Italy
The establishment of a technical center dedicated to innovation activities at Teksid represents a decisive turning point for the company. The center co-ordinates the technological innovation activities of the Divisions and provides support for technical management. Its main objective is to identify new process evaluating their potential along with developing and building pilot plant for testing. Experimental activities are aimed at medium-long term objectives. The Technical Center is Borgaretto - Turin where a Teksid foundry - Getti Speciali is already located. Foundry technologies have today reached interesting levels of development: the research in this field is challenging. The technical center has the task of scouting out different areas, from materials to processes, around in the world to discover new ideas in universities and research centers. The main goal is to develop cost competitive new technologies for future application. The first example of this activity is the pilot plant of the liquid hot isostatic pressing process (LHIP). Teksid has industrialized the process originally developed by Dick Chandley of MCT (Milford NH-USA). Technical open issues have been solved on items like liquid selection molten salt, vessel material - special steel for a cast/ forged structure of over 10 tons, gasket material and design, engineering of a special high pressure machine - up to 1200 ATM. the next issue will contain adetailed description of the pilot plant the achieved results on treated casting as well as the testing program to fully evaluate the potential of this new technology.
A stage in the LHIP process 30
THE LHIP PROCESS

Liquid hot isostatic pressing (LHIP) eliminates the macro and micro shrinkage porosities typical of aluminium alloy castings the main cause of their fatigue failure. The fatigue strength of LHIP alloys can be three times greater than that of untreated alloys.
A356 alloy
Suspension Components can benefit of the LHIP process
LHIP A356 alloy
Vol. 18 (1) (2000)
31
Instructions for authors

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OBJECTIVES: - WEIGHT SAVING - PERFORMANCES IMPROVEMENT - COST REDUCTION - ...........................

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