Pollution Assessment for Sustainable Practices in Applied Sciences and Engineering

Pollution Assessment for Sustainable Practices in Applied Sciences and Engineering

Editors

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed

Evan K. Paleologos

Fares M. Howari

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Contributors

About the editors

Preface

Part I. Geosphere pollution assessment

Chapter 1. Sustainable pollution assessment practices

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Sustainable development concept

1.3. Sustainable development and the ambient environment

1.4. Land environment

1.5. Global environmental problems and restoration initiatives

1.6. Interconnection of environmental problems

1.7. Geoenvironmental engineering aspects

1.8. General pollution assessment framework

1.9. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 2. Risk analysis and management

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Decision trees

2.3. Optimum decision criteria

2.4. Expected value of perfect information

2.5. Statistical measures in decision-making analyses

2.6. Extended environmental cost

2.7. Utility theory

2.8. Risk assessment

2.9. Basic elements of human health risk assessment

2.10. Risk characterization

2.11. Risk management

2.12. Role of regulatory agencies

2.13. Regulatory approaches

2.14. Mitigation technologies for polluted soils

2.15. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 3. Environmental applications of remote sensing

3.1. Environmental problems and remote sensing

3.2. Concepts and foundations of remote sensing

3.3. Remote sensing instruments and platforms

3.4. Ocean surface circulation and marine debris application

3.5. Unmanned aerial systems

3.6. Future directions and Earth observation in Europe

3.7. Summary and remarks

Chapter 4. Geographic information system: spatial data structures, models, and case studies

4.1. Introduction

4.2. General information organization and data structure

4.3. Geographic data and geographic information

4.4. Information organization of graphical data

4.5. The operating system perspective of information organization

4.6. Fundamental concepts of data

4.7. Case studies

4.8. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 5. Geophysical methods

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Electrical resistivity methods

5.3. Electromagnetic methods

5.4. Electromagnetic techniques

5.5. Seismic methods

5.6. Ground-penetrating radar

5.7. Gravity and magnetic methods

5.8. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 6. Site investigation

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Site investigation approach

6.3. Phase I investigations

6.4. Phase II investigations

6.5. Geophysical techniques

6.6. Hydrogeological investigations

6.7. Hydrogeochemical investigation

6.8. Geochemical data collection

6.9. Geochemical data analysis

6.10. Case study I: landfill site investigation: Phase 1: assessment of the geoengineering conditions

6.11. Conclusion

6.12. Case study I: landfill site investigation: Phase 2: assessment of the geoenvironmental conditions

6.13. Case study II: assessment of land salinization spread in arid lands

6.14. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 7. Subsurface pollutant transport

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Modeling process

7.3. Transport mechanisms in soil

7.4. Transport equation

7.5. Solute transport models

7.6. Mass transfer limitations during pollutant transport

7.7. Experimental determination of adsorption characteristics

7.8. Modeling of pollutant transport using second postulate of irreversible thermodynamics

7.9. Advanced modeling: the stochastic approach

7.10. Summary and concluding remarks

Part II. Atmosphere pollution assessment

Chapter 8. Indoor air quality: pollutants, health effects, and regulations

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Indoor air quality

8.3. Sources and characteristics of major IAPS

8.4. Other related studies on the health effects of IAPs

8.5. Sampling and measurements of IAPs

8.6. Influence of outdoor air pollution on IAQ

8.7. Measures to minimize entry of outdoor polluted air indoors

8.8. IAQ guidelines and building regulations

8.9. Sick building syndrome, green buildings, and wellbeing

8.10. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 9. Outdoor air pollutants: sources, characteristics, and impact on human health and the environment

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Sources of outdoor air pollutants

9.3. Categories of air pollutants

9.4. Anthropogenic emissions inventory by sector

9.5. Air pollutant main indicators

9.6. Air toxics

9.7. Monitoring and measurement

9.8. Monitoring of air pollutants in the United Arab Emirates

9.9. Global environmental impact of climate change

9.10. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 10. Modeling air pollution by atmospheric desert

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Atmospheric chemistry–climate model

10.3. Atmospheric dust chemistry

10.4. Sensitivity of dust removal to chemical aging

10.5. Climate forcing of aeolian dust

10.6. Public health impacts of aeolian dust

10.7. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 11. Tropospheric air pollution—aviation industry's case

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Aviation and greenhouse gas emissions

11.3. European Union Emissions Trading System

11.4. Aviation CO2 management

11.5. Carbon cycle and climate system

11.6. Monitoring techniques

11.7. Greenhouse gas remote sensing instruments

11.8. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 12. Health economics of air pollution

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Definition of air pollutants

12.3. Causes of air pollution

12.4. Effects of air pollution on health: the economic evidence

12.5. Impacts of policy: an empirical approach

12.6. Summary and concluding remarks

Part III. Hydrosphere pollution assessment

Chapter 13. A decision support system for ranking desalination processes in the Arabian Gulf Countries based on hydrodynamic modeling evaluation of future changes in feedwater properties

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Impact of climate change and coastal effluents on seawater salinity and temperature

13.3. Data use

13.4. Hydrodynamic modeling

13.5. Environmental impacts due to climate change and costal effluents

13.6. Impact of seawater salinity and temperature on performance of desalination processes

13.7. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 14. Recent analytical methods for risk assessment of emerging contaminants in ecosystems

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Emerging contaminants in the environment

14.3. Emerging contaminants and regulatory considerations

14.4. Sample collection techniques for emerging contaminants

14.5. Sample preparation, extraction, and cleanup

14.6. Instrumental analytical methods

14.7. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 15. Water quality at Jebel Ali Harbor, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

15.1. Introduction

15.2. Site description

15.3. Review of previous studies of harbor water

15.4. Study approach

15.5. Previous records

15.6. Sample collection and analysis

15.7. Discharged treated wastewater

15.8. Harbor water quality

15.9. Summary and concluding remarks

15.10. Recommendations

Chapter 16. Sediment quality at Jebel Ali Harbor, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Previous records

16.3. Methodologies

16.4. Results and discussion

16.5. Harbor sediment quality assessment

16.6. Conclusion

16.7. Recommendations

Chapter 17. Inland desalination: techniques, brine management, and environmental concerns

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Desalination capacity

17.3. Conventional desalination techniques

17.4. Emerging desalination technologies

17.5. Brine characteristics

17.6. Brine management

17.7. Environmental issues

17.8. Environmental assessment

17.9. Summary and concluding remarks

Part IV. Emerging issues in environmental pollution assessment

Chapter 18. Pollution assessment of nanomaterials

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Nanomaterials and nanoparticles

18.3. Physicochemical properties

18.4. The life cycle of ENMs

18.5. The transport of ENMs

18.6. The fate of ENMs in environmental ecosystems

18.7. Bioavailability and toxicity

18.8. Regulations and standards

18.9. Risk assessment methods and future directions

18.10. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 19. Noise pollution and its impact on human health and the environment

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Noise fundamentals

19.3. Overview of noise pollution problem

19.4. Policy and standards

19.5. Noise exposure sources

19.6. Noise pollution impact

19.7. Identification methods for regional noise-affected habitats

19.8. Noise control measures and sustainability

19.9. Environmental noise pollution management

19.10. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 20. Assessment of radiation pollution from nuclear power plants

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Radioactive decay

20.3. Environmental radiation

20.4. Sources and types of radwaste

20.5. Geologic disposal of high-level radioactive waste

20.6. Future challenges

20.7. Environmental effects of nuclear power

20.8. Nuclear regulations

20.9. Nuclear power plant accidents and incidents

20.10. Emission of radioactive materials

20.11. How dangerous is nuclear radiation?

20.12. Effects on human health

20.13. Case study I: Chernobyl, Ukraine

20.14. Case study II: Fukushima, Japan

20.15. Nuclear safety

20.16. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 21. Artificial intelligence and data analytics for geosciences and remote sensing: theory and application

21.1. Introduction

21.2. Machine learning applications

21.3. Satellite images and Landsat hyperspectral data processing

21.4. Decision tree

21.5. PROAFTN method

21.6. Case study I: hybrid DT and PROAFTN method utilization for soil classification from Landsat satellite images

21.7. Case study II: java-based analytical method for mineral exploration at Flin Flon, Saskatchewan, Canada

21.8. Summary and concluding remarks

Chapter 22. Lifecycle assessment of aquaponics

22.1. Introduction

22.2. Aquaponic systems

22.3. Assessment of aquaponic systems

22.4. Challenges and recommendations

22.5. Concluding remarks

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

I dedicate this work to my divine wife, who has provided me with endless support over the last 37 years, and to our two beloved daughters.

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed

To my wife Cleo, for all the wonderful years; to Shlomo, for the continuous inspiration; and to the extraordinary group of friends I made at the Department of Hydrology in Tucson.

Evan K. Paleologos

This work is wholeheartedly dedicated to Suha, Natalie, Yousef, and Adam who shared their words of advice and encouragement. Thank you for your support!

Fares M. Howari

Contributors

Mohamed Abdelkader,     King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

Feras Al-Obeidat,     College of Technological Innovations, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Saed Al Awadi,     Environment, Health and Safety Department, Ports, Customs and Free Zone Corporation, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Durra M. AlBlooshi,     College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Ayub Ali,     City of Gold Coast, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia

Marina Astitha,     University of Connecticut, CT, Storrs, United States

Neil Banerjee,     Faculty of Science, Western University, London, Canada

Mahmoud Bataineh,     Department of Chemistry, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada

R. Alberto Bernabeo,     College of Engineering, Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Angeliki Boura,     Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Athens, Greece

Vasileios Dimitropoulos,     Business Planning & Reporting, European Investment Bank, Luxembourg

Abubaker A. Elhakeem,     Dubai Municipality, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Walid A. Elshorbagy,     College of Engineering University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States

Christine M.J. Gallampois,     Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

Habes Ghrefat,     College of Science, King Saud University, Reyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Waleed Hamza,     Biology Department, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Fares M. Howari,     College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Hassan D. Imran,     Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Jibran Iqbal,     College of Natural and Health Sciences, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Lina A. Kamareddine,     Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Vlassis A. Karydis,     Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany

Qasim Khan,     Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Niaz Khan,     Environment, Health and Safety Department, Ports, Customs and Free Zone Corporation, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Klaus Klingmüller,     Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany

Jos Lelieveld

Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany

Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus

Munjed A. Maraqa,     Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Farhi Marir,     College of Technological Innovations, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Constantine Mavrocordatos,     European Space Agency - Earth Observation Projects, Department ESA/ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Nikolai A. Maximenko,     International Pacific Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, United States

Stelios P. Mertikas,     Laboratory of Geodesy & Geomatics Engineering, School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Crete, Greece

Kevin Mickus,     Department of Geography, Geology and Planning, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, United States

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed

Uberbinder, Inc., Seattle, WA, United States

EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Evan K. Paleologos,     College of Engineering, Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Katrina E. Paleologos,     College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, United States

Panagiotis Partsinevelos,     Sense Lab Research, School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Cret, Chania, Crete, Greece

Madduri V. Rao,     Quality and Laboratory Development, Precision Scientific Laboratories, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Valéria G.S. Rodrigues,     São Carlos Engineering School, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil

Aristeidis Samitas,     College of Business, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Emma L. Schymanski,     Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg

Mohamed Y.E. Selim,     College of Engineering, UAE University, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Costas Siriopoulos,     College of Business, Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

About the editors

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed earned his PhD from McGill University, Canada, where he was later employed as Associate Director of the Geotechnical Research Centre and lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics. He has held many senior positions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), including Associate Provost and Chief Academic Officer at Zayed University, Dean of Research and Graduate Studies at Abu Dhabi University, and Research Director at the UAE University. He has 13 patents in areas of sustainable use of elemental sulfur and alkaline solid wastes, production of sulfur cement and concrete, carbon sequestration and utilization for the treatment of solid wastes, and stabilization of sand dunes. He has authored and coauthored 8 books, edited another 12 books, and published over 280 papers in refereed journals and international conference proceedings. He has been the recipient of several university and nationwide research accolades. He is the General Managing Director of EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, UAE, Senior Advisor, Uberbinder, Inc., Seattle, Washington, USA, and an editorial board advisor for a number of scientific journals.

SCOPUS ID: 7402739291; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0971-6940;

Research gate profile: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdel_Mohsen_Mohamed/scores.

Evan K. Paleologos is Professor and Chair of Civil Engineering at Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates (UAE). He received his PhD from the University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA. His expertise is in the flow of water and the transport of contaminants in porous media. Prior to the UAE he worked for the US high-level nuclear waste management program at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, later becoming tenured Associate Professor at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA, where he was also Director of the Graduate Program in Environmental Geosciences and faculty of the Honors College. He subsequently moved to Greece at the Technical University of Crete and while there he also served as Science Advisor to the Greek Minister of the Environment and Deputy Chairman of the Board of EYDAP, the city of Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company. He is coauthor of four books on environmental risk analysis and geoenvironmental engineering and of over 100 refereed papers. He is the recipient of several awards in the United States, Greece, and the UAE and is currently the associate editor of two international scientific journals.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3582-2288;

Research gate profile: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Evan_Paleologos.

Fares M. Howari is Professor of Environmental Sciences and Dean of College of Natural and Health Sciences at Zayed University. He served as Professor and Chair of the Department of Applied Sciences and Mathematics at Abu Dhabi University as well as a director of Abu Dhabi University Center of Excellence of Environment, Health and Safety. He is a water resources and environmental scientist with research development and administration expertise. He served as a professor of environmental sciences and coordinator of the Environmental Sciences Program at the University of Texas, PB. He also joined the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy as program coordinator, and as an environmental scientist at the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin. He has valuable experience in management, strategic planning and administration, and creative leadership.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8655-5810;

Research gate profile: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fares_Howari2.

Preface

It has been over 30  years since the landmark Brundtland Report introduced sustainability as the obligation of a present generation to deliver to the next a state of affairs in the environment that would allow this to prosper and enjoy a quality of life not hampered by present-day activities aiming at short-term benefits. Fundamental to striving for sustainable development is the advancement and application of environmentally responsible waste and pollution assessment methods, remediation technologies, and management systems. Assessment of pollution in a given medium (air, water, and soil) may be conducted under a wide variety of conditions and at varying scales and levels of sophistication. As a result, assessments can produce a wide range of outcomes. Problem conditions may range from simple settings with almost self-evident identification of one or two key hazards, to highly complex urban and industrial settings with diverse human activities, where the source, location, and inception of pollution can be difficult to identify. This, in many cases, is coupled with complexities in the geological, hydrogeological, geochemical, and biological site conditions, the presence and need for protection of valuable ecosystems, the potential for far-field and/or long-term health implications, and numerous other considerations that render vulnerability assessments very demanding. This broad range of complexity, uncertainty, and needs means that assessments of pollution require a range of sophisticated tools and techniques, from field surveys, say, of major sources of groundwater pollution to detailed surveys of chemical or microbiological pollutant loads, to modeling of, for example, the leaching potential of pesticides used in a catchment. This increased complexity of environmental problems has necessitated the creation of multidisciplinary groups from all fields of science, engineering, public health, economics, and social science, to work together to assess and provide answers to the multifaceted aspects and implications of environmental problems.

This book has attempted to bring together teams of experts from different fields to provide the latest information on the methods and techniques through which pollution is assessed on land, air, and water. Thus the book is divided into the following parts: Part 1: Pollution Assessment in the Geosphere, in which we discuss sustainable pollution assessment practices; risk analysis and management; environmental remote sensing; geographic information systems; geophysical methods; site investigation; and subsurface pollutant transport; Part 2: Pollution Assessment in the Atmosphere, where we explore indoor and outdoor assessment of air pollutants; modeling of air pollution by atmospheric desert dust; troposphere air pollution; and health economics; Part 3: Pollution Assessment in the Hydrosphere, where we review the case study of the Arabian Gulf used to describe a decision support system for ranking desalination processes in the Arabian Gulf countries based on hydrodynamic modeling evaluation of future changes in feed water properties; analytical methods for risk assessment of emerging contaminants in ecosystems; water and sediment quality issues and techniques; brine management; and environmental concerns related to inland desalination; and Part 4: Emerging Issues in Environmental Pollution Assessment, where we look at emerging issues with exposés of nanomaterial pollution; noise pollution and its impacts on human health and the environment; radiation pollution from nuclear power plants; the use of artificial intelligence and data analytics for geosciences and remote sensing applications; and finally lifecycle assessment of aquaponics.

Part 1: Pollution Assessment in the Geosphere commences with Chapter 1 and concludes with Chapter 7.

Chapter 1: Sustainable Pollution Assessment Practices, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O. and Paleologos, E.K., focuses on the broad assessment of pollution in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere within the context of sustainable development. The global environmental problems and the actions toward restoration of the environment are discussed. An overview of the impact from the exploitation and overutilization of natural systems, the deterioration of the environment through the disposal of ever-increasing solid and liquid waste volumes, the pollution of air and water, and the elimination of species, flora, and fauna are summarized with case studies from around the world. Some best-case studies that improve welfare, while not at the cost of environmental degradation or the well-being of current or future generations, are highlighted. The chapter also discusses evidence of global environmental impacts such as: global climate change; pollution of air, land, and water due to accidents during the transportation of oil or other products by ship; plastic debris in rivers and oceans, and effluent discharge into freshwater bodies; growing quantities of waste as a result of chemical product utilization in all human activities, from agriculture to medicine, to energy and industrial and manufacturing processes, to everyday products; and the decreasing species of wildlife. References and excerpts from important national and international conventions and legislation regarding these problems are also provided.

Chapter 2: Risk Analysis and Management, authored by Paleologos, E.K. and Mohamed, A.M.O., presents an introduction to elements of risk analysis and risk management. Decision trees, payoff tables, and criteria to reach optimum decisions are presented, as well as some statistical measures that provide insights into decision-making. Furthermore, an exposition of topics of environmental economics is used to illustrate that, similar to lifecycle analysis, what is considered as the cost of environmental degradation in cost–benefit analyses can influence decisions and lead to less or more environmentally friendly solutions. Subsequently, elements of utility theory are introduced to incorporate the attitude to risk of individuals and corporations into risk analyses. This part, which deals with decision-making analyses, concludes with an elementary exposition of Bayesian decision theory illustrated through a problem of air emissions from waste to energy facilities. The second part of this chapter discusses human health risk assessment for environmental hazards by detailing elements of hazard identification, exposure assessment, toxicity assessment, and risk characterization. Various models of exposure assessment and risk characterization are presented. The steps of risk management programs are described, as well as the role of regulatory agencies and their approaches to risk. Finally, the chapter concludes with a presentation of mitigation measures for pollution in soils that apart from technical and regulatory issues touches upon the efficiency of technological solutions, the economic cost to remediate, the degradation in the function of environmental systems, and the impact to the health of the population.

Chapter 3: Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing, authored by Mertikas, S.P., Partsinevelos, P., Mavrocordatos, C., and Maximemko, N., provides a brief exposition of remote sensing applications in geosciences and engineering disciplines. Remote sensing, the science and technology through which characteristics and properties of targets on Earth can be determined from a distance, has provided systematic, dedicated, and repetitive observations of the planet's surface, which include the atmosphere, water, land, living species, vegetation, pollution, and climate, from global to local scales. Satellite observations have contributed to the spectacular improvement of the accuracy of weather forecasts over the last few decades. Remote sensing has provided the means for detecting and quantifying the rates of pollution by mapping and monitoring sources of pollution and the degree of remediation for their management. It bears the means to respond and facilitate environmental management and supports making sound and evidence-based decisions in relation to Earth's resources at a global scale and across different continents, nations, and domains. Remote sensing currently supplies essential Earth observations to protect irreplaceable resources and provides support for sustainable economic growth, disaster resilience, management of energy and mineral resources, food and water security, and sustainability. It provides powerful tools for understanding the past and present conditions of Earth systems and components, as well as the interplay between them. Thus remote sensing could assist us to solve environmental problems, address and mitigate risks, and deliver skillful predictions of the future behaviors of Earth systems (natural disasters, state of oceans, atmosphere, land, vegetation, food, public health, etc.). And by translating these Earth observations into decision-making, remote sensing could help mobilize actions to mitigate these effects to the benefit of the human race. A companion chapter to this is Chapter 21 on artificial intelligence and big data, as remote sensing and autonomous airborne systems rely on algorithms for, among others, navigational purposes and data interpretation.

Chapter 4: Geographic Information System: Spatial Data Structures, Models, and Case Studies, authored by Howari, F.M. and Ghrefat, H. provides a basic overview and summary of basic concepts of a Geographic Information System (GIS). Initially, the general concepts related to information organization and data structure are briefly described and related to different GIS representations of real-world geographical data. Different perspectives of information organization are discussed, which include various types of GIS spatial relationships together with the underlying information organization structure. Case studies are presented to illustrate the above and to show GIS providing valuable insight into: screening and cleaning geochemical data to reveal patterns between chemical elements and their distribution in the soil; studying land cover and vegetation changes in parts of Saudi Arabia using Landsat TM and ETM+ data for the period 1990–2013; and detecting and mapping copper mineralization zones through the use of multispectral Landsat 8 (Operational Land Imager) data.

Chapter 5: Geophysical Methods, authored by Mickus, K., reviews the use of geophysical methods in the assessment of subsurface pollution within soil, groundwater, sediment, and bedrock. To use any geophysical technique, one is required to understand a few basic steps, which include the theoretical basis and the data collection and interpretation methods. These processes, which are unique to each of the geophysical methods, are discussed and examples of the basic interpretation methods are demonstrated. Specifically, while geophysical methods do not identify the type of pollutant or determine the type of rock, soil, or sediment in the subsurface, they can define the physical properties (e.g., density, electrical resistivity, magnetic susceptibility, seismic velocity) of the subsurface environment, which can be subsequently interpreted to identify a pollutant plume and infer the nature of the soil, sediment, or bedrock. A wide variety of geophysical methods used in pollution studies, such as electrical resistivity, electromagnetics, ground penetrating radar, seismology, gravity, and magnetics, are discussed to demonstrate that depending on a problem's specific conditions, one method may prove to be more appropriate than others. For a wide class of subsurface pollution problems, electrical resistivity, electromagnetics, and ground penetrating radar techniques appear to have an advantage in detecting contaminants within groundwater as they flow through soils, sediments, and bedrock, while the other methods are useful in determining additional subsurface features (e.g., depth to bedrock, location of cavities) that can be used in estimating the extent and risk of pollution.

Chapter 6: Site Investigation, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O., Howari, F.M., Ghrefat, H. and Paleologos, E.K., explains the various phases in site investigation. Phase 1 investigations are preliminary in nature and are designed to furnish a comprehensive overview of available site information. Phase 2 investigations consist of site characterization and groundwater monitoring wells. Direct methods, such as boreholes, piezometers, and geotechnical analyses of soil samples, are discussed, while indirect methods that include aerial photography, ground penetrating radar, and earth conductivity and resistivity geophysical studies, are detailed. Issues in hydrogeochemical investigations and two case studies are presented, the first related to geoenvironmental investigations at a waste dump site, and the second involving land salinization assessment in arid lands. Field investigations at polluted sites present unique challenges in that they involve, in many cases, heterogeneous, anisotropic environments contaminated by a complex diversity of pollutants. Optimization of the monitoring systems employed involves elements such as network density, spacing, depth, and frequency of sampling, where conflicting priorities may exist in terms of installation and sampling cost, probability of detection, and remediation cost. Thus the highly variable nature of subsurface conditions makes it impossible to define general investigation strategies that would be appropriate in all cases, but careful consideration of site-specific conditions determines cost-effective field campaigns. No proper site remediation plan can be implemented unless the findings of the site and modeling investigations are used in concert with close field supervision during the remediation process. The concept of phased site investigation provides the basis for this approach to avoid remedial cost overruns. Finally, the chapter concludes with a case study that demonstrates that the integration of data at different scales, such as field and remote sensing data, can be used successfully, as in this case, for mapping saline soils.

Chapter 7: Subsurface Pollutant Transport, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O., Paleologos, E.K., and Maraqa, M.A., is concerned with the exposition of pollutant transport models by presenting initially the basic physical mechanisms by which miscible (soluble) and immiscible (nonsoluble) pollutants are transported in the subsurface environment. The physical and chemical interaction mechanisms that govern the transport of organic and inorganic pollutants in the subsurface environment are examined. Single-rate and multirate mass transfer processes for accurate evaluation of pollutant transport, fate, and remedial measures are discussed. For both saturated and unsaturated subsurface materials, the pollutant transport modeling of soluble and nonsoluble pollutants using the second postulate of irreversible thermodynamics is presented. Laboratory experimental methods used to determine sorption characteristics are examined. A variety of analytical models for transport equations are used to elaborate on the level of complexity of the problems under investigation. Over the last 50  years, the heterogeneity of the subsurface environment, which has been exhibited through several orders of variability in the parameters’ and variables' measured values, has given rise to a stochastic description of subsurface pollutant transport. In this, the parameters and variables that enter the governing transport equations are treated not as deterministic, but as stochastic variables described by their mean, variance, and covariance function, and other high-order statistical moments. Some basic issues in the stochastic modeling of pollutant transport in soils are highlighted.

Part 2: Pollution Assessment in the Atmosphere commences with Chapter 8 and concludes with Chapter 12.

Chapter 8: Indoor Air Quality: Pollutants, Health Effects, and Regulations, authored by Paleologos, K.E., Selim, M.Y.E., and Mohamed, A.M.O., summarizes some important information that relates to the characteristics, sources, and health effects of some of the most significant indoor air pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, radon, ozone, and airborne biological pollutants. Many health studies are presented and discussed in terms of their significance to the general population and to specific segments of it. Subsequently, the chapter presents methods for indoor air sampling, the recommended locations and frequency of sampling, together with the regulatory limits for specific indoor air pollutants, and the principles of active, passive, and whole-air sampling methods. The relation between outdoor and indoor air pollution is discussed and measures to reduce the entry of contaminated exterior air into an indoor environment are explained. Finally, specific building regulations of indoor air quality from a number of countries are presented, with the chapter concluding with the important topic of design practices, which moves away from the creation of sick building syndrome conditions to the concept of green building, and by extending the discussion from the health aspects of indoor air quality to a broader perspective of experiencing a feeling of well-being inside buildings.

Chapter 9: Outdoor Air Pollutants: Sources, Characteristics, and Impact on Human Health and the Environment, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O., Maraqa, M.A., Howari, F.M., and Paleologos, E.K., presents the sources and characteristics of outdoor air pollutants along with the health and environmental effects of these pollutants. Emphasis is given to monitoring air pollutants by exploring the type of monitoring programs, sampling methods, emission standards, quality assurance aspects, and methods of data analysis and display, and by presenting a case study of air monitoring in a specific country. The chapter further explores the case of climate change by looking into its causes and economic and environmental impacts.

Chapter 10: Modeling Air Pollution by Atmospheric Desert Dust, authored by Lelieveld, J., Abdelkader, M., Astitha, M., Karydis, V.A., and Klingmüller, K., discusses modeling aspects of air pollution by atmospheric desert dust. Modeling challenges include the incorporation and parametrization of small-scale meteorological conditions, such as the mobilization of dust into the atmosphere, and small-scale soil properties and saltation bombardment into the much larger grid size of models. The dust source strength depended on the grid resolution of the models, which required tuning of the parameters in emission submodels. The global ECHAM/MESSy  Atmospheric Chemistry (EMAC) atmospheric chemistry–climate model was applied, which included an advanced emission submodel that interactively accounted for meteorological conditions and high-resolution topography data derived from satellite observations. The latter appeared to be critical in representing dust emissions in the Middle East. To account for mineral cation chemistry on the particle surface area, induced by the uptake of anthropogenic pollutants, the dust scheme of the EMAC model incorporated composition data collected over the major deserts of the world.

Chapter 11: Troposphere Air Pollution—Aviation Industry's Case, authored by Bernabeo, R.A., Paleologos, E.K., and Mohamed, A.M.O., discusses the impact of CO2 emissions from a specific industry, that of aviation, together with the monitoring of CO2 by airlines, and forward-looking schemes by the aviation industry, such as the EU's Emission Trading Scheme. A technical discussion is made of how to calculate direct emissions of CO2 by aircraft and how to represent the contribution of the range of other gases, which include nitrogen oxides, contrails, and water vapor on radiative forcing. The discussion covers calculation issues relating to CO2 emissions for individual flights and national ones, as well as global inventories. It also reviews the carbon dioxide sources, both natural and anthropogenic, and the carbon cycle to provide the background for discussing the CO2 emissions from the aviation industry. It further provides some basic background on traditional nondispersive infrared absorption techniques as well as modern spectroscopic instruments such as direct absorption spectroscopy, cavity ring-down spectroscopy, cavity-enhanced off-axis-integrated cavity output spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy that are used to quantify CO2 emissions by aviation, concluding by discussing instruments mounted on satellites for monitoring greenhouse gases.

Chapter 12: Health Economics of Air Pollution, authored by Siriopoulos, C., Samitas, A., Dimitropoulos, V., Boura, A., and AlBlooshi, D.M., reports on the economic cost of public health impacts of ambient and household air pollution, with reference to the countries of the WHO European Region. It also presents a framework that can provide practical guidance on where and how to strengthen policy responses to problems related to air pollution's health impacts. Present-day economics uses a standard method for assessing the cost of mortality at the level of society: the value of statistical life, as derived from aggregating individuals' willingness to pay to secure a marginal reduction in the risk of premature death. This permits researchers and policymakers to assess the comparative magnitude of the value that societies attach to a given health impact, and of proposals to mitigate it, using money as a common metric. In contrast, a standard and commonly agreed method by which to measure the cost of morbidity is not yet available. Recent practice and available evidence provide a rationale for using an additional 10% of the overall cost of mortality as a best estimate for the additional cost of morbidity. It is estimated that in 44 WHO European Member States the societal costs are equivalent to more than 1% of the respective gross domestic product and in only four of the 48 Member States considered in the analysis do these societal costs amount to less than 1%.

Part 3: Pollution Assessment in the Hydrosphere includes Chapters 13–17.

Chapter 13: A Decision Support System for Ranking Desalination Processes in the Arabian Gulf Countries Based on Hydrodynamic Modeling Evaluation of Future Changes in Feed Water Properties, authored by Elhakeem, A., Mohamed, A.M.O., and Elshorbagy, W., discusses the development of a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model of the Arabian Gulf (AG) using Delft3D-Flow in a fully prognostic baroclinic mode. Water salinity and temperature values were obtained from observations spanning over 73 years until 1996 for the AG, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman and were used to produce seasonal evaporation and surface density spatial distribution maps for the AG to compare them with available information. The long-term impacts of climate change and coastal effluents on seawater salinity and temperature of the AG were evaluated for two scenarios of the IPCC-AR4 that account for surface warming and emissions of short-lived greenhouse gases and aerosols. Using the current capacity and production rates of coastal desalination, power, and refinery plants, two projection scenarios until the year 2080 with 30-year intervals were developed and indicated an overall increase of the salinity and temperature in the AG and a decrease of precipitation. In addition, long-term hydrodynamic simulation results for the AG response to 10 projection scenarios were used to evaluate the performance of desalination processes in terms of chemical and electrical operational costs in 2020, 2050, and 2080, considering the combined impact of climate change and coastal effluent. The performance of four desalination processes (multistage flash, multiple-effect distillation, hybrid, and reverse osmosis) were evaluated using seawater salinity and temperature results at coastal desalination plants. The changes in seawater salinity and temperature were applied in a formulated decision support matrix (salinity-DSM and temperature-DSM) to produce an adjusted desalination operational cost. The resulting adjusted costs were used to develop future desalination technology rankings based on the least negatively impacted desalination process in terms of chemical and electrical operational costs. A total of 32 plants in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and Iran were evaluated to advise on the most appropriate planning approaches at each location until 2080. The main finding of this study indicated that the impact of future ambient conditions in the Gulf on the operational cost of the considered desalination technologies is most likely to be significant under the considered factors, and considering the proposed approach the multieffect distillation technology is expected to be the most economical, robust, and least affected by changes in seawater temperature and salinity.

Chapter 14: Recent Analytical Methods for Risk Assessment of Emerging Contaminants in Ecosystems, authored by Bataineh, M., Gallampois, C.M.J., and Schymanski, E.L., describes recent developments in monitoring and toxicological studies involving emerging contaminants (ECs), which allow regulatory bodies to develop standards to protect human populations and ecosystems. ECs can be found in ecosystems because of their incomplete removal during wastewater treatments and other processes. The analysis of ECs remains challenging because it involves analysis of chemicals with widely varying properties in a broad spectrum of environmental matrices and at very low concentration levels, which require sensitive and selective analytical techniques. The focus in this chapter is on the occurrence and level of detection of five classes of ECs: pharmaceuticals and personal care products, disinfection by-products, perfluorinated compounds, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and benzotriazoles and dioxane. Sample preparation is an area where new improvements have occurred, aiming at simplification, lower costs, and greener procedures. Some novel sampling techniques for the detection of ECs in different environmental matrices are presented, such as: (1) water grab samples from inland and/or offshore; (2) large volume-solid-phase extraction for water samples, (3) passive samplers (POCIS, Chemcatchers, SR, SPMD), (4) sediment grab samples (Van Veen and/or gravity free fall corer), (5) biota grab samples with different trophic levels (sediment microorganisms, mussels, fish, and mammals), and (6) air passive samplers (inland and/or offshore).

Chapter 15: Water Quality at Jebel Ali Harbor, Dubai, UAE, authored by Maraqa, M.A., Ali, A., Rao, M.V., Hamza, W., Imran, H.D., and Al Awadi, S., presents a study of the influence of discharged treated wastewater on harbor water quality in the Jebel Ali Free Zone area of Dubai. An extensive sampling protocol was implemented to identify target pollutants, which covered all discharge locations, several harbor stations, and a reference point in the Arabian Gulf. Water temperature, pH, and total dissolved solids were found to be lower, while total suspended solids and dissolved oxygen were generally higher than minimum objective limits. Ammonia exhibited an increase at deeper depths and the inner and outer basin, while sulfide at several locations was lower than the harbor water objective limit, and phosphorus exceeded the objective limit at the east and west corner of the inner basin. Fe, Zn, and Al were higher than the values at the reference location. Total petroleum hydrocarbon levels exceeded the harbor objective limit by orders of magnitude and as to the organic matter indicators, biochemical oxygen demand and total organic carbon, these were higher near the bottom and highest in the inner and outer basins. The phytoplankton communities found in the study area matched those known along the coastal area of the Arabian Gulf, although the algae-rich harbor water might be the result of organic discharge and bacterial action. On the other hand, phytoplankton diversity and density drop over time may have resulted from seasonal variations, or the dredging of the harbor bottom's sediments. The presence of high coliform bacteria in marine water, as was the case of the inner basin, was a strong indication of discharge from untreated domestic sources.

Chapter 16: Sediment Quality at Jebel Ali Harbor, Dubai, UAE, authored by Maraqa, M.A., Ali, A., Rao, M.V., Hamza, W., Imran, H.D., and Khan, N., expands the previous chapter's study by presenting the results of sediment analysis at the same harbor to: (1) establish a sediment quality baseline for the ecosystem of the study area, and (2) propose targets for sediment quality that will sustain long-term aquatic ecosystem health. Experimental results showed that sediments at the harbor were characterized by a fine texture containing clay and silt, which was different than what was found at a reference location in the Arabian Gulf. Sulfide, phosphorus, and total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) levels were higher in inner and outer basin sediments than in the harbor's main channel. Many metals were at higher levels in the harbor sediments than in those at the reference location. Levels of chromium, copper, and zinc associated with sediments are of environmental concern with all these metals' harbor levels exhibiting serious concerns to aquatic life. Lead was found to potentially represent a biologically adverse effect at parts of the harbor, while TPH and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon levels were higher than at the reference station and represented a biological risk in parts of the harbor.

Chapter 17: Inland Desalination: Techniques, Brine Management, and Environmental Concerns, authored by Khan, Q., Maraqa, M.A., and Mohamed, A.M.O., reviews the available desalination techniques, brine management, and environmental impact of land-based desalination plants. The main conventional desalination technologies of multistage flash, multiple-effect distillation, and reverse osmosis are detailed and while dominating the market, there exist some emerging technologies with the potential for full-scale inland desalination. Regardless of the technology used, several environmental concerns associated with inland desalination exist. The reject brine from desalination plants can alter the physical and chemical properties of soils and may also find its way to groundwater, degrading it and making it inappropriate for drinking or irrigation. While there have been some efforts directed for better management of the brine, more work needs to be done from a research and practical point of view. Heavy energy consumption by desalination plants is responsible for greenhouse gas generation, making improvement and optimization of existing processes, or shifting to new technologies that employ renewable energy resources in the desalination process, a necessary condition for the continuation of desalination as a vital source of fresh water in desert regions.

Finally, the last part of this book, Part 4: Emerging Issues in Environmental Pollution Assessment, starts with Chapter 18 and concludes with Chapter 22.

Chapter 18: Pollution Assessment of Nanomaterials, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O., Rodrigues, V.G.S., and Paleologos, K.E., summarizes some of the recent scientific information on emerging nanomaterials and highlights the potential and the threat that they pose to human health and the environment. Widespread application of nanotechnology in a variety of industrial applications has spearheaded important developments, but has also created new waste materials of unknown behavior in the environment, which could potentially impact ecosystems and human health. Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) enter the environment via different exposure routes, which include solid and liquid waste from domestic sources and industrial activities, accidental spillages, and atmospheric emissions. All these exposure pathways allow ENMs to disperse through the environment. ENM fate and transport in the environment are largely dependent on material properties such as surface chemistry, particle size, and biological and abiotic processes in environmental media. Depending on these properties, ENMs may stay in suspension as individual particles and aggregate, dissolve, or react with other materials. To date, little is known about the behavior of ENMs in the environment and the dominant physical and chemical factors that affect their movement and their toxicological effects once they enter a living organism. They also pose, because of their size and properties, unique challenges in establishing appropriate biomarkers and techniques and instruments to detect and monitor them, etc. Therefore health, safety, and environmental management of nanotechnology are important aspects to mitigate risks, improve the benefits, and transform opportunities into technological development in, among others, medical applications, flexible and communication devices, portable energy, food conservation, agriculture productivity, and pest control.

Chapter 19: Noise Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health and the Environment, authored by Mohamed, A.M.O., Paleologos, E.K., and Howari, F.M., addresses the sources, health impacts, risk assessment, and mitigation measures of noise pollution. Noise pollution is recognized as a major problem for the quality of life in urban areas, especially since its increase as a result of car numbers and an expansion to almost 24-h activities in cities. Economic and population growth has increased the tendency toward noise generation. A major challenge is the quantification of the noise effects on the population. Noise is considered a growing health threat, and if left unchecked it could result to hazardous conditions. The WHO estimates that 10% of the world population is exposed to sound pressure levels that could potentially cause noise-induced hearing loss. In the United States, it is estimated that about 10 million people have already suffered irreversible hearing damage from noise, and 30–50 million people are exposed daily to hazardous noise levels. Epidemiological studies have found that cardiovascular diseases are consistently correlated with exposure to environmental noise. Detailed studies to evaluate the extent of potential health effects of noise exposure are needed that would assist national and local governments to understand the health impacts of environmental noise and help them develop policy and management strategies and action plans for noise control.

Chapter 20: Assessment of Radiation Pollution from Nuclear Power Plants, authored by Iqbal, J., Howari, F.M., Mohamed, A.M.O., and Paleologos, E.K., reviews the challenges that nuclear energy must overcome to remain part of a sustainable energy mix. Different types of radioactive waste pollution from nuclear power plants, environmental and health effects, and nuclear regulations in different countries are discussed. Nuclear power plants raise issues of catastrophic failure, which has met with anxiety from the public, and of an extremely high cost that is not restricted to operation, but expands also to nuclear waste disposal and the need to find and construct appropriate repository sites capable of providing isolation from human populations for thousands of years. Associated with both nuclear plants and repository sites are safety and security measures and costs that extend well into the future. Eventually, given that no absolute guarantee can ever be made about the safety of nuclear power plants or waste repositories, especially for time horizons beyond any meaningful prediction, the use of nuclear energy boils down to a decision by societies of what level of risk is acceptable to them.

Chapter 21: Artificial Intelligence and Data Analytics for Geosciences and Remote Sensing: Theory and Application, authored by Al-Obeidat, F., Marir, F., Howari, F.M., Mohamed, A.M.O., and Banerjee, N., presents two case studies to address the limitation of conventional statistics in dealing with hyperspectral data of satellite and airborne images. The first case study presents the development of an artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics algorithm capable of classifying hyperspectral data to support remote sensing, and Geographic Information System researchers to understand and predict changes in natural Earth processes. The new classification algorithm is based on a fuzzy approach combining decision tree classifiers with fuzzy multiple-criteria decision analysis classifiers. The second case study presents the development of an AI tool that extracts features from the hyperspectral data to transform a 2D satellite and airborne image into a pseudo-3D image to enhance edge contrast and produce multidirectional sun-shaded images and their edges. Such 3D images are very useful in supporting the discovery and mining of valuable minerals or other geological materials from ores, lodes, veins, seams, and reef or placer deposits, and overall to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of mineral exploration.

Chapter 22: Lifecycle Assessment of Aquaponics, authored by Kamareddine, L.A. and Maraqa, M.A., provides a critical review regarding the environmental, economic, and social impacts of aquaponics, along with evaluating the numerous tools to assess aquaponics, and discussing the challenges that face these systems. The most common method used to assess sustainability is by conducting a lifecycle assessment in which all inputs and outputs are collected, and the cost of each item is provided. Previous studies showed that different geographic locations and climates highly affect the design and operating costs, as well as the environmental and economic sustainability, of aquaponic systems. The authors highlight the need for additional studies under different climate conditions and geographical locations to compare aquaponics with aquaculture, hydroponics, and conventional agriculture.

Environmental problems have entered not only the scientific, but also the daily discourse since the second half of the 20th century. The extent of the problems is such that perhaps the word pollution indicates the effects and potential impact of environmental issues. The meaning of the word itself has become so broad as to be capable of being attached and referred to as: air pollution, river pollution, groundwater pollution, marine water pollution, soil pollution, solid waste pollution, liquid waste pollution, noise pollution, and light pollution, among others. Assessing the impact of all these diverse pollution events in every potential medium, air, water, and soil, is a tall task that cannot be met in a comprehensive way by any single book. The editors of this work are aware of these limitations, but hope that this book, which was developed by a select group of scientists and researchers, will provide a view of environmental problems that is not limited to a particular scientific field, and will constitute a valuable demonstration of the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature and need for pollution assessments, which is not realized so broadly, outside the academic community.

A.M.O. Mohamed

E.K. Paleologos

F.M. Howari

Part I

Geosphere pollution assessment

Outline

Chapter 1. Sustainable pollution assessment practices

Chapter 2. Risk analysis and management

Chapter 3. Environmental applications of remote sensing

Chapter 4. Geographic information system: spatial data structures, models, and case studies

Chapter 5. Geophysical methods

Chapter 6. Site investigation

Chapter 7. Subsurface pollutant transport

Chapter 1: Sustainable pollution assessment practices

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed¹,², and Evan K. Paleologos³     ¹Uberbinder, Inc., Seattle, WA, United States     ²EX Scientific Consultants, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates     ³College of Engineering, Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Abstract

This chapter focuses on a global outlook on environmental problems, an assessment of pollution in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere from the viewpoint of sustainable development, and remedial measures to restore the environment. In addition, worldwide case studies in relation to the extensive use of natural systems, the degradation and deterioration of the environment owing to uncontrolled generation of solid and liquid waste, air and water pollutants, and the abolition of flora and fauna are discussed. Scientifically sound sustainable solutions that contribute to improving human health and the environment are highlighted.

This chapter also discusses issues related to global climate change, air, soil, and groundwater pollution, the disposal of plastic debris in rivers and oceans, the decrease in wildlife species, and the generation of large quantities of waste from industrial activities such as agriculture, food processing, medicine, oil and gas, energy, manufacturing processes, and everyday products. National and international conventions and legislation to combat these problems are discussed.

Keywords

Atmosphere; Biosphere; Climate change; Environmental problems in developing countries; Environmental restoration; Geosphere; Global warming; Groundwater; Heavy metals; Hydrosphere; Land environment; Marine and freshwater pollution; Natural resources; Oil spills; Policy; Pollutants; Soil; Solid and hazardous wastes; Surface water; Sustainable development

1.1. Introduction

Over the past few  decades, many international organizations have increased attention to the problems of excessive natural resource use and reduction, waste generation and buildup, and the impact of pollution on human health and the environment. Because the industrial sectors are major sources of generation of these problems, they are faced with increased rigorous environmental laws and regulations by various environmental regulatory agencies, and considerable pressure and lawsuits from public and private groups. Therefore, industries are continually challenged throughout the phases of a project life cycle. Increasingly, municipalities and other urban centers' responsible bodies and agencies are looking into the problem of abandoned industrial buildings' spaces, which then become a source of environmental and social degradation (De Sousa, 2002).

Environmental considerations are advocated in the Code of Ethics of Professional Societies, as in the American Institute of Architects' 2012 Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct (AIA, 2012), in which a separate article (Canon VI), entitled Obligations to the Environment, details the professional obligations for protecting the environment by mandating that:

• Members should promote sustainable design and development principles in their professional activities.

• E.S. 6.1 Sustainable Design: In performing design work, Members should be environmentally responsible and advocate sustainable building and site design.

• E.S. 6.2 Sustainable Development (SusDev): In performing professional services, Members should advocate the design, construction, and operation of sustainable buildings and communities.

• E.S. 6.3 Sustainable Practices: Members should use sustainable practices within their firms and professional organizations, and they should encourage their clients to do the same.

To achieve sustainability in engineering projects, we need to look past the usual focus on economics, duration, quality, and performance to include the following goals (Mohamed and Paleologos, 2018):

a. Natural environment protection, conservation, or rehabilitation,

b. Waste minimization and recycling, and safe storage and disposal of waste,

c. Energy conservation and promotion of renewable resource technologies and practices,

d. Natural resources conservation and reuse, and

e. Environmental impact assessments, which, apart from protection of the water, air, and soil, may include assessments of the effects on the landscape and the community and the use of environmentally friendly, new industrial or commercial designs and processes, and even aesthetic and noise considerations.

Notably, in many countries, the preceding goals are merged within the engineering approaches and methods at every phase of project implementation. However, stakeholders such as owners, planners, designers, vendors, suppliers, constructors, users, and operators are faced with a challenging number of tasks for achieving SusDev: (a) limited resources related to effectiveness and efficiency of project delivery; (b) a lack of tools, resources, mechanisms, and incentives to help continue with projects; (c) a lack of awareness, potential impact, and implications of newly adopted environmental standards, policies, and regulations; (d) a lack of fully appreciating potential opportunities and benefits introduced by adopting SusDev solution to its projects; and (e) a lack of developing reliable quantitative measures and or indicators to be able to evaluate the actual benefits and associated costs.

In achieving SusDev, industries would take an aggressive role to implement short- and long-term solutions for the use of recyclable materials and available limited resources. All entities involved in the process would benefit from implementing SusDev to projects, as briefly described subsequently (Mohamed and Paleologos, 2018):

a. Owners: They are the direct beneficiary of the economic benefits of implementing innovative strategies to finance and manage resources in adopting SusDev agenda. As an example, clear incentives are provided in the Estidama (the Arabic word for sustainability) regulations set forth by the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

b. Designers and constructors: Their activities for sustainable design and construction could meaningfully enhance the quality of the environment and contribute positively to the overall outcomes of projects.

c. Vendors and suppliers: They would have robust incentives to supply recyclable materials, energy-efficient materials, products, and systems, and overall SusDev technologies.

This chapter discusses the SusDev concept, the environmental ecosystems, and some of the major global environmental problems we are currently facing, their interrelations and their impact on the practice of geo-environmental engineers, as well as the development of a general framework for assessing pollutants from the SusDev viewpoint.

1.2. Sustainable development concept

The SusDev concept suggests a new intelligent approach that resolves our universal determination to improve human health, well-being, and the environment within the existing ecosystem's boundaries. This would require innovative solutions to improve human health and the environment without imposing additional degradation on the environment or affecting current human well-being or future generations. The first official use of the term SusDev appeared in the 1987 landmark report Our Common Future (UN, 1987) by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), which defined SusDev as Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This report is also known as the Brundtland report, after Norwegian Prime Minister Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland, who chaired the 1983 United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development and commissioned the report (Fig. 1.1).

SusDev consists of economic development, social equity, and environmental protection. How to implement and attain a balance among these three parts remains unclear (Drexhage and Murphy, 2010). The Brundtland report provided the momentum for the 1992 Rio Earth Summit and the Rio Declaration and Development, which contained 27 principles of SusDev.

Figure 1.1  Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland, honored during the International Water/World Future Energy/EcoWaste Summit and Exhibition at Abu Dhabi, Jan. 18–21, 2016. 

Photo by E.K. Paleologos.

• Principle 3 reaffirmed that The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.

• Principle 4 asserted environmental protection as an essential part of SusDev: In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

Agenda 21 was also the outcome of the Rio Declaration" and its 40 Chapters on the means of implementing social, economic, and environmental components of sustainability.

After Rio, several international conferences were held, but as stated in the 2002 United Nations Economic and Social Council report (2002), progress toward reaching the goals set at Rio has been slower than anticipated. Discussion on SusDev has been energized by the emphasis on climate change and the interrelation between these issues.

Although the precise meaning of SusDev remains unclear beyond a generation’s obligation not to impact on the future of the next generations, most explanations of the term sustainable refer to (National Science and Technology Council, 1994) the viability of natural resources and ecosystems over time, and to the improvement of the living conditions of the world's poorest and of economic development that is inclusive of all countries and people.

SusDev can be defined as the measure of the level of integration and balance between social, environmental and economic realities and constraints that are changing with time. Because SusDev is a lively approach, it requires flexibility and readiness to modify solution measures with respect to anticipated environmental changes, human desires, and progress in technology. Therefore, one would accept that today's actions that contribute to SusDevs may be thought damaging tomorrow if the setting has changed.

As reported by Mohamed and Paleologos (2018), over time, we have to ensure SusDevs by preserving a dynamic balance between the rapidly increasing human population and: (a) the demands, (b) the ability of the physical environment to retain the wastes generated, as a result of human activities, (c) the changing opportunities due to new knowledge development and technological advances, and (d) the values, ambitions and organizations that channel human behavior. Similarly, Pirages (1994) stated, visions of a sustainable world must naturally change in response to shifts in any part of this