Mathematical Induction

Applications
1.

Let

P(n)

be the proposition

: The total number of segments, formed by

two of them are parallel and no three of them are concurrent is

n .

For

P(1),

Assume

It is clear that the number of segments formed by

P(k)

is true for some

lines on a plane such that no

line is

12 = 1.

k N , that is,

the total number of segments formed by

For

k2

lines is

(1)

P(k + 1),
(k + 1)th

When the

line is inserted to the existing

number of lines cut by the

segments.

th

(k + 1)

line is

lines (hence

and also the

th

After insertion of the

2

k2
th

(k + 1)

segments by (1)), the maximum

line is cut into

(k + 1)

more

line, the total number of segments

(k + 1)
2

= k + k + (k + 1) = (k + 1) .

P(k + 1)

is true.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

Let

P(n)

sn = 1 +
For

n
2

be be the proposition

n N.

is true

: The maximum number of sections cut by

lines is

( n + 1) , such that no two lines are parallel and no three of them are concurrent.

P(1),

Assume

It is clear that the number of sections cut by

P(k)

is true for some

line

( k + 1)

is

s1 = 1 +

1
2

(1 + 1) = 2.

k N , that is,
sk = 1 +

the max. number of sections cut by

lines is

For

lines existing, therefore the number of sections

P(k + 1),

We now add a

Suppose there are

th

(k + 1)

line, this line cuts the

The total number of section

P(k + 1)

Let

P(n)

existing line, and

sk + (k + 1)

= 1+

k
2

(k + 1)

(2)
=

sk .

sections are formed.

(k + 1) + ( k + 1) = 1 +

k +1
2

(k + 2 )

is true.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

2.

P(n)

P(n)

is true

n N.

be the proposition : two colours is enough to shade the regions divided by the circles so that

no

two adjacent regions is of the same colour.

For

P(1),

Assume

Print the circle with black and outside the circle with white.

P(k)

is true for some k N , that is, two colours (black and white) is enough to shade the regions

divided by the circles so that no two adjacent regions is of the same colour.
For

P(k + 1), Given, k+1 circles in the plane, throw out one circle, call it C, and by inductive hypothsis,

colour with two colours the regions produced by the remaining k circles. Now put C back in. Some of the
regions will be split in two, others will be unaffected. Leave the colours of all regions `outside' C unchanged and

switch the colours of all regions `inside' C. This procedure produces a 2-colouring of the plane with k+1 circles.

P(k + 1)

is true.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

3.

n N.

is true

A simple n-sided polygon is divisible into exactly n-2 triangles by means of exactly n-3 non-intersecting
diagonals.

4.

P(n)

(i)

The result is the same for non-convex polygon.

AB = an,

AC = a2n , OA = OB = r

We like to found are relationship between

OA 2 AD 2 = r 2 (a n / 2 )

OD =

DC = OC OD = r

an .

Let the length of one side of the regular polygon be

Let

a2n

= AC =
=

r 2 (a

an

and

/2)
2

a2n

be the length of one side of the regular

Let

P2 n

be the perimeter of the regular polygon

a 2 n = 2r ,

From diagram 2, we get

a 2 3 = a 8 = a 24 = 2 r r 4 r
2

( 2r )

(1)

Diagram 1

2n-sided polygon.

P2 n = 4 2 r

AD 2 + DC 2 = (a n / 2 ) + r r 2 (a n / 2 )

2r2 r 4r2 a n

a2n first.

Let

From (1),

Proof omitted.

2r

= 2 2r

P2 3 = 2 3 a 8 = 2 3 2 2 r
Diagram 2

We like to use Mathematical Induction to prove that the proposition

P(n) : a 2 n = 2 2 + 2 .... + ( 1) n 2 r ,
is true n N,
P(2) and P(3)
Assume

P(k)

are true from the above.

a 2 k = 2 2 + 2 .... + ( 1) k 2 r ,

We like to prove that the proposition is true for

a 2 k +1 = a 22 k = 2 r r 4 r a k
2

r = 1,

(3)

n = k + 1,
2

The proposition is true for

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the proposition is true

From (2), take

P2 k = 2 k a 2 k

= 2 r r 4 r 2 2 + 2 .... + ( 1) k 2 r

= 2 2 + 2 .... + ( 1) k 2 r

(ii)

. (2)

n 2.

is true for some k N :

P2 n = 2 n a 2 n

, by (3)

n = k + 1.

n N,

n 2.

lim P2 n = length of the circumference = 2

n

lim 2 n 2 2 + 2 .... + ( 1) n 2 = 2
n

n 1 times

(iii) From (i), Take

a6 = 1, a 12 = 2 4 1 = 2 3 =

r = 1,

a 24 = 2 2 + 3 ,

(4)

A be the area of the circle.

sector AOC < AOC + AEC

In Diagram 1 above,

Sector AOC < AOC + (AOV (1/2)AOB

From (5) , multiply both sides by

2n, we have

ra n

Also,

S2 n = n

When

n = 96, r = 1,

1
2

Pn r

AEC = ADC = AOC - AOD

(5)

(6)

(7)

P2 = 6.282048 = 2 3.141024

an = 0.065438,

S2n = 3.139344

and

A < S2n + (S2n Sn).

S2n < A < S2n + (S2n Sn)

S2n < A,

s2n + (S2n Sn) = 3.146064

3.139344 < < 3.146064

(iv) In Diagram 1, let AB = a 2 n ,
S2 n = 2 n

From (7),

6 2

lim S n = lim S2 n = A

We can see that

Obviously

a 96 = 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 3

be the area of the n-sided regular polygon.

Sn

a 48 = 2 2 + 2 + 3 ,

a 62 k = 2 2 + 2 + ... + 2 + 3
Let

ra 2 n 1

BC = a 2 n +1 = a 22 n

, S2 n +1 = 2 n +1

ra 2 n

(8)

Divide the two eq. in (*),

S2 n
S2 n +1

1 a 2 n 1
2 a 2n

AB
BD

= 2
=
= cos DBC = cos DCB
2

BC
BC

1
1 360
180
1
= cos n
= cos ( BOC ) = cos BOC = cos
n
2 2

2
2 2
2
(v)

From (vi),
=

S2 n +1

1
S2 2

cos

1
S2 n

180
2

cos

cos

180
2

180
2

1
2r
2

cos 45 cos

= cos 45 cos

45
2

45
2

1
S2 n 1
180
2

n 1

cos

cos

180
2

n 1

180
2

cos
=

180
2n

1
2r

= ....

cos 45 cos

45
2

cos

45
4

... cos

45
2 n 2

n ,

cos

cos

... cos

Taking limit on both side as

1

45
4

45
4

...

....

(vi) cos 45 =

cos

1
2

cos

1 + cos

45

22

45
2

45

2 =

1 + cos 45
2

2
P(n)

be the proposition :

For

P(1),

L.H.S. = X \ A1 = R.H.S.

P(k)

is true for some

1
....
2

1
1 +
2

n
n
X \ A i = ( X \ A i )
i =1 i =1

Let

For

1
,
+ 1 +
2
2

1
1
1
, .
1 +
1+
2
2
2

1 1

1+
2 2

+ 1 +
2

Assume

5.

n N.

P(1)
i.e.

n N.

is true.

k
k
X \ A i = ( X \ A i ) . (*)
i = 1 i =1

k +1
k
k
L.H.S. = X \ A i = X \ A i A k +1 = X \ A i ( X \ A k+1 )
i=1

i=1
i=1

P(k+1),

k
k +1
= ( X \ A i ) ( X \ A k+1 ) = ( X \ A i ) = R.H.S.
i=1

i =1

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

P(n)

P(k + 1)

is true

n N.

, by (*)

is true.

d n 1 n! ( 1)
=

n +1
dx n 1 + x (1 + x )
n

6.

Let

P(n)

be the proposition :

For

P(1),

d 1
1
=

(1 + x )2
dx 1 + x

P(1)

is true.

d k 1 k! ( 1)
=

k +1
dx k 1 + x (1 + x )
k

Assume

P(k)

is true for some

n N.

i.e.

d k +1 1 d d k 1 d k! ( 1)

k +1
dx k +1 1 + x dx dx k 1 + x dx (1 + x )

(*)

For

P(k+1),

0 k! ( 1)
=

(1 + x )k+1

dx
(1 + x )2 ( k+1)

k! ( 1) ( k + 1)(1 + x ) k
k

(1 + x )2 ( k+1)

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

P(n)

, by (*)

( k + 1)!( 1)k+1
=
(1 + x )k+2

P(k + 1)

is true.

is true n N.