Corrosion Rate Evaluation and Prediction for Piles Based

on Long-Term Field Performance

Jeramy B. Decker1; Kyle M. Rollins2; and Jared C. Ellsworth3

Abstract: A study to evaluate corrosion rates was conducted using pile foundations abandoned during the reconstruction of I-15 through
Salt Lake Valley, Utah. Corrosion rates were measured for 20 piles extracted from five sites after service lives of 34–38 years. Measure-
ments were made of soil index properties, resistivity, pH, cation/anion concentrations, and water table elevation. The critical zone for
corrosion was typically located within the groundwater fluctuation zone; but correlations with soil properties were generally poor. Despite
low resistivity, average corrosion rates for pile caps in native soil were typically between 2 and 9 ␮m / year with a maximum of
19 ␮m / year and did not pose any structural integrity problems. Nevertheless, for abutment piles where chloride concentration was very
high, the average pile corrosion rate increased to 13 ␮m / year within the embankment and the maximum corrosion rate was 48 ␮m / year
in the underlying native soil. Based on data from this and previous studies, equations were developed to predict maximum corrosion loss
for piles in nonaggressive soil as a function of time.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2008兲134:3共341兲
CE Database subject headings: Corrosion; Driven piles; Infrastructure; Chlorides; Sulfates; Predictions.

Introduction to be more severe in moist fine-grained soils with low resistivity

Corrosion of steel pile foundations may result in reduced capacity
in axial and lateral loading. Therefore, an understanding of the
potential for pile corrosion is essential such that excessive deflec-
tion and failure may be avoided. Because piles are installed un-
derground and are not easily inspected, pile corrosion is a difficult
problem to monitor or to remedy once the pile is in place. How-
ever, if the thickness loss during the design life can be reasonably
estimated, additional wall thickness may be added as sacrificial
steel to account for the potential loss. Additionally, the cost-
effectiveness of noncorrosive pile materials can be more accu-
rately evaluated.
The corrosion of metals is a process of electrochemical cell
corrosion with the soil and pore fluid acting as an electrolyte,
while the metal acts as the anode at one location and the cathode
at another location due to variations in soil conditions along the
metal surface. Metal is consumed at the anode, where current
leaves to enter the surrounding electrolyte. At the anode, electrons
are lost and positively charged iron atoms combine with OH− ions
to form ferrous hydroxide and ferric hydroxide, commonly known
as rust. In general, the potential for metallic corrosion is thought
1
Tunnel Engineer, Kiewit Underground, 930 Oddstad Blvd., Pacifica,
CA 94044. E-mail: jeramy.decker@kiewit.com
2
Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept., Brigham
Young Univ., 368 CB, Provo, UT 84602. E-mail: rollinsk@byu.edu
3
Project Engineer, Williams Northwest Pipline, Inc., 295 Chipeta
Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108. E-mail: jared.ellsworth@williams.com
Note. Discussion open until August 1, 2008. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on August 24, 2006; approved on May 21, 2007. This
paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 134, No. 3, March 1, 2008. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/
2008/3-341–351/$25.00.
共⬍1,000– 3,000 ⍀ cm兲 and extreme pH 共⬍5 or ⬎10.5兲 共Peabody
1967兲. Roberge 共2000兲 categorizes potential soil corrosivity based
on soil resistivity as summarized in Table 1. Elias and Christopher
共1997兲 identified high concentrations of sulfates 共⬎200 pm兲 and
chlorides 共⬎100 ppm兲 as being indicative of corrosive soil in
Federal Highway Administration 共FHwA兲 guidelines for me-
chanically stabilized earth 共MSE兲 wall fill.
Research indicates the water table fluctuation zone is generally
the zone in which the greatest corrosion occurs on piles because
both oxygen and moisture are necessary for corrosion. Below the
water table the oxygen content decreases and drastically reduces
corrosion 共Elias and Christopher 1997; Picozzi et al. 1993兲.
Most research previously performed on metal corrosion in soil
has focused on the degradation of buried pipelines or tanks. How-
ever, available data suggest that the potential for pile corrosion
may be significantly less than for buried pipelines and that the
rate of pile corrosion may not be influenced by the same factors
that govern corrosion of buried pipelines 共Romanoff 1962; Escal-
ante 1992; Manning and Morley 1981; Ohsaki 1982; Tungesvik
et al. 1975; Wong and Law 1999兲. Pipelines are usually installed
in an open trench and backfilled, resulting in a highly disturbed
and oxygenated soil environment conducive to corrosion. In con-
trast, driven piles are installed such that the surrounding soil re-
mains relatively undisturbed, with little free oxygen or change in
Table 1. Corrosion Severity Ratings Based on Resistivity 共Roberge
2000兲
Soil resistivity 共⍀ cm兲 Corrosivity rating
⬎20,000 Essentially noncorrosive
10,000–20,000 Mildly corrosive
5,000–10,000 Moderately corrosive
3,000–5000 Corrosive
1,000-3,000 Highly corrosive
⬍1,000 Extremely corrosive

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 341


Fig. 1. Extracted pile being pulled from pit at 6th South, Salt Lake
City, Utah
the soil structure. Whereas most pile corrosion studies have fo-
cused on steel piles in undisturbed soil, piles are often driven
through fills where corrosion conditions might be similar to those
for pipelines.
Currently, there is no widely accepted method of predicting
pile corrosion in the United States and pile corrosion is often
ignored in practice. Nevertheless, recent research indicates that a
failure to account for pile corrosion may lead to unsafe conditions
if piles are located in fills containing slags, ash, cinders, or salt
contamination 共Greene et al. 1995; Beavers and Durr 1998兲.
Therefore, additional research is needed to provide a better un-
derstanding of pile corrosion and to predict when corrosion may
pose a threat to the long-term integrity of a structure. As no pre-
vious research had been conducted on the corrosion of piles in the
Salt Lake Valley, this study was also undertaken to provide some
basic information relating to pile performance and longevity for
the soil conditions.
Scope and Test Procedures
During the reconstruction of Interstate 15 through the Salt Lake
Valley, essentially all of the original 30 to 40 year old pile foun-
dations used for the original construction were abandoned. This
presented an opportunity to extract a sampling of old piles from
different sites, to measure corrosion rates, and to correlate corro-
sion rates with soil properties using new and previously published
data.
Based on findings from previous research, the majority of this
study focused on the ground water fluctuation zone. As shown in
Fig. 1, sections from 20 piles that penetrated the groundwater
fluctuation zone at five locations were extracted in 2 – 6 m
lengths. At four of the locations the piles were driven in natural
soils with little fill; however, at a fifth site the piles extended
through a 5 m thick approach fill and into natural materials.
Thickness loss was measured in 0.3 m segments along the length
of each pile after cleaning and sandblasting the surface. Average
corrosion rates were then defined as the total thickness loss di-
vided by the years since placement. Corrosion thickness loss was
classified as follows: 0–10% as mild, 10–20% as moderate, and
greater than 20% as severe. These values are based on the fact
that a 25% section loss is generally considered very serious
共Picozzi et al. 1993兲. For a typical 1960-era I-15 pile thickness
共4.76 mm or 3 / 16 in.兲 with a 36 year exposure time, this equates
to corrosion rates of 0–13, 13–26, and greater than 26 ␮m / year
for the mild, moderate, and severe categories, respectively.
In addition, the following soil parameters thought to influence
342 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008
corrosion were evaluated: soil classification, Atterberg limits, re-
sistivity 共using CPT, laboratory, and Wenner array methods兲, pH,
cation/anion concentrations, and water table elevations. Finally, a
number of tensile load tests were performed on sections of the
piles to determine how capacity was affected by section loss. Full
details of the study are provided elsewhere 共Decker and Rollins
2001; Ellsworth 2004兲.
Measured corrosion was then analyzed in three ways. First, the
corrosion that took place at each site relative to soil and water
conditions was evaluated. Second, efforts were concentrated on
correlations between corrosion rate and soil parameters for all the
Salt Lake data with a focus on the water table fluctuation zone.
Finally, data from this and previous studies was used to develop
correlations between maximum corrosion rate and exposure time.
Corrosion Behavior at Individual Sites
2100 South
The soil profile at 2100 South consists of interbedded layers of
silt and clay with occasional sand layers as shown in Fig. 2. The
water table elevation was above the base of the pile cap at this
location. The chloride and sulfate content were both above the
FHwA boundary for corrosive soil 共Elias and Christopher 1997兲
and the resistivity was generally below 1,000 ⍀ cm. This criteria
places the soil in the extremely corrosive category 共see Table 1兲.
Three pipe piles 共Piles 1–3兲 were extracted from a pile cap at this
site. These steel pipe piles were 305 mm 共12 in.兲 in diameter,
4.90 mm 共0.19 in.兲 thick, and were filled with concrete with rein-
forcement limited to the top meter. These piles were obtained
after being exposed to the soil-water environment for 36 years.
The measured average corrosion rate is plotted for each pile as
a function of depth in Fig. 2. The corrosion rates are relatively
constant with depth. Despite the low resistivity and the high chlo-
ride and sulfate concentrations, the maximum measured corrosion
rate for Piles 1–3 was only 6 ␮m / year on Pile 3 at a depth of
2.59 m 共8.50 ft兲 below the pile cap. The average corrosion rate
for the three piles was just 2.43 ␮m / year with a standard devia-
tion of 1.39 ␮m / year. The corrosion rates for these piles are
within the mild range, with a maximum section loss of 4% and an
average loss of 2% 共refer to Table 2兲 after 36 years of soil
embedment.
With the water table elevation 0.94 m 共3.08 ft兲 above the bot-
tom of the pile cap these piles were primarily beneath the water
table fluctuation zone, which may explain the low and relatively
constant corrosion rates. The high water table along with the fine
grained soils at the top of the profile likely prevented aeration and
contributed to low corrosion rates. As a result, the soil parameters
did not significantly influence corrosion rate. For example, the
cone penetration test 共CPT兲 resistivity dropped from a very high
value of around 1 ⫻ 106 ⍀ cm to a low value of about 1,000 ⍀ cm
at about 0.5 m, but this discontinuity did not affect the corrosion
rate.
South Temple
The soil profile at the South Temple site consists of interbedded
layers of silt and clay with one sand layer as shown in Fig. 3. The
water table was about 0.9 m below the base of the pile cap and
the estimated zone of water table fluctuation is shown on the soil
profile. As indicated previously, moist fine-grained soils are be-
Fig. 2. Soil profile and measured soil parameters versus depth along with corrosion rates for 2100 South test site 共groundwater is above the top
of the piles兲

lieved to be more susceptible to corrosion. Four 305 mm 共12 in.兲
diameter spiral-welded steel pipe piles originally installed to sup-
port a bridge bent in 1962 were extracted from this location. The
steel pipe piles were 4.76 mm 共3 / 16 in.兲 thick and filled with
concrete with reinforcement limited to the top meter. These four
piles are referred to as Piles 7–10. These piles were exposed to
the soil-water environment for 38 years prior to extraction.
In addition to the soil profile, Fig. 3 provides plots of the
measured soil parameters related to corrosion as a function of
depth. The low resistivity values from the Wenner and laboratory

Table 2. Summary of Maximum Corrosion Rate, Length of Exposure, and Soil Properties from This and Other Previous Studies
Corrosion rate Years Resistivity Chloride
共␮m / year兲 exposed pH 共⍀ cm兲 共ppm兲 Source
18 22 5.1–6.0 50,000–70,000 16–59 Wong and Law 1999
30 20 Not given Not given Not given Manning and Morley 1981
15 12 Not given Not given Not given Manning and Morley 1981
30 46 Not given Not given Not given Manning and Morley 1981
58.9 6.8 Not given Not given Not given Escalante 1992
25.6 6.8 7 1,170 Not given Escalante 1992
12.9 12.9 7.7 2,080 Not given Escalante 1992
43.6 2.8 7 1,170 Not given Escalante 1992
47.8 2.8 7.2 455 Not given Escalante 1992
37.8 6.8 7.4 710 Not given Escalante 1992
16.5 12.9 7.4 710 Not given Escalante 1992
17.5 2.8 Not given Not given Not given Escalante 1992
14 12.9 Not given Not given Not given Escalante 1992
58 4.5 Not given Not given Not given Ohsaki 1982
47.6 7 7.4–8.2 850–7,000 0.3 Romanoff 1962
20.7 23 Not given Not given Not given Romanoff 1962
82.3 11 6.9 4,300–11,000 0.6 Romanoff 1962
47.6 11 8.1 800–1,290 0.5 Romanoff 1962
34.6 11 Not given 950–1,610 0 Romanoff 1962
15.9 12 7.7–8.4 345–1,300 0.5 Romanoff 1962
19 34 8.2 300,000 17.8 This study
13.3 35 7.7 150,000 256 This study
15.3 38 7.5 150,000 444 This study

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 343

 Fig. 3. Soil profile and measured soil parameters versus depth along with corrosion rates for South Temple site

tests fall in the highly corrosive range 共see Table 1兲, although the water table, which suggest petroleum contamination in the
CPT resistivity values are much higher below the water table. In groundwater was likely acting as an insulator. The laboratory
addition, the chloride and sulfate concentrations far exceed the measurements did not indicate high resistivity in these clays, but
limits for mildly corrosive soil identified by Elias and Christopher they were performed several months after the samples were taken
共1997兲 for MSE walls. In addition, the pH is quite high near the from the ground and the contaminants may have volatilized. As
surface. Under these conditions high corrosion rates would gen- shown in the photograph in Fig. 4, the piles also had small soft
erally be expected for buried metals. Nevertheless, the measured black deposits in the corrosion pits, which are a characteristic
corrosion rates are generally less than the 12 ␮m / year value feature of attack by SRBs 共Videla 1996兲. Another possible indi-
suggested by Elias and Christopher when designing metallic re- cation of biocorrosion was evidenced by the many pile sections
inforcement strips for MSE walls with chloride and sulfate con- that exhibited noticeable corrosion with a shiny silver appearance,
centrations below the limits. The maximum measured corrosion which rusted over within days after being sand blasted.
rate for Piles 7–10 was 15 ␮m / year on Pile 9 at a depth of 1.37 m
共4.49 ft兲. The average corrosion rate was 6.32 ␮m / year with a
2nd South
standard deviation of 4.13 ␮m / year. The corrosion rates for these
piles were moderate to mild with a maximum section loss of 12% The soil profile at 2nd South consisted entirely of sand, as shown
and an average loss of 5% 共refer to Table 2兲. The presence of the in Fig. 5. Three 305 mm 共12 in.兲 diameter corrugated steel piles
water table fluctuation zone appears to be the greatest factor con- were extracted from a pile cap at this site. The corrugated steel
tributing to the maximum corrosion rate, as the highest values
occur within this zone.
The corrosion rates drop off somewhat below the maximum
value; however, they do not decrease significantly with depth
below the water table as would be expected. One possible reason
for this discrepancy might be that the water table fluctuation zone
was larger than estimated. However, further investigation pro-
vided strong evidence that biocorrosion is the cause of the higher
corrosion rates at depth below the water table. Biocorrosion is
typically caused by sulfate reducing bacteria 共SRBs兲 which are
commonly associated with saturated clays, a pH value near neu-
tral and anaerobic conditions. SRBs also thrive where contami-
nants provide nutrients for bacterial growth and contribute to
anaerobic conditions 共Videla 1996兲.
The South Temple site was located in a heavy industrial area
near a railroad yard, suggesting that it was a high risk area for Fig. 4. Steel section from Pile 8 extracted at South Temple site
contamination. The CPT soundings at South Temple also mea- showing soft black material in corrosion pits typical of biocorrosion
sured abnormally high resistivity values in the clays below the from sulfate reducing bacteria

344 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008

 Fig. 5. Soil profile and measured soil parameters versus depth along with corrosion rates for 2nd South site
pipe was 1.66 mm 共0.065 in.兲 thick and filled with reinforced
concrete. Due to the sandy profile and high water table at this
location, the excavation required to remove these piles could only
be extended to a depth of about 1.8 m 共6 ft兲 before the saturated
sand collapsed into the excavation. These piles were obtained
after 35 years of exposure to the soil-water environment. These
piles are referred to as Piles 11–13.
Fig. 5 presents the soil profile, soil parameters, and measured
corrosion rates as a function of depth for this site. The corrosion
rate does not appear to be strongly correlated with any of the
parameters illustrated in Fig. 5 and the corrosion rates remain low
even though chloride and sulfate concentrations are high. The
corrosion rate peaks just above the existing water table in the
water table fluctuation zone, which seems to be the strongest fac-
tor influencing the corrosion rate. The maximum measured corro-
sion rate for Piles 11–13 was 13 ␮m / year on Pile 11 at a depth of
0.67 m 共2.20 ft兲. The minimum was 2 ␮m / year on Pile 12 at a
depth of 0.30 m 共0.98 ft兲. The average corrosion rate was
6.02 ␮m / year with a standard deviation of 2.67 ␮m / year. The
average corrosion rate is very close to the average corrosion rate
measured for South Temple 共6.32 ␮m / year兲, even though this site
had predominately granular soils and South Temple had predomi-
nately fine grained soils. However, the standard deviation is much
smaller than at South Temple 共4.13 ␮m / year兲. The corrosion in-
creases with depth and peaks within the water table fluctuation
zone just above the average water table depth. Below the water
table depth, the corrosion drops back down and stabilizes at about
5 ␮m / year.
The corrosion rates for these piles are severe to moderate with
respect to the percent of section loss, with a maximum section
loss of 29% and an average of 13% 共refer to Table 2兲. However,
the pile section was only 1.66 mm 共0.065 in.兲 thick and was most
likely used only as casing for the reinforced concrete. If these
piles were typical structural piles having a thickness of 4.76 mm
共3 / 16 in.兲 and were used more for structural support, as were the
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 345
piles from 2100 South and South Temple, then the maximum
section loss would be 10% and the average would be 5%. These
section losses values would range from moderate to mild.
6th South
The soil profile at 6th South consisted of a wide variety of soil
types ranging from high plasticity clays to well-graded sands as
illustrated in Fig. 6. Four corrugated steel piles were extracted
from a pile cap at the site. The piles were filled with reinforced
concrete and step-tapered with depth. The first 1.09 m 共3.58 ft兲 of
the piles was 457 mm 共18 in.兲 in diameter, the next 3.71 m
共12.17 ft兲 was 406 mm 共16 in.兲 in diameter, and the last segment
of the extracted length was 356 mm 共14 in.兲 in diameter. The
corrugated steel shell segments ranged in thickness from 1.14 to
1.40 mm 共0.045 to 0.055 in.兲. The piles were obtained after 34
years of exposure to the soil-water environment. These piles are
referred to as Piles 15–18. Pile 17 was not measure due to its
short length, abundant extraction wounds, and time constraints.
Along with the soil profile, Fig. 6 presents the soil parameters
and the measured corrosion rates as a function of depth. The
maximum measured corrosion rate for Piles 15–18 was
19 ␮m / year on Pile 15 at a depth of 0.48 m 共1.57 ft兲. The mini-
mum was 1 ␮m / year on Pile 16 at a depth of 3.33 m 共10.93 ft兲.
The average corrosion rate was 5.10 ␮m / year with a standard
deviation of 3.07 ␮m / year. The corrosion rates for these piles are
severe to moderate with respect to percent of section loss, with a
maximum of 51% and an average of 14% 共refer to Table 2兲.
However, the pile wall was only 1.14– 1.40 mm 共0.045–
0.055 in.兲 thick and like the piles at 2nd South these piles were
most likely used just as casing for reinforced concrete. If the piles
had been 4.76 mm 共3 / 16 in.兲 structural piles, the maximum sec-
tion loss would have been 14%, with an average of only 4%. This
severity of section loss would range from moderate to mild.
The maximum corrosion rate on Piles 15 and 16 occurred
 Fig. 6. Soil profile and measured soil parameters versus depth along with corrosion rates for 6th South site
0.20 m 共0.67 ft兲 below the interface between the top layer of clay
and the underlying sand 共Pile 18 did not experience the same
corrosive attack at this depth兲. As shown in Fig. 7共a兲, the corro-
sion at this depth penetrated the thin corrugated steel piles. This
layer was 0.70 m 共2.30 ft兲 above the water table fluctuation zone.
It is possible that this elevated corrosion rate is due to a difference
of electrical potential between the clay and the sand or simply
localized water infiltration. Several factors may have lead to a
difference in electric potential and the creation of a corrosion
“macrocell.” First, the moisture content in the clay layer was
relatively high at around 40%, whereas the sand was low at
around 10%. The soil types were also very different, with one
layer being high plasticity clay and the other nonplastic sand.
Next, there were noticeable differences in chemical properties
from the clay to the sand, such as pH, sulfate content, sulfate
absorption rate, and potassium content. Lastly, there was a large
difference in resistivity as measured by the laboratory resistivity
test. Resistivity in the sand was 18 times greater than that for the
clay.
There is another peak in corrosion rate within the water table
fluctuation zone. This peak is comparable to the corrosion rates
found at the other sites investigated during this study. The corro-
sion rate decreases with depth below the water table despite the
fact that sulfate concentration increases and resistivity values re-
main at the same, relatively low values and sulfate concentration
increases
118th South
The piles at the abutment for the 118th South overpass on I-15
were installed through 5 m of silty clay embankment fill before
extending into the native clay soil at the site. The soil profile and
soil properties as a function of depth are presented in Fig. 8. The
water table was located at about 2.6 m below the natural ground
surface or 7.6 m below the top of the fill at the time of extraction.
346 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008
As a result of drought conditions the preceding 4 years, the water
table elevation was likely close to the lower boundary of water
table fluctuation zone.
Two steel pipe piles 共Piles 19 and 20兲 were extracted at
this site. The steel pipe piles were 318 mm 共12.5 in.兲 in dia-
meter, 6.3 mm 共0.25 in.兲 thick, and were filled with concrete
共⬇28 MPa兲 with reinforcement limited to the top meter. These
piles, which were driven at a 1:4 batter, were obtained after 37
years exposure to the soil-water environment.
Within the fill, the average corrosion rate for Piles 19 and 20
was only about 13 ␮m / year with a standard deviation of 2.1,
despite the fact that the resistivity was less than 500 ⍀ cm, the
chloride concentration averaged approximately 2,100 ppm, and
the soil consisted of moist silty clay. The high chloride content is
likely a result of deicing salt used heavily on the pavement during
winter months.
The corrosion rate increased significantly in the native soil
as the zone of water table fluctuation was approached. The maxi-
mum corrosion rates for Piles 19 and 20 were 48 and
38 ␮m / year, respectively. The average corrosion rate in the na-
tive soil at this site was 22.3 ␮m / year with a standard deviation
of 13.8. A photograph showing the corrosion of a section of pile
at 118th South is provided in Fig. 7共b兲.
Visual observations indicated that there was substantial differ-
ence in the corrosion rates on opposite faces of the battered piles.
Therefore, separate corrosion measurements were made on both
sides of the piles and then averaged to obtain the value at each
depth shown in Fig. 8. For example, at the base of Pile 19 the
corrosion rate on one side was 77 ␮m / year, whereas that on the
opposite side was only 19 ␮m / year resulting in an average of
48 ␮m / year.
For the 6.3 mm wall thickness, these corrosion rates for these
piles were moderate to severe with an average section loss of

Fig. 7. Photographs of 共a兲 corrugated steel casing at South Temple
site; 共b兲 steel pipe pile as 118th South site
about 8% in the fill material, 13% in the native soil, and a maxi-
mum section loss of 28% near the water table fluctuation zone.
Thickness Loss versus Tensile Capacity Loss
Axial tension tests were conducted on 12 specimens of piles that
were 203.2 mm 共8 in.兲 long and 25.4 mm 共1 in.兲 wide. These
specimens had measured thickness losses between 5 and 29%.
The tension tests indicated that the loss of tensile capacity was
directly related to the loss of thickness. The average thickness
loss for the specimens was 13.3%, whereas the average loss in
tensile load capacity was 10.7%. These results suggest that per-
cent loss in tensile capacity is essentially the same as the percent
section loss. These results are in agreement with most studies;
however, they contrast with compression test results presented by
Tungesvik et al. 共1975兲 in which the percent strength loss was
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 347
much greater than the percent section loss. However, Tungesvik
et al. 共1975兲 performed compression tests which are difficult to
directly compare with our tension test results because compres-
sion can be controlled by buckling.
Evaluation of Results
Typical Corrosion Expected in Salt Lake Valley Soils
The average corrosion rates for piles below pile caps driven into
native soil were between 2 and 9 ␮m / year with a maximum of
19 ␮m / year. The percent thickness loss for a pile with a 9.53 mm
共3 / 8 in.兲 wall thickness typically used in the Utah Department of
Transportation practice today would be between 1 and 4% with a
maximum of 7% for exposure times of 34–38 years. For future
projects in the Salt Lake Valley, with soil conditions similar to the
soils at these sites, designs should allow for a maximum thickness
loss of about 7% for piles in the water table fluctuation zone for a
35 year design life.
For the abutment piles driven through the approach fill at
118th South, the average corrosion rate was about 13 ␮m / year in
the fill with a maximum of 48 ␮m / year near the groundwater in
the underlying native soil. For a 9.5 mm pile wall thickness, this
corresponds to an average thickness loss of 5% in the fill and a
maximum loss of 18.6% in the native soil for a 37-year design
life. The cause of these elevated corrosion rates appears to be
deicing salts which produced average chloride concentrations of
1,600 ppm, 16 times higher than the accepted limit for MSE wall
reinforcements, along with resistivity values of only 600 ⍀ cm.
These factors led to higher corrosion rates particularly in the
water table fluctuation zone. These high corrosion rates are a
serious concern and demonstrate the need to either design for
these rates at approach fills where deicing salts will be used or to
take measures to prevent salt infiltration.
Location of Corrosion
The maximum corrosion rate at each site typically occurred
within the water table fluctuation zone, with the exception of 6th
South where the maximum rate occurred above the ground water
table zone. The corrosion rate tended to drop off below the water
table fluctuation zone except at South Temple where biocorrosion
appeared to take place below the water table.
Methods for Predicting Corrosion
Existing Methods
We evaluated several methods used to predict corrosion rates or
the potential for corrosion of buried steel. These methods in-
cluded the steel pipe corrosion classification method based on
resistivity 共Palmer 1967兲, the FHwA criteria for MSE reinforce-
ments 共Elias and Christopher 1997兲, and the National Institute of
Standards and Technology 共NIST兲 共American Iron and Steel In-
stitute 1994兲 method for buried culverts. All three of these meth-
ods proved to be inadequate for predicting pile corrosion. The
methods generally tended to be overly conservative. For example,
the measured corrosion rates were typically only 33–67% of those
predicted using the NIST method with resistivity obtained from
lab tests.
 Fig. 8. Soil profile and measured soil parameters versus depth along with corrosion rates for 118th South site

Correlations Based on Soil Parameters

To improve the prediction of corrosion rates for driven steel piles,
single variable and multiple variable correlation equations were
developed with regression techniques using the data collected
from the sites in the Salt Lake Valley. Soil parameters predicted
corrosion better in the water table fluctuation zone where corro-
sion was not limited by a lack of oxygen or a lack of moisture.
For example, the correlation between corrosion rate and chloride
concentration had an r2 value of 0.43 within the water table fluc-
tuation zone with a general trend of higher corrosion rates with
higher concentrations of chloride 共see Fig. 9兲. However, after in-
cluding data along the full pile length, the r2 value dropped to
only 0.22. Correlations were also developed between corrosion
rate and resistivity in the water fluctuation zone. The correlation

Fig. 9. Relationship between corrosion rate and chloride Fig. 10. Relationship between corrosion rate and 共a兲 laboratory
concentration for data in the water table fluctuation zone from Salt resistivity; or 共b兲 CPT resistivity in the water table fluctuation zone
Lake Valley data set based on Salt Lake Valley data

348 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008

equations relative to CPT and lab resistivity measurements only
had r2 values of 0.39 and 0.22, respectively, but did show a gen-
eral trend of higher corrosion rates as the soil resistivity decreased
as shown in Fig. 10. There were no CPT resistivity measurements
taken at 118th South, therefore, the CPT and lab resistivity cor-
relations cannot be adequately compared.
Multivariable regression models were developed using the
data within the water table fluctuation zone. In developing these
models, the lab resistivity data were used because CPT resistivity
data were not available for 118th South. The first model was
developed strictly by determining the best statistical fit with
measured parameters and included laboratory resistivity, total dis-
solved solids, hydrogen carbonate concentration, sulfate concen-
tration, ammonium concentration, and sodium concentration. The
corrosion rate 共CR兲 in ␮m / year is given by
CR = − 4.58 ln共␳Lab兲 + 35.61 ln共TDS兲 + 13.87 ln共HCO3兲
− 17.97 ln共SO4兲 + 9.12 ln共NH4兲 − 0.06 Na − 198.08 共1兲
where ␳Lab⫽resistivity in ⍀ cm and concentrations are given in
parts per million. Eq. 共1兲 and had an r2 value of 0.91. A regression
equation, using the same parameters as Eq. 共1兲, was also devel-
oped using all the data above and below the groundwater fluctua-
tion zone. Using all the data, the r2 value decreased from 0.91 to
0.53 and a few of the parameters 共laboratory resistivity, hydrogen
carbonate concentration, and ammonium concentration兲 became
statistically insignificant.
Although a better correlation was found within the groundwa-
ter fluctuation zone, the model is not likely to be a viable method
for predicting corrosion for three reasons. First, the data are lim-
ited and some of the parameters used had small ranges. Second,
some of the variables in the regression model do not agree with
basic physical principles governing corrosion. For example, the
corrosion rate should increase with higher concentrations of so-
dium, but the model actually shows the corrosion rate decreasing
as sodium concentration increases. Third, basic parameters such
as pH and chloride concentration are not included in the model.
A second regression model was attempted considering only
parameters thought to have a significant effect on corrosion, based
on previous studies, such as chloride concentration and resistivity.
Although pH is considered an important parameter, the data set
did not have a large range of pH values and the data correlated
poorly, therefore, pH was not used for this regression model.
Using this approach, the regression equation
CR = − 1.6997 ln共␳Lab兲 + 14.92 ln共Cl兲 − 63.27 共2兲
where ␳Lab⫽resistivity in ⍀ cm and chloride concentrations are
given in parts per million. This equation has an r2 value of 0.38.
Like the first model, the regression model given by Eq. 共2兲
does not provide a reliable method to predict corrosion rates.
First, the r2 value was fairly low demonstrating that the fit was
not good. Next, the t-stat for the lab resistivity parameter was low
共−0.4兲, indicating that this parameter is likely not statistical sig-
nificant. This low t-stat is reasonable as the lab resistivity param-
eter had a low r2 value.
Therefore, efforts to predict corrosion rates based on soil pa-
rameters were not successful in this study. This result is consistent
with previous studies which found that pile corrosion was not
strongly related to soil parameters. A reliable regression model
approach must await additional data from other sites with a wider
range of values for the various parameters.
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 349
Fig. 11. Corrosion rate versus exposure time for data from this and
previous studies listed in Table 2
Correlation Based on Exposure Time for Mildly Corrosive
Soil
Previous research indicates that the corrosion rate for metals in
soil decreases with time, due to the depletion of oxygen and the
build-up of corrosion products that form a protective layer
共Ohsaki 1982; Schlosser and Bastick 1991兲. Because the corro-
sion rate for piles does not appear to be strongly influenced by
soil parameters within typical ranges, it may be possible to esti-
mate the maximum corrosion rate at a site based only on the
exposure time for many practical design purposes. To evaluate the
decrease in corrosion rate with time, we plotted thickness loss
versus exposure time using data in the literature along with data
from this study. We excluded data points for piles located entirely
below the water table because their maximum corrosion rates
were generally much lower. In addition, we excluded data for less
common, highly aggressive soil conditions such as noted by vari-
ous researchers 共Greene et al. 1995; Beavers and Durr 1998兲.
Specifically, we excluded any measurements with a pH less than
or equal to 5 or greater than 8.5, a resistivity lower than
340 ⍀ cm, or a chloride concentration greater than 450 ppm.
These criteria excluded the piles at the 118th South site be-
cause of the high measured chloride concentration. They also ex-
cluded several cases in the literature where corrosion rates were
much higher than typical values for piles and either the pH or the
chloride concentration were more extreme 共Elias and Christopher
1997, Beavers and Durr 1998兲. We set the above-mentioned cri-
teria using the extreme measurement of each parameter in the
data we used. It is possible that these criteria may be overly
conservative, but there is presently insufficient conclusive data to
change the criteria. Data points were kept in the model when pH,
resistivity, or chloride concentration measurements were not all
specified because this was considered conservative.
Table 2 shows the data points used in the analysis along with
the corrosion rate, soil parameters, and source for the data. The
thickness loss is defined as the loss of thickness from one side of
metal; therefore, H-piles will actually have twice the thickness
loss since they have two exposed sides. The data set consists of
23 points and the time of exposure ranges from 2 to 46 years.
Each data point represents the maximum corrosion rate measured
for any test specimen at a given site. Therefore, there are only
three data points from the Salt Lake Valley testing. The Salt Lake
data points, while only a small portion of the entire data set, have
some of the longest exposure times 共34–38 years兲 of any data in
the set.
Fig. 12. Total thickness loss from corrosion versus exposure time for
data from this and previous studies listed in Table 2
Fig. 11 presents the corrosion rate versus exposure time on an
arithmetic scale and demonstrates the decrease in corrosion rate
over time. Fig. 12 presents the maximum thickness loss as a func-
tion of exposure time on a log-log plot. The average trend line is
shown in Fig. 12 along with lines representing the 68% confi-
dence interval and the 95% confidence interval. Eqs. 共3兲–共5兲 are
derived from the data in Fig. 12. The average thickness loss in
Fig. 12 is given by
⌬e = 59t 0.67
共3兲
where ⌬e⫽thickness loss due to corrosion and t⫽exposure time
in years. This best-fit line has an r2 value of 0.55. Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲
provide the maximum thickness loss for the 68 and 95% confi-
dence interval upper limits, respectively
⌬e = 83t0.81 共4兲
⌬e = 120t0.95 共5兲
The exponents in Eqs. 共3兲–共5兲 represent the slope of the lines
on the log-log plot whereas the coefficient is the intercept or the
thickness loss in micrometers at 1 year of exposure. The average
line has an exponent of 0.67, which compares favorably with that
suggested by previous investigators. For example, Romanoff
共1962兲 recommended an exponent of 0.55 for metals in the
ground whereas Schlosser and Bastick 共1991兲 proposed an expo-
nent of 0.65 for galvanized steel.
The plot in Fig. 12 indicates that all the measured data lie
within the 95% confidence interval, or within 2 SD from the
mean. All but four data points lie within the 68% confidence
interval, or within 1 SD from the mean. There are only two data
points that plot above the upper limit of the 68% confidence level
bound. For design purposes, we recommend that the maximum
corrosion rate be estimated using the upper limit of the 68% con-
fidence interval 关Eq. 共4兲兴. The upper limit of the 68% confidence
interval is greater than about 82% of the data. Fig. 13 provides an
example of how Eq. 共4兲 can be used in design to estimate the
maximum percent loss of thickness over the life expectancy of a
pile. Eqs. 共3兲–共5兲 were all derived from maximum corrosion rates.
Therefore, if the equation for the upper limit of the 95% confi-
dence interval is used, the computed change of thickness could be
well above any maximum measured value. This may be too con-
servative and costly.
350 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008
Fig. 13. Example using Eq. 共4兲 to estimate the maximum pile
thickness loss over the expected design life and the time to 25%
thickness loss
There are several precautions in using Eqs. 共3兲–共5兲. First, the
data only have measured values up to 46 years of exposure. Be-
yond this time span there are no data to verify that the equations
are appropriate. However, the design life of many buried struc-
tures will be within 50 years so that extrapolation beyond the
range of the data set will not be required. As indicated previously,
if the soil has a pH less than or equal to 5 or greater than 8.5, a
resistivity of less than 340 ⍀ cm, or a chloride concentration
greater than 450 ppm, corrosion rates may be significantly higher
than predicted by Eqs. 共4兲–共6兲. The equations also may not be
adequate for piles driven in fills containing slags, ashes, cinders,
and heavily polluted soils that have high cation/anion
concentration 共besides chloride concentration兲 or severe anaerobic
conditions.
Findings and Conclusions
1. The water table fluctuation zone was generally the critical
zone for corrosion. The corrosion rate along the length of the
piles was controlled more by location relative to the water
table than any other individual soil parameter. The peaks in
corrosion rate were generally near the measured ground
water table.
2. In most cases, the corrosion rate below the water table fluc-
tuation zone decreased significantly as oxygen was depleted.
However, at the South Temple site, the corrosion rate re-
mained relatively high below the water table. Evidence
strongly suggests that this anomaly is a result of biocorro-
sion; however, greater variation in the groundwater level
could also be a factor.
3. Soil interfaces above the water table may produce corrosion
when potential differences create macrocells. Macrocells
produced by two adjacent soils with large differences in re-
 sistivity, pH, natural moisture content, aeration, and cation/
anion concentration may, in some cases, be the critical depth
for corrosion, instead of the water table fluctuation zone.
4. The maximum measured corrosion rates for piles within pile
caps driven in native soils 共2100 South, South Temple, 2nd
South, and 6th South兲 in Salt Lake City were not a serious
threat to the structural integrity of any pile foundations, even
after 34–38 years of exposure. The average corrosion rates
were between 2 and 9 ␮m / year with a maximum corrosion
rate of 19 ␮m / year. The average percent loss of thickness of
a driven pipe pile with a 9.53 mm 共3 / 8 in.兲 thick wall with a
life expectancy of 35 years in similar soil conditions would
be in the range of 1–4% with a maximum loss of about 7%.
5. The maximum measured corrosion rate for abutment piles
driven through fill and into native soil at the 118th South site
was considerably higher with an average corrosion rate of
13 ␮m / year in the fill, 22 ␮m / year in the native soil, and a
maximum of 48 ␮m / year in the native soil near the water
table fluctuation zone. The high corrosion rates at this site
can be attributed to high chloride content 共due to deicing
salt兲, low resistivity, and the piles being driven through fill.
For a driven pipe pile with a typical wall thickness of
9.53 mm 共3 / 8 in.兲, these corrosion rates correspond to an
average thickness loss of 5% in the fill and 9% in the native
soil with a maximum loss of 18.6% for a 35 year exposure
period. This percent thickness loss is significant and points
out
the potential for pile corrosion for highly corrosive soil
conditions.
6. The percent loss of tensile load capacity is directly related to
the percent loss of thickness due to corrosion.
7. Existing methods for predicting corrosion of buried metals
are not reliable for predicting pile corrosion and corrosion
rates are not strongly correlated with soil parameters within
typical ranges.
8. The corrosion rate in the water table fluctuation zone is more
sensitive to soil parameters than is the corrosion rate above
and below this zone. Future efforts to develop corrosion cor-
relations should focus on behavior in this zone.
9. Corrosion rates on piles decrease with time, due to the deple-
tion of oxygen and the build-up of protective layers. For steel
piles in soils without extreme properties, the maximum cor-
rosion loss on a pile can be reasonably estimated based only
on the time of exposure for design purposes.
10. Sites that have measured soil parameters where the pH is less
than or equal to 5 or greater than 8.5, the resistivity lower
than 340 ⍀ cm, or a chloride concentration greater than
450 ppm may experience very aggressive pile corrosion and
steps may need to be taken to prevent excessive corrosion. At
abutments where piles are to be driven through fill, special
care should be taken to ensure that the fill soil is not aggres-
sive and will not become aggressive due to application of
road deicing salts.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded through a grant from the Utah Department
of Transportation 共UDOT兲. This support is gratefully acknowl-
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2008 / 351
edged. The opinions and conclusions expressed in this paper are
those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of
UDOT. We also thank Penhall, Inc. for extracting the piles and
Samuel Musser at UDOT who served as the project manager for
this study.
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