Renewable-Energy-Driven Future: Technologies, Modelling, Applications, Sustainability and Policies

China

Part I

Technologies

Outline

Chapter 1 Solar energy technologies: principles and applications

Chapter 2 Bioenergy for better sustainability: technologies, challenges and prospect

Chapter 3 Organic Rankine cycle driven by geothermal heat source: life cycle techno-economic–environmental analysis

Chapter 4 Renewable energy based trigeneration systems—technologies, challenges and opportunities

Chapter 5 Integrated power transmission and distribution systems

Chapter 1

Solar energy technologies: principles and applications

D. Sakthivadivel¹, K. Balaji¹, D. Dsilva Winfred Rufuss¹, S. Iniyan² and L. Suganthi²,    ¹1Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India,    ²2College of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract

In the past, attention has been created to use solar energy due to increased environmental pollution. Solar energy utilization through photovoltaic (PV) and thermal technologies is required to replace the conventional use of fossil fuels across the globe. Different types of solar PV (SPV) technologies utilizing the photons as input are driving the life of people. On the other hand, utilizing the solar heat for various applications is categorized as the solar thermal application which includes desalination, heating, cooling, cooking and power generation. Hence the objective of this work is to discuss the fundamentals, recent advancements and applications of different solar utilization technologies. The chapter is categorized into two major sections namely solar PV techniques and solar thermal techniques. In the first section SPV techniques, the principle, operation and recent advancements in the SPV system have been covered. In the second section solar thermal techniques, the principle, construction, working mechanism and current state of the art in recent research on solar collectors, solar cooling techniques, solar pond, solar cooking techniques and solar desalination have been addressed.

Keywords

PV technologies; solar collectors; solar cooling technologies; solar pond; solar cooking; solar desalination

Chapter Outline

Outline

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Photovoltaic technologies 5

1.2.1 Solar photovoltaic principles 6

1.2.2 Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic technologies 11

1.2.3 Applications of solar cells 18

1.3 Solar thermal collectors 18

1.3.1 Stationary collectors 20

1.3.2 Tracking concentrating collectors 21

1.4 Solar cooling technologies 23

1.4.1 Solar photovoltaic powered cooling system 25

1.4.2 Solar thermal powered cooling system 28

1.5 Solar pond 32

1.6 Solar cooking 33

1.7 Solar desalination 34

1.7.1 Indirect type desalination 34

1.7.2 Direct type desalination 37

Nomenclature 38

References 39

1.1 Introduction

The Sun is the primary source of sustenance for all living and nonliving things on this planet earth. Solar energy is the solitary renewable energy source with immense potential of yearly global insolation at 5600 ZJ [1], as compared to other sources such as biomass and wind. The Sun is a large, radiant spherical unit of hot gas which is composed of hydrogen (~70%), helium (~28%) and remaining are carbon (C), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) up to 1.5% and the other gases of 0.5% such as neon (Ne), iron (Fe), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S). The process of fusion helps to power the Sun and the stars. When two atoms of hydrogen join together or in other words fuse, they form an atom of helium, while in the process, converting the mass of hydrogen to energy. The Sun is made up of gaseous molecules and emits the energy in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also known as radiation. The radiation is composed of two different forms of energy, namely temperature and photons. EM waves are a form of energy that promulgates as both electrical and magnetic waves propagating in energy packets called photons. The spectrums of EM radiation with different waves are based on their wavelengths (λ) and frequency (ʋ). Some of the EM spectrums are based on its wavelengths which include cosmic rays, x-rays, ultraviolet (UV) rays, visible light, infrared (IR) rays, micro and radio waves. The photon energy of EM radiation is denoted by an electron volt (eV), where 1 eV is defined as the energy attained by an electron exited with a potential difference of 1 volt (V) [2].

The insolation of radiation at any location on the earth specified in W/m² is not consistent but varies with the time of a day, latitude and season of a year. According to world radiation centre the intensity of solar radiation received outside of the atmosphere is 1367 W/m² and is known as solar constant. Most of the solar energy is neither absorbed nor reflected back by the atmospheric layer before it is received on the earth’s surface through the amount of atmosphere called air mass (AM) which depends on the geographical site and the time of day and year. The AM value is zero for extraterrestrial radiations or solar constant and AM is one for the radiation normal to any surface or the Sun is at zenith (the shortest path to the surface). As per the industrial standards photovoltaic (PV) panels are tested at AM of 1.5 which is 50% longer than AM of 1. The solar spectrum epitomizes the intensity of solar radiation at each wavelength for any particular AM. Fig. 1.1 shows the solar spectrum at AM of 0 and AM of 1.5.

Figure 1.1 Spectral properties of solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere.

The PV system is one type of a direct energy conversion device that converts solar energy particularly photons of energy into electricity through photoelectric effect as devised by Edmund Becquerel in the year 1839. As such, PV electricity is referred to as solar electric energy to differentiate it from thermal energy that uses solar radiation in the form of heat to harvest electricity through indirect energy conversion techniques. All over the world PV manufacturing industry fabricate materials that can transform solar radiation into electricity at wavelengths with the supreme intensity to make the best use of conversion efficiency. The total quantity of solar energy received on any specific location greatly depends on latitude and climatic conditions. In general the equator area gets the maximum annual solar energy whereas the polar region receives the minimum. Also the amount of incident irradiance merely depends on the tilt angle (β) of the PV panel.

In the following section the basic physics of solar electricity generation and crystalline technologies will be discussed, followed by different types of PV systems with its recent advancements. However, recent technologies like perovskite and quantum dot technologies are outlined as a separate section in detail.

1.2 Photovoltaic technologies

The world’s first invention of the silicon solar cell with a recorded efficiency of approximately 6% was developed by the Bell Laboratory scientists’ Pearson, Chapin and Fuller in the year 1954 and patented in 1957 [3,4]. During the initial period, that is during the 1960s’ and 1970s’, more amount of energy was needed to fabricate a solar cell than it could ever produce in the course of its lifespan. In subsequent years drastic enhancements have been taking place in the efficiencies and manufacturing methods by using different materials. However, silicon continues to rule the solar PV (SPV) market and power the electronics industry due to its abundant availability. At present silicon cells are having conversion efficiencies of 27.6% [5] as compared to an efficiency of 13% in the mid of 1970s’. Scientists across the globe have developed thin-film materials such as amalgamation of cadmium (Cd), indium (In), gallium (Ga), tellurium (Te), copper (Cu) to further curb the cost of silicon-based PV cells. These materials are less expensive to fabricate than pure silicon. Thin-film technology has achieved 20.3% efficiency, which is very high as compared to Si crystalline solar cells. At present the most efficient solar cells are four junction cells. As the name implies, it consists of four different layers of PV material that are properly stacked to convert four sections of solar radiation spectrum.

The different types of SPV cells manufactured so far can be categorized into four authentic generations as depicted in Fig. 1.2 [6].

Figure 1.2 Generations of solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies.

The modest and generally used flat module in household and streetlight applications for electricity generation is p–n junction flat module. This p–n junction is mostly made up of Si-based semiconductor materials combined together and compacted in a glass cover to isolate it from the environmental effects bounded with a metal casing. These types of direct sunlight to electricity-generating devices are simple nonconcentrating crystalline Si solar cells, whereas concentrating PV (CPV) cells are making use of reflectors such as concentrating thermal collectors with high reflectivity mirrors, acrylic made lenses (linear Fresnel or Convex) to focus all the solar radiation falling directly to a point or a line of PV cells.

On the other hand solar CPV technology is one of the emerging technologies wherein the solar light is made to focus 1000 times onto the p–n junction cells. In concentrated sunlight conditions, multijunction solar cells such as GaInP, GaAs and Ge have proven efficiencies of 44.4% whereas the Si solar cells have efficiencies ranging between 22.8% and 26.1% [5]. The CPV technology can be classified into the following two: low CPV (LCPV) cells and high CPV (HCPV) cells. LCPV technologies use low concentrated light and hence any type of PV cell can be used, whereas, for HCPV technologies, triple-junction silicon solar cells having high temperature withstanding capacity alone can be used [7]. The highest efficiency reported from Spectro lab for a 5-junction non-concentrator cell has been 38.8% and the highest efficiency reported for concentrating cells from Fraunhofer, Institute for Solar Energy has been 46.0% [7]. Hence one-half of the cost of electricity can be reduced for the locations having a higher intensity. A most important drawback of these CPV technologies is its dual-axis tracking systems. These systems are to be directed towards the Sun throughout the day to extract the maximum amount of solar radiation. Also the CPV system needs periodic cell cooling to achieve maximum operating efficiency. Hence these setbacks distress the usage of CPV systems for large electricity production plants.

1.2.1 Solar photovoltaic principles

The working principle of solar PV (SPV) cells is based on the PV or photoelectric effect for semiconductor materials. These formulate that, in certain circumstances, an electron (e−) of a semiconductor material can absorb an energy packet known as photon. The energy content possessed in the photon is given by the following equation:

(1.1)

When the solar radiation is incident on an effective surface area of a solar cell, the photons whose energy level is equal to or greater, then the band gap energy (Eg) of the semiconductor material gets absorbed. A very minimum amount of photons are redirected back from the exposed surface of the SPV cell. A very few photons are not able to penetrate as they are gridlocked from reaching the crystal layer by the metal grid that is used on the top surface of the semiconductor material to collect the electric current produced during the operation. Some photon energy which is less than "Eg" passes through the solar cell and gets dissipated as heat. Only when a photon of light with a suitable amount of energy enters a semiconductor solar cell near the p–n junction and approaches one of the silicon atoms, the following results occur subsequently:

• Excitation of e− from valance band to the conduction band by leaving behind a hole called electron-hole pair (EHP) or generation.

• The generated carriers tend to move to the layer where it performs as a majority carrier, which means the e− tends to drift to the layer of n-type material, while the hole has a tendency to move towards the layer of p-type material.

• The e− can be absorbed by the current micro-grids on the front surface of the cell to produce an electric current in the external closed circuit and then return to the layer of p-type material.

• It repeatedly recombines with the hole in the layer of p-type material called recombination.

A semiconductor is a crystalline material in the solid phase, in which valence e− and conduction e− are permissible only in some energy values, with a forbidden gap of energies between both conduction and valance band called energy gap (Eg). Light energy having Eg greater than eV of energy possessed (usually between 0.5 and 5 eV) can excite the e−. The electrons in the outermost orbitals are at higher energy levels and are almost free to move in the orbitals called conduction electrons and the materials are known as conductors. On the other hand, all the electrons are tightly packed through chemical bonds between atoms in the orbitals, so all of them are called valence electrons and the material is an insulator. The number of electrons in the conduction band can be decided by the temperature and the energy content in solar radiation of a material called semiconductors. A pure Si-based semiconductor material at 0K acts as an insulator. The performance of the semiconductor materials can be decided by the level of doping, dopant materials and its type, direct or indirect gap energy type, intrinsic and extrinsic properties of the materials.

Silicon (Si)-based semiconductor is used for the manufacturing of solar cells as Si is available abundantly in nature in the form of Quartz or sand (SiO2). The atomic structure of Si has four valence electrons in the outermost orbitals sharing with the nearest atoms by covalent bonds. Doping is a process of adding a foreign element to make this pure Si material into p-type or n-type materials for the formation of p–n junction. Replacing of an atom in the crystalline Si structure with III-group element Boron (B) or V-group element Phosphorus (P) having three and five electrons in the outermost orbitals, respectively. When a layer with majority holes and minority e− (in p-type) is joined by a layer with a majority of conducting e− and minority holes (in n-type), it forms the junction in which free e− are combined with holes through the loss of energy. This junction is called the depletion region because all the bonds in this region are completely occupied and there is no existence of free electrons for electricity.

Practically there are a many numbers of e− in the p-type layer than holes, due to the fact that the e− is in the conduction band of n-type layer. Hence there is a negatively charged portion in the p-type layer and a positively charged zone in the n-type layer. Eventually an electric field is exhibited in this zone which causes the voltage or potential difference across the junction of two layers. This p–n junction is otherwise termed to be naturally polarized. Hence this inhibits free electrons from the n-type layer crossing to holes in the p-type layer, because they would have to overcome the barrier potential.

The significant parameters that characterize a cell are shown in this I–V curve (Fig. 1.3). They are the short-circuit current (ISC), the open-circuit voltage (VOC), the maximum power point current (IM), the maximum power point voltage (VM) and the fill factor (FF).

Figure 1.3 I–V characteristics of a solar cell.

1.2.1.1 Power of a solar cell

The electrical power that can be extracted from a solar cell is directly proportional to its cell area (Acell) and the intensity of solar radiation (IT) that hits the effective surface area. It is denoted in Wp (Watt peak), tested under standard test conditions includes global irradiation of 1000 W/m², AM of 1.5 and cell operating temperature of 25°C.

1.2.1.2 Fill factor

The FF is the ratio between the maximum power or peak power (product of maximum voltage and current) from the solar cell and the product of the VOC and ISC. The following equation represents the FF:

(1.2)

From Fig. 1.3 the FF is a measure of the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in the I–V curve. Higher voltage will result in a higher possible FF. For a perfect cell FF is equal to 1. However, parasitic resistance reduces FF and in real devices 0.7Rs) and the largest shunt resistance (Rsh), and its value is higher than 0.7 for good solar cells.

1.2.1.3 Conversion efficiency

Conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio of the maximum power output (Pm) delivered by the PV cell to the input power (Pin) received at a given cell operating temperature T.

(1.3)

(1.4)

When a solar module is not exposed to the Sun or light source, it acts like a power electronic diode made up of Si-based p–n junction and follows the ideal diode equation. On the other hand, when a solar module is illuminated it yields an electric photo-generated load current (IL), which passes through the external circuit just opposite to the direction of the diode current (ID). Eventually the output current (I) is equal to the difference between IL and the diode current ID. The whole process is illustrated in an equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell.

Commercial PV cells are made up of silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), copper indium diselenide (CIS), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and others. The proper generation of electricity through the PV effect in the PV cells is enabled only when there is an appropriate form of p–n junction or its equivalent, such as a Schottky diode junction. Therefore the empathetic approach for the understanding of p–n junction is the core of how a PV cell transforms solar radiation into electricity. The p–n junction comprises of a layer of n-type material combined to a layer of p-type, with a continuous Si crystal structure across the junction. Layers that contain an additional number of free e− are known as n-layer and the layer which has a huge number of free holes is called p-layer. Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the bond between a hole (p) and electron (n) densities at any selected point in the material, is given by

(1.5)

The electrons in the n-layer and holes in the p-layer are under the concept of arbitrary diffusion in the Si crystalline structure. Hence each (electrons or holes) have a tendency to diffuse from a high concentration region to a low concentration region, according to Fick’s law. The barrier potential or concentration gradient is created across the junction of p-type and n-type materials due to the massive concentration differences. Eventually the e− in the n-layer tend to diffuse across the junction into the p-layer and the holes in the p-layer diffuse across the junction into the n-layer, as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5 The drift and diffusion of an electron and hole across the p–n junction.

The barrier junction is electrically neutral before the formation of the junction as both the layers are neutral. Consequently as e− diffuse to the p-layer crossing junction, they leave behind positively charged holes that are in the covalent bond with the Si lattice. Likewise, the holes diffuse to the n-layer, they leave behind a negatively charged hole-donor ions that are in the covalent bond with the Si lattice. These diffusions of e− and holes across the junction produce a potential difference or electric field (E) across the junction as shown in Fig. 1.5.

This field exerts forces on both the charged particles as per the relation F=q×E. This force ‘F’ causes the e− and hole to drift in opposite sides as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. The holes drift from the n-layer to the p-layer through the junction in the same direction of the electric field. The e− drifts from the p-layer to the n-layer through the junction in the direction opposite the field. Carrying out an analysis of e− and hole flow across the junction eventually leads to the formation of the familiar diode equation.

(1.6)

This can also model the V–I characteristic of the PV cell under illumination conditions, which is shown in Fig. 1.3.

If there is no presence of external influences other than temperature, the flows of holes and the e− are equal in both directions, resulting in zero net flow across the junction. This is called the law of detailed balance, which is consistent with Kirchoff’s current law. Important statements from Gauss’s law are the need for electric field lines to instigate at the positive charges and lay off at the negative charges. Hence the number of positive charges from n-side must be equal to the number of negative charges from the p-side [8].

1.2.2 Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic technologies

1.2.2.1 Perovskite solar cells

The general meaning of Perovskite is the crystal structure of calcium titanate (CaTiO3), discovered in the year 1839 by the German mineralogist Gustav Rose and was entitled by the Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski. These materials use the most abundant elements on the earth, have low formation energies for deposition and are well-suited for bulk manufacturing techniques. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) in recent times have been completely an emerging technology with environmentally realistic renewable energy alternatives to existing solar cell technologies for solving global contests in the area of power generation and climate change [9,10]. The aforementioned characteristics make the PSCs a best suit for terawatt (TW) power productions with low unit electricity generation costs. The performances of the PSCs are more comparable with that of the other thin-film technologies and enhancements in laboratory scale. PSC stability has made megawatt scale-up of this solar cell technology a deep area of research focus [11].

PSCs comprises of an active perovskite layer sandwiched between an electron transporting layer (ETL) and a hole transporting layer (HTL). If the light penetrated and passed through ETL, another layer called transparent conducting layer is placed in front of ETL called n–i–p and p–i–n structure. There are two basic structures namely mesoscopic and planar structures based on the different configurations such as n–i–p and p–i–n. The mesoscopic structure usually has an n–i–p configuration and the planar structures are further categorized into two sub-configurations namely n–i–p planar and p–i–n planar [12]. The n–i–p structure usually involves placing the perovskite material onto a transparent substrate sheltered with a thin layer of TiO2 and mesoporous TiO2 or Al2O3 (optional) framework layer [13]. The p–i–n structure encompasses depositing the perovskite material onto a transparent substrates which are enclosed with an HTL; for example poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonic acid (PEDOT:PSS) [14,15]. There are different types of PSC manufacturing methodologies established and they fall under four main categories such as one-step, two-step, vapour-assisted solution method and thermal vapour deposition with a maximum PCE of 22.1% (current record), 20.26%, 16.48% and 17.6%, respectively. Jung et al. [16] have studied P3HT without dopant as a hole-transport material using a wide-bandgap halide and found an operating efficiency of 22.7%.

With an increase in efficiency up to 28% during the preceding years, hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide PSCs have become an important area of research for many scientists, academicians and researchers. The advantages of PSCs like long carrier diffusion lengths, largely adjustable bandgap methylammonium lead halides (MALHs) with a chemical formula of CH3NH3PbX3 which has a bandgap from 1.5 to 2.3 eV [17] and high light absorption coefficient (>10⁴ per cm) along with the low-cost manufacturing techniques with the better efficiency creates PSCs comparable with Silicon (Si)-based solar cells, CdTe [18] and copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS). The drawbacks such as device instability [19,20] arising due to the environmental factors namely thermal behaviour, illumination, ambient humidity [21], J-V hysteresis [22], lead toxicity, UV light and oxygen seems to be the major problems that inhibit their further enhancement and the commercialization of PSCs. The instability with fluctuating temperature and pressure gains the superfluous anxieties for cell manufacturing. The future works such as elemental altering, tight compact sealing of the system and additional blocking layer inside the system might solve these encountered complications but further solidity tests under different tough environments are intensely required to obtain the expected mark in near future.

1.2.2.2 Other emerging photovoltaic technologies

The viable contenders for a commercial application are CdTe (22.1%) and Cu (In, Ga)Se2 (CIGS) (23.4%) thin-film solar cell technologies that are as efficient as Si for below 100× applications. In addition to this for space/lunar mission applications, III–V multijunction SPV with higher efficiencies (~44.4%) with a concentrator and (~37.9%) without concentrator is at superior regardless of higher costs. Substantial progress in research and development (R&D) and the status for each of these technologies provides confidence that 1 TW of power (approximately 3% of universal demand) will be produced by SPV systems in the near future (2020–30).

The Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb) are not environmentally friendly materials, and Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) and Telluride (Te) are not found in abundance on the earth. Thus what could be the possible PV solar materials that are emerging from R&D which are desirable to be expanded using the set of incumbent solar cell technologies. The important three explicit technologies of such emerging PV materials are discussed in detail in the following sections which include CdTe, CIGS and dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC).

1.2.2.3 Cadmium telluride

CdTe is a single junction direct-bandgap solar cell with a bandgap of 1.45 eV and the II–VI group elements in a chemical table referred to as metal chalcogenides with the maximum laboratory conversion efficiencies of 22.1% [23]. The manufacturing of CdTe can be achieved through three different possible ways. The layers of CdTe thin-film cells are manufactured by a compound deposition process at temperatures greater than 400°C that persist less than two and a half hours, as shown in Fig. 1.6. These structures consist of a p-type CdTe absorber layer combined with n-type CdS window layer to form a heterojunction intermixed interface region. The cadmium sulphide (CdS) layer is vapour-deposited onto a transparent conductive oxide (TCO), a front contact supported by a heat-treated glass. Subsequently the CdTe layer is placed on the CdS layer. CdTe material is naturally stable under the spectrum of solar radiation due to its bonding strength which is much higher than the energy of a photon in the solar spectrum. At this stage laser cut permitted through these layers to make the insulator into the module. Later quite a few cuts are made using the laser only for the CdS and CdTe layers, to enable positive (+) rear contact by sputter deposition. Eventually encapsulation is made using tempered rear glass to protect it from the environmental conditions. It is chemically stable with a robust nature makes them attractive even though they occur sporadically (CdTe).

Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cell illustrates the different layers and its nomenclature.

1.2.2.4 Copper indium gallium selenide

The closest profit-making contestants for global power applications are CdTe and CIGS thin-film solar cell technologies that are much efficient but use approximately 100× less absorber material when compared with Si. Multiple semiconductors from the I–III–VI2 column of the periodic table, such as copper indium diselenide (CIS) and copper–gallium–diselenide (CGS) are combined called copper–indium–gallium diselenide (CIGS) with a general formula of Cu(InxGa1-x)Se2. It is in the form of chalcopyrite due to its tetragonal crystal structure synthesized by preparing a molten mixture containing the desired amount of each element. CIGS can be made in a wide range of configurations and their equivalent phase diagrams have been extensively investigated worldwide.

The bandgap of CIGS can be tuneable by varying the ratios between In:Ga and Se:S to attain 1.0–1.7 eV depending upon the fraction of the elements in the composite [24,25] and the existing efficient cells are manufactured with a bandgap in the range of 1.20–1.25 eV. Consequent enhancements in the efficiency were accomplished later and with the best ever efficiency of 23.4%, the highest for any thin-film technologies [5] and are comparable to commercial crystalline silicon cells and even better than organic PVs. Conversely CIGS is more expensive due to the scarcity of indium and difficulty in the manufacturing process. The CIGS can be developed in both substrate and superstrate configurations, but the substrate structure offers the highest efficiency due to constructive processing conditions. On the other hand it involves a further glass or encapsulation layer to shelter the cell surface, which is not necessary for the superstrate structure. CIGS cells are usually manufactured using the following five steps [26]: a substrate such as a metal, a ceramic or a polymer sheet sometimes Na2CO3–CaO, is engaged to backing the whole layer of the solar cell. Subsequently the substrate is shielded with the back connection, which is typical of MoSe2. The coevaporation process is used to make the p-layer of CIGS and buffer n-layer made of a TCO such as zinc oxide (ZnO). At last an anti-reflective coating on the top is provided to enhance the efficiency of the cell. The cross-section structure of a CIGS cell is depicted in Fig. 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram of copper indium gallium selenide solar cell.

1.2.2.5 Dye-sensitized solar cells

DSSCs consist of a sandwiched structure of anode and cathode including electrolyte to accomplish an energy conversion efficiency of 5%–9% [27]. The anode is made up of mesoporous metal oxides such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) for high porous structure and increased surface area, and zinc oxide (ZnO), deposited on the back of the glass and the cathode is made by platinum-coated TCOs. The metal oxide electrode is dipped in a natural mixture of photosensitive ruthenium-polypyridine dye (molecular sensitizer) and solvent for a whole night and the electrolyte is filled within the sandwiched electrodes. A thin conductive sheet (platinum) is spread over a thin layer of iodide electrolyte and these two plates are joined and sealed together to prevent leakage of electrolyte. When this arrangement is exposed under the sunlight due to the absorption of photons energy, excitation of e− take place in the system leads to circulating current in the closed-loop through the load. Absorption of a photon by dye (S) and molecule are excited (S*) to get into TiO2. Eventually the excited molecule gets oxidized (loss of e−) to form S+ as shown in the following equation:

(1.7)

This excited electron is injected to the conduction band of the semiconductor. A TCO layer collects the e− from the conduction band and flows through the external circuit. Oxidized dye molecule S+ is reduced to its original form (S) by collecting the e− from the organic electrolyte. The electrolyte solution contains the iodide redox system in which the iodide ions are oxidized to tri-iodide ions. The flow of e− will be acknowledged through the counter electrode for the reformation of iodide. This step requires catalytic presence, that is Pt. The absorption of light energy is by the dye molecules and charge separation by e− injection from the dye to the TiO2 at the semiconductor electrolyte interface is shown in Fig. 1.8. The physical and chemical composition and structure of the electrolyte predominantly affect the material stability and the conversion efficiency of the DSSC [27]. At present high conversion efficiency between 12.3% [5] and 14.6% [28] is obtained through metal-free sensitizers with porphyrin dyes as light-absorbing capacity due to its prevailing absorption in the visible spectrum of solar radiation. Cadmium alloyed Quantum dots (QDs) based DSSCs have a maximum efficiency of 6.36% [29]. In recent times perovskite sensitizers based DSSCs have reached a maximum conversion efficiency of 20% [28].

Figure 1.8 Schematic of dye-sensitized solar cell.

1.2.2.6 Quantum dot solar cells

The colloidal crystalline concept has been widely proposed during the early days of the 1960s and over the past few decades. Some novel materials or nanostructures with variable bandgap or intermediate band are invented in the present scenario that can be altered to match the spectral distribution of solar radiation without naming this as QDs. Then the term QD was given by Reed group in 1988 [30]. But in early 1985, Louis Brus established a quantum model of spherical QDs upon an effective mass model [31]. Tuning the size, the QDs can help control the absorption and emission spectrum of these photons and determines the effectiveness of QDs [32]. Artificial atoms or molecules with energy gap and energy levels of nanoscale semiconductor with the size of 2–100 nm [25,33,34] are the QDs and these materials fall in the II–VI, III–V or IV–VI groups of the periodic table. The energy bandgap increases with a decrease in the size of the QDs (Fig. 1.9).

Figure 1.9 Schematic diagram of quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSCs), comprising a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), photoanode, quantum dot (sensitizer), electrolyte and counter electrode (CE).

QDs are emitting up to three e− by single-photon absorption unlike only one for crystalline semiconductor material solar cells [35] and now it has been increased to seven e− due to the absorption of higher energy photons (up to eight times of Eg) by inverse Auger recombination [36]. The movement of the e− and holes are restricted in the three directions of the space. When the sufficient amount of Eg is supplied, the movement of e− from valance band to the conduction band in semiconductors occurs. Whereas in QDs, the valance and conduction bands are thus close together like continuous bands [33] but no longer are treated as a continuous band but as discrete energy levels, and the properties of those atoms lie between semiconductors and discrete atoms. The different organic layers are deposited/molded in a 2D sheet or 3D arrays are in the actual structure of QDs [32] with distinct electronic and optical properties. This can be treated to create junctions on economical substrates such as a metalloid crystalline core, plastics or glass. Initially 3D silver (Ag) atoms are deposited on GaAs substrate using the two-step process [37]. These can be easily joined with organic polymers and DSSCs. At present the QDs are pooled with DSSCs enriched the matrix cell efficiency of 1% to 11.6% [38,39]. Further enhancement in efficiency is possible through doping with materials like Si which can increase the efficiency from 11.3% to 16.6% [25,40]. Despite toxic in nature (only a few QDs) and finite size, it is an immature technology and the lack of manufacturing and production techniques are the setbacks to this technology and making it trouble in hitting into the market still today. Nowadays quantum dots are promising nanostructure materials in photonics and biomedical applications.

1.2.3 Applications of solar cells

• Distinct SPV cells can be used for operating torch and flashlights, electronic watches and others.

• Ability to exhibit high transparency, the polymer solar cells are used as well in windows, stretchable electronics and so on.

• Solar power generation using SPV systems can be used for residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural and traction applications

• Recent research focuses on the electrical vehicle driven by solar energy which is a need of the hour technology

• Solar cells are the prime important source of energy for lunar missions in powering space vehicles such as satellites and Hubble

1.3 Solar thermal collectors

Solar thermal collectors (STC) are used to convert solar energy into thermal energy that can be stored for later use. STCs have drawn attention among the researcher in the last decade due to their easy construction and ability to deliver heat for domestic and industrial purposes. This heat energy may be used for cooking, refrigeration, cooling, desalination, drying and melting metals.

The solar energy utilization has been classified broadly as low-, medium- and high-temperature system. Low-temperature system such as flat plate collectors works at a maximum temperature of 100°C, whereas medium temperature system such as line focusing technology works at a maximum temperature of 400°C. The high-temperature system such as central receivers and paraboloidal dish collectors works at more than 400°C. The STCs can be grouped into two major categories such as stationary (flat plate collector, evacuated tube collector and compound parabolic) and tracking concentrating collector (parabolic trough, parabolic dish, heliostat field collector and Linear Fresnel collector). The concentrating collectors are further divided into subcategories such as distributed receiver and central receivers to concentrate the sunlight using point focus and line-focus optics.

The hot water generated from STC can be used for different application as mentioned in Table 1.1 Generally stationary STCs are used in residential and commercial water heating or space heating applications. Whereas the concentrating STCs are used to generate power. The lifetime and efficiency of a PV system are very less as compared to the concentrating collector. Hence concentrating STCs plays a vital role in the effective utilization of solar energy. The STCs performance depends on isolation, the inlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid (HTF), thermo-physical properties of HTF, HTF flow (natural or forced) atmospheric temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, absorber material, coating and geometry, insulation material and collector angles. Various research was conducted in the last two decades to improve the performance of the system. One of the major developments is the tracking mechanism (single-axis and two-axis) to improve solar concentration. Nowadays, hybrid cogeneration systems, for example PV/T collectors are showing greater attention among all the researchers for the integration with buildings.

Table 1.1

PV/T, photovoltaic–thermal.

1.3.1 Stationary collectors

The stationary collectors are permanently fixed and tilted according to the location based on the latitude and longitude to absorb more heat energy from the Sun.

Flat plate solar water heater (FPSWH) consists of five major components such as glazing, absorber plate, absorber tube, insulation and casing (Fig. 1.10). The radiation from the Sun passes through the glazing and strike the absorber plate. The glass is used to reduce the convection and radiation losses from the collector. The absorber plate is coated with black paint to absorb more radiation. The radiation wave hits the absorber plate surface thereby absorber material is energized and the heat is then transferred to the absorber tube due to conduction heat transfer. The absorber tubes at the bottom and top are connected using a header tube. The HTF passes inside the absorber tube to exchange the heat from the tube wall to the fluid. The hot HTF can be stored in the storage tank for later use. To reduce the heat loss from the collector to ambient, insulation has been made between absorber tube and casing. The performance of the FPSWH was improved to increase the conduction and convection heat transfer mechanism [41]. To reduce the material corrosion the evacuated type tube solar collector (ETSC) has been developed. The heat pipe (individual absorber tube) has been modified with vacuum sealing arrangements and the arrangements are shown in Fig. 1.10. The ETSC not only increases the life span but it also increases the outlet temperature of the collector by reducing conduction and convection losses.

Figure 1.10 Stationary solar collectors: (A) flat plate solar water heater; (B) flat plate solar air heater; (C) compound parabolic collector; (D) evacuated tube collector.

The compound parabolic collector is made to reflect all the incident insolation using parabola-shaped reflector within the limits to the absorber tube [42]. The orientation is associated with its acceptance angle. The dual sections of a parabola are used to accommodate all the incoming insolation at different angles as shown in Fig. 1.10, and it avoids the necessity of a Sun tracker. For a stationary collector, the minimum acceptance angle is 47 degrees. The insolation enters the aperture and hits the absorber tube placed at the bottom by various internal reflections. The performance of the collector is improved by changing the absorber tube geometry, HTF properties and vacuum manifolds.

Flat plate solar air heater (FPSAH) is used to produce hot air for space heating and drying application. The system components and arrangements are similar to FPSWH as shown in Fig. 1.10. In FPSAH the absorber plate surface has been extended using fins to contact with air molecules. The air will be forced through a blower to maintain the outlet temperature at a constant level. The insulating material plays an important role in the performance enhancement [43]. PV panels may be integrated with the collector to operate the blower for achieving a better performance.

PV panel only converts 20% of the radiation into useful electricity and 80% of the radiation is just heating the PV cell [44]. This heat energy affects the performance of the PV. Cooling the PV cell from both top and bottom sides increase the heat transfer rate thereby improving the performance of the system. Hence the hybrid PV/T collector combines two individual components (PV cell and collector) to a single device for cogeneration, which increases the PV cell efficiency with which the electricity and heat energy can be generated simultaneously. The performance of the PV/T system strongly depends on collector length, properties of HTF, cell density and duct depth. Further the hybrid solar collectors can be used for drying, water heating, solar cooling and desalination applications.

1.3.2 Tracking concentrating collectors

Concentrating collectors are used for converting solar energy into heat energy, and the radiation emitted by the Sun is optically concentrated using mirrors or lens before converting into heat. Different concentrating collectors and their arrangements are shown in Fig. 1.11. The concentrating collector achieves a higher temperature of the HTF as compared to stationary collectors for the same collecting surface. The heat energy from concentrating collector shows a great potential to reduce the demand for a thermal substitute in the industry. The concentration ratio can be defined as the ratio of aperture to the absorber area. A higher concentration ratio leads to higher thermal efficiency. Hence the reflectors and receivers are the major performance influential components. The shape of the reflectors may be cylindrical, parabolic or segmented. The receivers may be (flat, convex, concave, cylindrical) with glazing or without glazing. The glazing is used to reduce the heat loss and the system performance can be augmented using a tracking system [45].

Figure 1.11 Tracking concentrating solar collectors: (A) parabolic trough collector; (B) linear Fresnel collector; (C) parabolic dish collector; (D) heliostat collector.

PTCs are designed by bending a reflector into a parabolic shape. The receiver (tube with black coated) is placed in the entire focal line. One-axis tracking method is used to point the PTCs towards the Sun, and the rays from the Sun incident on the reflectors thereby it hits the entire length of the absorber tube. The absorber material is energized uniformly, and this energy is further transferred to the HTF. Different HTF such as diathermic oil, molten salts or water-based mixtures can be used according to the application. To overcome the structural constraints in the PTCs, the Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) has been developed. LFR strips are aligned horizontally and reflect the Sun rays to the linear receiver. The receiver will be stationary which uses curved type or flat type which are relatively cheaper than parabolic type.

Parabolic dish collector concentrates all the incoming solar radiation to a focal point (receiver) on the dish along with two axes tracking mechanisms. The dish absorbs solar energy and transfers it to the HTF. This heat energy can be converted into electricity in the focal point of the individual dish using a small generator and this heat energy from the individual system can be grouped together for the central energy conversion system.

A central receiver system has an array of flat mirrors or heliostats which reflect (reflector surface: 50 to 150 m²) the incoming radiation to the receiver placed at the center. Altazimuth tracker has been generally used in this application and the mirrors can track the Sun. Conclave mirror is highly suitable to reflect a large amount of incoming radiation to a focal point to produce a higher amount of steam. Recent research focuses on changing the various heat transfer fluids, integrating energy storage techniques and so on.

1.4 Solar cooling technologies

In global energy end-use, 36% contribution is from buildings operation-construction and it is also responsible for approximately 40% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission globally [46]. Several strategies have been reported to reduce the peak demand load and overall energy consumption in suburban and commercial buildings. Some of them include, the usage of renewable energy, efficient cooling system, appliances and daylighting, insulation and use of phase change materials can reduce the peak load demand [47]. Solar energy technology is one of the promising renewable energy technologies for the development of net-zero energy building and zero peak building. The peak demand in the built environment occurs during high thermal stress conditions; hence the solar space cooling system plays a vital role in peak demand reduction. One of the main reasons for the development of a solar cooling system is the harmonious nature of demand and supply.

The solar energy conversion technologies are one of the affordable forms of renewable energy and it can be easily integrated with different types of building. Instead of generating power from the solar and distributing to the utility, it is advised to construct the system to reduce the peak energy which is normally used in high thermal stress conditions. To reduce the peak demand and emission, further research on the solar-powered cooling systems is inevitable and it is the best option during daytime which can also be used for cold storage. Solar cooling refers to the devices and processes that convert heat harnessed from the Sun into a useful cooling system. The solar-powered cooling system has the advantage of providing zero-emission with eco-friendly working fluids. The solar cooling system includes three components (solar collector, heat sink and refrigeration/air-conditioning unit) as shown in Fig.