John: The Word Made Flesh

Notes

PREFACE

From the conception of the Practical Christianity Foundation, it has been the goal of the organization to convey the truth in Scripture through verse-by-verse devotional studies such as this one. As part of that goal, we agree in an attempt neither to prove nor to disprove any traditional or alternative interpretations, beliefs, or doctrines but rather to allow the Holy Spirit to reveal the truth contained within the Scriptures. Any interpretations relating to ambiguous passages that are not directly and specifically verifiable by other scriptural references are simply presented in what we believe to be the most likely intention of the message based on those things that we are specifically told. In those instances, our conclusions are noted as interpretive, and such analyses should not be understood as doctrinal positions that we are attempting to champion.

This study is divided into sections, usually between six and eight verses, and each section concludes with a Notes/Applications passage, which draws practical insight from the related verses that can be applied to contemporary Christian living. The intent is that the reader will complete one section per day, will gain a greater understanding of the verses within that passage, and will daily be challenged toward a deeper commitment to our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Also included at certain points within the text are Dig Deeper boxes, which are intended to assist readers who desire to invest additional time to study topics that relate to the section in which these boxes appear. Our prayer is that this study will impact the lives of all believers, regardless of age, ethnicity, or education.

Each of PCF’s original projects is a collaborative effort of many writers, content editors, grammatical editors, transcribers, researchers, readers, and other contributors, and as such, we present them only as products of the Practical Christianity Foundation as a whole. These works are not for the recognition or acclamation of any particular individual but are written simply as a means to uphold and fulfill the greater purpose of our Mission Statement, which is to exalt the holy name of God Almighty by declaring the redemptive message of His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, to the lost global community and equipping the greater Christian community through the communication of the holy Word of God in its entirety through every appropriate means available.

Practical Christianity Foundation Value Statements

1.We value the Holy Name of God and will strive to exalt Him through godly living, committed service, and effective communication. As long as you live, you, your children, and your grandchildren must fear the Lord your God. All of you must obey all his laws and commands that I’m giving you, and you will live a long time (Deuteronomy 6:2).

2.We value the redemptive work of the Lord Jesus Christ for a lost world and will strive to communicate His redemptive message to the global community. Then Jesus said to them, ‘So wherever you go in the world, tell everyone the Good News’ (Mark 16:15).

3.We value the Holy Word of God and will strive to communicate it in its entirety. ¹⁶Every Scripture passage is inspired by God. All of them are useful for teaching, pointing out errors, correcting people, and training them for a life that has God’s approval. ¹⁷They equip God’s servants so that they are completely prepared to do good things (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

4.We value spiritual growth in God’s people and will strive to enhance that process through the effective communication of God’s Holy Word, encouraging them to be lovers of the truth. But grow in the good will and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Glory belongs to him now and for that eternal day! Amen (2 Peter 3:18).

5.We value the equipping ministry of the church of the Lord Jesus Christ and will strive to provide resources for that ministry by the communication of God’s Holy Word through every appropriate means available. ¹¹He also gave apostles, prophets, missionaries, as well as pastors and teachers as gifts to his church. ¹²Their purpose is to prepare God’s people to serve and to build up the body of Christ (Ephesians 4:11–12).

The Eastern Mediterranean Region in Jesus’ Day

INTRODUCTION

The Gospel of John was written around A.D. 85–95 by a Jewish disciple who was chosen by Jesus Christ to share in His earthly ministry. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome and was the brother of James, whom Jesus had also called to be one of the twelve disciples. Jesus referred to the two brothers, John and James, as sons of thunder. (Mark 3:17) Along with Peter, these two brothers served as prominent leaders of the early Jerusalem(view image) church.

Most evidence of the early church fathers ascribes this gospel account to John the Apostle, whom some refer to as John the Elder (or church leader, 2 John 1 and 3 John 1). John came to Ephesus after Paul(view image) founded the church there. Irenaeus, who knew Polycarp and others who were John’s contemporaries, wrote, John, the disciple of the Lord who also leaned upon His breast, did himself write a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia.¹ John served as their elder for many years. He lived a long life and was the only one of the twelve disciples who did not die as a martyr. Sometime during his tenure as elder of the Ephesus church, John wrote three letters (or epistles), which later became a part of the New Testament canon. Toward the end of his life, he was exiled to Patmos during a time of frequent persecution toward Christians. The Roman emperor Domitian, who died in A.D. 96, was breathing his vengeance against the Christians. While exiled on Patmos, John witnessed to a spectacular vision concerning the end of all things. This vision was recorded and transcribed, and it concludes the New Testament Canon in a book we know as Revelation. Thus, John is responsible for five of the twenty-seven books found in the New Testament—a gospel, three epistles, and Revelation.

John’s gospel differs greatly from the first three gospels, which collectively are called synoptic, literally meaning seeing the same or being in agreement. The purpose of this gospel, written twenty to forty years after the synoptic gospels, is precisely the same as those written by Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Toward the end of his gospel, John says clearly, And truly Jesus did many other signs in the presence of His disciples, which are not written in this book; but these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name (John 20:30–31). Although dramatically different than the other gospels in style and content, we are firmly assured that John’s intention is to persuade every reader of the life-saving work of the Lord Jesus Christ.

It seems as though John intended to provide information to his readers that the other gospels did not provide. There can be little doubt that John was fully aware of Matthew’s writings since he had been his fellow disciple. He was also especially close to Peter so would most likely have known the contents of Mark’s gospel. John followed Paul to Ephesus and likely personally knew Luke as the associate of Paul. The general omission of Jesus’ Galilean ministry, the near absence of the parables, the definite reference to selectivity in the miracles (John 20:30), and the merging of some of John’s historical data with that found in the synoptic gospels makes one feel that the author was trying to give to the public fresh information that had not previously been provided in earlier writings.²

John focuses all of his energy to the disclosure of Jesus, although a flesh and blood human being, as the eternal Son of God. His revelation of Jesus as the active, co-existent agent with the Father begins in the very first verse of the gospel, which establishes the firm foundation on which all of Jesus’ humanity is constructed. His gospel, therefore, leans toward concepts and theological analysis rather than the actions and miracles that we see in the other gospels. These concepts are found and explained in Jesus’ conversations with individuals rather than in Matthew’s long discourses. Indeed, John’s gospel reveals the gradual development of the theology surrounding Jesus Christ—His life, His death, and His resurrection. As we read the Gospel of John, we must always keep in mind that he wrote his record about Jesus some fifty to sixty years after Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection.

Matthew starts his gospel with a discussion of the genealogy of Jesus’ birth, creating the foundation for identifying Jesus as the fulfillment of the Law and the prophets. He thereby declares Jesus to be the rightful heir to the throne of David(view image). Mark’s gospel begins abruptly with the ministry of John the Baptist, anxiously moving toward that author’s theme. He demonstrates the events of Jesus’ miracles as the evidence of the Son of Man’s unique place in human history. Luke, the historian, begins with Jesus’ birth, His youth, and finally His ministry.

John, however, begins with a powerful theological statement that relates Jesus as the universal Word which is coexistent with God Himself. John is telling his readers that it is impossible to understand who Jesus is if they do not understand His eternality. Before Jesus manifested Himself as a historical human being, He existed as the eternal Word, the agent of all creation. This Word became flesh and entered into His creation. This eternal Word is Jesus, the Son of God. By introducing his gospel with the universal concept of the eternal Word, John relates the revelation of Jesus Christ to Greek thought structures where the universal mystery of God becomes physical reality in the person of Jesus. In so doing, the author relates the Creator to His Creation in flesh and blood, and thus, mankind can never deny the reality of God the Father. Furthermore, mankind can never deny the reality of God’s love.

In John’s gospel, there are no miracles. Rather, John calls them signs because they reveal the power of Jesus over areas of life where man is powerless. John records only seven of these signs, but they provide incontrovertible evidence that the historical Jesus of Nazareth(view image) is the divine Son of God. They can be summarized as follows:

If the man called Jesus can control these elements of our human existence, then He certainly must be the Son of God.

John augments these seven signs with discourses that are interspersed throughout the gospel. The discourses are revelations in which Jesus attempts to reveal His true identity. These claims by Jesus are met with some success among His followers but are rejected completely and emphatically by the religious leaders of the Jewish faith. These are called the great I AM passages and may be summarized as follows:

The Bread of Life (6:35)

The Light of the World (8:12; 9.5)

The Gate for the Sheep (10:7)

The Good Shepherd (10:11, 14)

The Resurrection and the Life (11:25)

The Way, the Truth, and the Life (14:6)

The True Vine (15:1)

In John’s gospel, there is great emphasis placed on Jesus’ discussions with individuals. Although there are passages in which Jesus addresses the huge crowds that follow Him, Jesus shows Himself to be profoundly interested in the individual. Twenty-seven such discussions provide for the reader some of the most intimate details of entering a relationship with the eternal God through belief in the flesh and blood Jesus. One of the best known of these is the story of Nicodemus, a member of the Sanhedrin, who approached Jesus under the cloak of darkness. When he asked Jesus how he could be saved, Jesus told him that He must be born again—born anew in the Holy Spirit. The context of this passage has both thrilled and discouraged those who try to understand it. It remains as a central core of controversy of what it means to be a Christian.

There is one overriding theme of the entire gospel—belief. This word believe(s) (en), which simply means in, but by his use of the more intensive preposition, we again draw the conclusion that John is emphasizing that the reader is to believe into Jesus Christ, again emphasizing the continual process of growing closer to the heart of the One Who has saved us. Remarkably, for all of John’s exhortation to place one’s trust in Jesus Christ, the noun form of this word, which is translated faith, is not found in the pages of his gospel.

John’s style of writing is simple and pure. There are very few conjoining sentences. Rather, most sentences are single, short phrases that tell the story of Jesus’ life in elegant simplicity. John very often joins these sentences with terms that are meant to convey purpose. For John, nothing happens without a cause, and nothing happens without God’s purpose.

The vibrant, glowing descriptions of Jesus’ life and ministry among the human race have endeared this gospel to the hearts of Christians for centuries. This is the gospel that is generally recommended as the new convert’s first assignment. Within its pages are the unparalleled revelations of an eternal God Who enters human history in the person of Jesus Christ to reconcile the world of lost humanity to fellowship with Him. Nowhere else in the New Testament is the good news made so simple and so clear. Here, our searching hearts can find release from the bondage of sin and abundant life when we finally become connected to the True Vine, Jesus Christ the Lord.

JAMES — James the Great was an apostle, the son of Zebedee and Salome and brother of John the Evangelist. Jesus called the two brothers Boanerges (Greek, sons of thunder) because of their zeal (Mark 3:17). With Peter and John, James was one of the three privileged disciples who witnessed the transfiguration of Jesus (Matthew 17:1) and his agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Matthew 26:37). James was the first of the 12 apostles to be martyred (Acts 12:12); it is probable that he was condemned by the Sanhedrin on a charge of sedition, with the connivance of Herod Agrippa I, King of Judea. He is especially venerated in Spain because of an unsubstantiated tradition that he preached there shortly before his death. A 9th-century martyrology, or history of the martyrs, records that his mortal remains were transported to the city of Santiago de Compostela. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), the shrine of Saint James became the destination of pilgrimages from all parts of western Europe, rivaling Rome and Jerusalem in popularity. His feast day is July 25.¹

¹James (saints), Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000.© 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

JOHN THE BAPTIST (JOHN THE BAPTIZER) — Forerunner and herald of the Christ.Hewas of the priestly race by both parents, for his father, Zacharias, was himself a priest of the course of Abia or Abijah(1 Chronicles 24:10), and Elisabeth was of the daughters of Aaron (Luke 1:5). His birth was foretold by an angel sent from God, and is related at length in Luke 1. The birth of John preceded by six months the birth of Jesus. John was ordained to be a Nazarite from his birth (Luke 1:15).

Dwelling by himself in the wild and thinly-peopled region westward of the Dead Sea, he prepared himself for the wonderful office to which he had been divinely called. His dress was that of the old prophets—a garment woven of camel’s hair (2 Kings 1:8), attached to the body by a leathern girdle. His food was what the desert provided—locusts (Leviticus 11:22), and wild honey (Psalm 81:16).

Then the long-secluded hermit came forth to the discharge of his office. His supernatural birth, his life, and the general expectation that some great one was about to appear, were sufficient to attract a great multitude to him from every quarter (Matthew 3:5). Many of every class pressed forward to confess their sins and to be baptized. Jesus himself came from Galilee to Jordan to be baptized of John.

From incidental notices we learn that John and his disciples continued to baptize for some time after our Lord entered his ministry (John 3:23; 4:1; Acts 19:3). John instructed his disciples in certain moral and religious duties, as fasting (Matthew 9:14; Luke 5:33), and prayer (Luke 11:1). But shortly after he had given his testimony to the Messiah, John’s public ministry was brought to a close.

In daring disregard of the divine laws, Herod Antipas had married Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip; and when John reproved him for this, as well as for other sins (Luke 3:19), Herod threw him into prison (ca. March, A.D. 28). The place of his confinement was the castle of Machaerus, a fortress on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It was here that reports reached him of the miracles which Jesus did in Judea.

Nothing but the death of the Baptist would satisfy the resentment of Herodias. A court festival was kept at Machaerus in honor of the king’s birthday. After supper the daughter of Herodias came in and danced before the company, and so charmed was the king by her grace that he promised with an oath to give her whatever she asked for. Salome, prompted by her mother, demanded the head of John the Baptist. Herod gave instructions to an officer of his guard, who went and executed John in the prison, and his head was brought to the adulteress whose sins he had denounced. His death is supposed to have occurred just before the third Passover, in the course of the Lord’s ministry. (March, A.D. 29.)¹

¹ William Smith, Smith’s Bible Dictionary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997).

SIMON PETER — Prince of the Apostles.The original name of this disciple was Simon, i.e., hearer.

Peter was the son of a man named Jonas(Matthew 16:17; John 1:42; 21:16) and was brought up in his father’s occupation, a fisherman. He and his brother Andrew were partners of John and James, the sons of Zebedee, who had hired servants. Peter did not live, as a mere laboring man, in a hut by the seaside, but first at Bethsaida, and afterward in a house at Capernaum belonging to himself or his mother-in-law, which must have been rather a large one, since he received in it not only our Lord and his fellow disciples, but multitudes who were attracted by the miracles and preaching of Jesus. Peter was probably between thirty and forty years of age when Jesus called him to discipleship. That call was preceded by a special preparation.

Peter and his brother Andrew, with their fishing partners James and John, the sons of Zebedee, were disciples of John the Baptist when he was first called by our Lord. The specifics are related in great detail by John. It was on this occasion that Jesus gave Peter the name Cephas, anAramaic word relating to the Greek Peter, meaning a stone or rock (John 1:35-42). This first call did not immediately change Peter’s external position. He and his fellow disciples looked to Jesus as their teacher, but did not follow him as regular disciples. They returned to Capernaum, where they pursued their usual business.

The second call is recorded by the other three evangelists; the narrative of Luke being supplementary to the brief andofficial accounts given by Matthew and Mark. It took place on the Sea of Galilee near Capernaum, where the four disciples, Peter and Andrew, James and John, were fishing. Some time passed afterward in attendance upon the Lord’s public ministry in Galilee, Decapolis, Peræa, and Judea. The special designation of Peter and his eleven fellow disciples took place some time afterward, when Jesus set them apart to be His immediate attendants (Matthew 10:2-4; Mark 3:13-19; Luke 6:13). At this time they formally received the title of apostles, and from that time forward Simon publiclyborethe name Peter. From this time there can be no doubt that Peter held first place among the apostles. He is named first in every list of the apostles; he is generally addressed by our Lord as their representative; and on the most solemn occasions he speaks in their name.

The distinction which he received, due to his ability, energy, zeal, and absolute devotion to Christ’s person, seems to have developed a natural tendency to rashness and forwardness bordering upon presumption. In his affection and self-confidence Peter ventured to reject the announcement of the sufferings and humiliation which Jesus predicted, and heard the sharp words, Get behind me, Satan; you are an offence to me; for you do not want the things that come from God, but those that come from men. It is remarkable that on other occasions when Peter expressed his faith and devotion, he displayed at the time, or shortly afterward, an unusual deficiency in spiritual discernment and consistency.

Toward the close of our Lord’s ministry Peter’s characteristics become especially prominent. At the Last Supper Peter seems to have been particularly earnest in the request that the traitor might be pointed out. After supper, his exclamation drew out the meaning of our Lord in washing His disciples’ feet. Then, too, he made those repeated protestations of unalterable fidelity, so soon falsified by his miserable failure. On the morning of the resurrection we have proof that Peter, though humbled, was not crushed by his fall. He and John were the first to visit the grave site; he was the first who entered it. Luke and Paul tell us that Christ appeared to him first among the apostles. It is interesting to note on that occasion he is called by his original name, Simon, not Peter; the higher designation was not restored until he had been publicly reinstitutedby his Master. That reinstitution—an event of the very highest import—took place at the Sea of Galilee (John 21).

The first part of the Acts of the Apostles recordsmany events in which Peter stands forth as the recognized leader of the apostles. He is the most prominent person in the greatest event after the resurrection, when the Holy Spirit descended Jesus’ disciples on the day of Pentecost. When the Gospel was first preached beyond the precincts of Judea, he and John were at once sent by the apostles to confirm the converts at Samaria. Henceforth he remains prominent, but not exclusively prominent, among the apostles of the Gospel. We have two accounts of the first meeting of Peter and Paul(Acts 9:26; Galatians 1:17, 18). This interview was followed by another event marking Peter’s position—a general apostolic tour visiting the churches already established(Acts 9:32). The most significant event after Pentecost was the baptism of Cornelius. That was the crown and consummation of Peter’s ministry. The establishment of a church in the Gentile region at Antioch, and the mission of Barnabas completed the work begun by Peter. This transaction was soon followed by his imprisonment. His miraculous deliverance marks the close of this second great period of his ministry. The special work assigned to him was completed. From that time we have no continuous history of him.

Peter was probably instrumental in building up and completing the organization of Christian communities in Palestine and the adjoining districts. There is, however, strong reason to believe that he visited Corinth at an early period. The name of Peter as founder is not associated with any local church except the churches of Corinth, Antioch, or Rome, by early church tradition. Peter may not have visited Rome before the last year of his life; but there is satisfactory evidence that he and Paul were the founders of the church at Rome, and died in that city.

The time and manner of the apostle’s martyrdom are less certain. According to the early writers, he suffered at or about the same time as Paul in the persecution of Christians by Nero, A.D. 67, 68. All agree that he was crucified. Origen says that Peter felt himself to be unworthy to be put to death in the same manner as his Master, and was therefore, at his own request, crucified with his head downward. The apostle is said to have employed interpreters. Of far more importance is the statement that Mark wrote his Gospel under the teaching of Peter, or that he embodied in that Gospel the substance of our apostle’s oral instructions. The only written documents which Peter has left are the First and Second Epistles, about which no doubt has ever been entertained in the Church.¹

¹ William Smith, Smith’s Bible Dictionary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997).

JERUSALEM — Jerusalem is one of the world’s famous cities. Under that name, it dates from at least the 3rd millennium BC; and today is considered sacred by the adherents of the three great monotheistic faiths, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The city is set high in the hills of Judah, about 50 km from the Mediterranean, and over 30 km west of the north end of the Dead Sea. It rests on a none-too-level plateau, which slopes noticeably towards the southeast. To the east lies the ridge of Olivet. Access to the city on all sides except the north is hampered by three deep ravines, which join in the Siloam Valley, near the well BirEyyub, southeast of the city. The eastern valley is Kidron; the western is now called the Wadi al-Rababi, and is probably to be equated with the Valley of Hinnom; and the third cuts the city in half before it runs south, and slightly east, to meet the other two. This latter ravine is not mentioned or named in Scripture (although Maktesh, Zephaniah 1:11, may well have been the name of part of it), so it is usually referred to as the Tyropoeon Valley, i.e., the Valley of the Cheese-makers, after Josephus.¹

Image of Temple Model²

¹ D. F. Payne, Jerusalem, New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer and D. J. Wiseman, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996). 557.

²Bible Places Pictorial Library of the Bible Lands, Copyright 2012 (Used with permission)

APOSTLE — Derivation of the Greek word apostolos, one who is sent. Apostolos was used to refer to a ship or a group of ships. Later it designated a bill, invoice, or passport.

In the New Testament, apostle has three broad uses. First, it referred to the Twelve whom Jesus chose to train for the task of carrying His message to the world. Following His resurrection, Jesus commissioned them for this task. These men had been with Jesus from the beginning of His ministry and were witnesses to His resurrection. Paul was an apostle in this sense because he had seen the risen Christ.

The second designation of apostle is a person authorized by a local congregation with the safe delivery of specific gifts for another Christian church (2 Corinthians 8:23; Philippians 2:25).

The third sense of apostle is those whom Jesus Christ has sent. Paul refers to a number of people as apostles in this sense (Romans 16:7; 1 Corinthians 9:1, 5; 12:28; Galatians 1:17–19).¹

¹ Steve Bond, Apostle, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 88.

PAUL — Apostle to the Gentiles. Known as Saul of Tarsus before his conversion to Christianity and the most influential leader in the early days of the Christian church. Through his missionary journeys to Asia Minor and Europe, Paul was the primary instrument in the expansion of the gospel to the Gentiles. Moreover, his letters to various churches and individuals contain the most thorough and deliberate theological formulations of the New Testament.

Most of the biographical material available comes from the Book of Acts. Though modern critics question the reliability of this narrative, there is every good reason to use it as the basis for outlining Paul’s life. Moreover, the teachings of Paul, as set forth in his letters, are best summarized within the historical framework provided by the Acts narrative.

Background and Conversion.

Date of Birth. Little is known of Paul’s life prior to the events discussed in Acts. He is first mentioned in chapter 7 in connection with the execution of Stephen. According to verse 58, the witnesses laid their clothes at the feet of a young man named Saul. The term young man probably indicates someone in his 20s, though this is uncertain.

The events mentioned in Acts 7 may have occurred as early as A.D. 31 if Jesus’ death took place during the Passover of A.D. 30. On the other hand, if Jesus’ death is dated in the year 33 then those events could have taken place no earlier than 34, but no later than 37. (2 Corintians 11:32, 33 states that when Paul escaped from Damascus that city was being ruled by the Nabataean king Aretas, who died in the year 40. Since, according to Gal 1:17, 18, Paul left Damascus three years after his conversion, the year 37 must be regarded as the latest possible date for Stephen’s death.)

Using the year 34 as an approximate date for the time when Saul is described as a young man, and assuming that Saul was no older than 30 years at that time, then it can be concluded his birth took place no earlier than A.D. 4. And since it is very unlikely that he was younger than 20, A.D. 14 can be set as the latest possible date for his birth. This conclusion is supported by the knowledge that Paul studied under the famous Gamaliel I (Acts 22:3), who according to some scholars became a member of the Sanhedrin about A.D. 20. If Paul was 15 years old when he entered the school, the range of A.D. 4–14 for his birth fits all the information available. So it can be said with a degree of accuracy that Saul was born in the city of Tarsus about A.D. 9, but any estimates about his age should allow a leeway of 5 years either way.

Upbringing. The city of Tarsus was a major population center in the province of Cilicia in the southeastern region of Asia Minor. Lying on a significant commercial route, Tarsus felt the influence of current cultural movements, particularly Stoic philosophy. It is difficult to determine to what extent Greek thought affected Paul as a child. There is a possibility that his family had become Hellenized—after all, Paul was born a Roman citizen (it is not know how his father or ancestors acquired citizenship, though military or other notable service is a strong possibility); accordingly, he was given not only a Hebrew name (Shaul) but also a Roman cognomen (Paulus, though some have argued that he adopted this Roman name at a later point). At any rate, the fact that in his letters he shows great ease in relating to Gentiles suggests that he obtained a Greek education while in Tarsus.

On the other hand, he describes himself as one circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew born of Hebrews (Philippians 3:5), and such a characterization, particularly the last phrase, perhaps served to distinguish him from those Jews in the Dispersion who freely adopted Greek ways. Moreover, according to Acts 22:3, he was actually brought up in Jerusalem (possibly in his sister’s house, Acts 23:16), and some scholars infer from that statement that Paul was brought up in a totally Jewish environment from earliest childhood.

It is worthwhile pointing out that Gamaliel is represented in later rabbinic literature as a teacher who had considerable appreciation for Greek culture. Besides, soon after his conversion, Paul spent at least 10 years ministering in Tarsus and its environs (Acts 9:30; Galatians 1:21; 2:1; see below). These questions are interesting for more than historical reasons. One of the most basic issues debated among modern interpreters of Paul is whether he should be viewed primarily as a Greek or as a Hebrew. The latter position has, with good reason, become more and more prominent, but the strong Hellenistic elements that formed part of the apostle’s total character should not be overlooked.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 1621–1622.

POLYCARP — Polycarp had been a Christian since he was a child, but the Romans didn’t get around to killing him until he was in his eighties. Whatever the reason for the delay, it is still the first recorded martyrdom in post-New Testament church history.

He lived during the most formative era of the church, at the end of the age of the original apostles, when the church was making the critical transition to the second generation of believers. Tradition has it that he was personally discipled by the apostle John and that he was appointed as bishop of Smyrna (in modern Izmir in Turkey) by some of the original apostles.

In his later years, he tried to settle disputes about the date to celebrate Easter, and he confronted one of the church’s most troublesome heretics, the Gnostic Marcion, calling him the first born of Satan, when he ran into him in Rome. Polycarp was also responsible for converting many from Gnosticism. His only existing writing, a pastoral letter to the church at Philippi, shows he had little formal education, and was unpretentious, humble, and direct.

Such traits are especially evident in the account of his martyrdom, which was written within a year of his death. It is not clear exactly why he was suddenly, at age 86, subject to arrest, but when he heard Roman officials were intent on arresting him, he decided to wait for them at home. Panic-stricken friends pleaded with him to flee, so to calm them, he finally agreed to withdraw to a small estate outside of town. But while in prayer there, he received some sort of vision. Whatever he saw or heard, we don’t know. He simply reported to his friends that he now understood, I must be burned alive.

Roman soldiers eventually discovered Polycarp’s whereabouts and came to his door. When his friends urged him to run, Polycarp replied, God’s will be done, and he let the soldiers in.

He was escorted to the local proconsul, Statius Quadratus, who interrogated him in front of a crowd of curious onlookers. Polycarp seemed unfazed by the interrogation; he carried on a witty dialogue with Quadratus until Quadratus lost his temper and threatened Polycarp: he’d be thrown to wild beasts, he’d be burned at the stake, and so on. Polycarp just told Quadratus that while the proconsul’s fire lasts but a little while, the fires of judgment (reserved for the ungodly, he slyly added) cannot be quenched. Polycarp concluded, But why do you delay? Come, do what you will.

Soldiers then grabbed him to nail him to a stake, but Polycarp stopped them: Leave me as I am. For he who grants me to endure the fire will enable me also to remain on the pyre unmoved, without the security you desire from nails. He prayed aloud, the fire was lit, and his flesh was consumed. The chronicler of this martyrdom said it was not as burning flesh but as bread baking or as gold and silver refined in a furnace.

The account concluded by saying that Polycarp’s death was remembered by everyone— he is even spoken of by the heathen in every place.¹

¹ Mark Galli and Ted Olsen, Introduction, 131 Christians Everyone Should Know (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 360–361.

MATTHEW — Personal name meaning the gift of Yahweh. A tax collector Jesus called to be an apostle (Matthew 9:9; 10:3). Matthew’s office was located on the main highway that ran from Damascus, down the Jordan Valley to Capernaum then westward to Acre to join the coastal road to Egypt or southward to Jerusalem. His duty was to collect toll or transport taxes from both local merchants and farmers carrying their goods to market as well as distant caravans passing through Galilee. He was an employee of Herod Antipas. Matthew knew the value of goods of all description: wool, flax, linen, pottery, brass, silver, gold, barley, olives, figs, wheat. He knew the value of local and foreign monetary systems. He spoke the local Aramaic language as well as Greek. Because Matthew had leased his toll collecting privileges by paying the annual fee in advance, he was subjected to the criticism of collecting more than enough, growing wealthy on his profit. Thus he was hated by his fellow Jews.

Matthew is the same person as Levi, a tax collector (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27), and thus the son of Alphaeus. James the son of Alphaeus is also listed among the apostles (Mark 3:18; Matthew 10:3; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). This indicates that both Matthew and his (half) brother were in close association with Jesus. Mary, the mother of James, keeps the vigil at the foot of the cross with Mary, the mother of Jesus (Matthew 27:55–56; Mark 15:40). If the James mentioned here is the same as the son of Alphaeus, then we have a larger family closely associated with the family of Jesus.

Later legendary accounts tell of Matthew’s travel to Ethiopia where he became associated with Candace, identified with the eunuch of Acts 8:27. The legends tell us of Matthew’s martyrdom in that country.

Matthew had the gifts to be trained as a disciple, could keep meticulous records, and was a potential recorder/author of the Gospel. From earliest times Christians affirmed that Matthew wrote the Gospel that bears his name. ¹

¹ Oscar S. Brooks, Matthew, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1090–1091.

MARK (JOHN) — Author of the Second Gospel and an early missionary leader. John Mark, as Luke calls him in Acts, was the son of Mary, in whose house the church was meeting when Peter was miraculously freed from prison in Acts 12. Commonly called by his Greek name, Mark, in the New Testament, John was probably his Jewish name. Mark was a Jew, Barnabas’ cousin (Colossians 4:10), and a companion of Barnabas and Paul on their first missionary journey. On the first missionary journey Mark ministered with the group on Cyprus, the home territory of Barnabas, and also a place with family connections for Mark. However, when they left for Pamphylia, Mark returned to Jerusalem.

Mark was the cause of the split between Paul and Barnabas when Mark’s participation in the second missionary journey was debated (Acts 15:39). Barnabas sided with his cousin, while Paul refused to take Mark since he had left them on the first journey. Later, however, Paul indicated that Mark was with him (in Rome likely) as Paul sent letters to the Colossians (Col. 4:10) and Philemon (Philem. 24). Mark was also summoned to be with Paul in 2 Timothy 4:11. Whatever rift existed earlier was healed sometime and their friendship renewed.

Mark is closely related to Peter. In 1 Peter 5:13 Peter refers to Mark, his son, as being with him in Rome (Babylon). Early church tradition supports the strong association between Peter and Mark. In the early second century, Papias mentioned that Mark was Peter’s interpreter. Other early church figures associate Mark with Peter and note that the Gospel of Mark was based upon Peter’s preaching.¹

¹ Warren, Bill. Mark, John. Ed. Chad Brand et al. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary 2003 : 1082. Print.

LUKE — Author of the Third Gospel and the book of Acts in the NT, as well as a close friend and traveling companion of Paul. The apostle called him loved (Colossians 4:14). Luke referred to his journeys with Paul and his company in Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16. Many scholars believe Luke wrote his Gospel and the book of Acts while in Rome with Paul during the apostle’s first Roman imprisonment. Apparently Luke remained nearby or with Paul also during the apostle’s second Roman imprisonment. Shortly before his martyrdom, Paul wrote that only Luke is with me (2 Timothy 4:11).

Early church fathers Jerome (ca. A.D. 400) and Eusebius (ca. A.D. 300) identified Luke as being from Antioch. His interest in Antioch is clearly seen in his many references to that city (Acts 11:19–27; 13:1–3; 14:26; 15:22, 35; 18:22). Luke adopted Philippi as his home, remaining behind there to superintend the young church while Paul went on to Corinth during the second missionary journey (Acts 16:40).

Paul identified Luke as a physician (Colossians 4:14) and distinguished Luke from those of the circumcision (Colossians 4:11). Early sources indicate that Luke was a Gentile. Tradition holds that he was Greek. The circumstances of Luke’s conversion are not revealed. An early source supplied a fitting epitaph: He served the Lord without distraction, having neither wife nor children, and at the age of 84 he fell asleep in Boeatia, full of the Holy Spirit.¹

¹ T. R. McNeal, Luke, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England, Steve Bond, E. Ray Clendenen and Trent C. Butler (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003). 1056-57.

DAVID — Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s Old Testament history.

The two books in the Old Testament devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the New Testament, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and as a forerunner of the messianic king.

David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ruth 4:18–22). Genealogies in both the Old Testament and New Testament trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chronicles 2:3–15; Matthew 1:3–6; Luke 3:31–33).

As a boy David took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Samuel 17:34–37).

David was also an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.

As a young man David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Samuel 17:12–58).

David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron, and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ish-bosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade or so he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.

David’s writings show that knowing God was as real in Old Testament times as it was for the apostle Paul, even though the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ was still in the future.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988) 581–586.

SON OF MAN — References: Mark 2.10; 2.28; 8.31; 8.38; 9.9; 9.12; 9.31; 10.33; 10.45; 13.26; 14.21; 14.41; 14.62

The term Son of man is found in both the Old Testament and the New. In the New it is used 94 times, and, with 5 exceptions, always by Christ of Himself. Clearly Jesus affirms something important about Himself in His selection and use of this term.

On the one hand, of course, the phrase Son of man emphasizes Jesus’ full humanity. But even greater significance is found in the fact that, as in Matthew 9:6, Son of man signifies Jesus’ redemptive work and mission. In the term Son of man Jesus presents Himself as the Victor, for He accomplished all that man was intended to do, and becomes all that man was intended to be.

The demons recognized and spoke to Jesus as the Son of God (8:29). They were right; they knew Him for who He is. The whole Bible makes it very clear that the One who became Man at Bethlehem truly is the Creator God. John insisted that Jesus is God, coexisting with the Father from the beginning (John 1). Jesus does not hesitate to claim equality with God (John 17). Paul’s writings affirm Jesus as God, along with the Father and the Holy Spirit. The Old Testament prophecy identifies Jesus as the Father of eternity (a phrase meaning the source or originator of eternity itself!) and speaks of the Child to be born as a Son … given (Isaiah 9:6, KJV). The name Immanuel, as we have seen, means, With us is God. Jesus had every right to speak of Himself as the Son of God, for that is who He is.

Yet Jesus chose another title for Himself: Son of man. A Man, with God’s prerogative of forgiving sin.A Man, with power to heal and to give life.A Man, yet Victor over death.

In Jesus the very power of God entered the mainstream of humanity, and in Jesus’ authority as the Son of Man people find an anchor for their hope. Many years ago Johann Burger (1598– 1662) caught a vision of the authority of the Son of man, and expressed it in the hymn, Jesus Lives, and So Shall I.

Jesus lives and reigns supreme;

And His kingdom still remaining.

I shall also be with Him,

Ever living, ever reigning.

God has promised: be it must;

Jesus is my hope and trust.

The Man with all power lives today. His kingdom does remain. With Him, we also shall reign. Then—and now.¹

Editor’s Note: The term Son of Man in the Gospel of Mark first appears in Mark 2:10 and 2:28. Jesus here refers to Himself as the Son of Man. He does this in the company of a very public crowd and in the face of His opponents, the scribes and Pharisees. These are the only two occurrences prior to Peter’s confession that Jesus is the Christ (Mark 8:29). There are eleven more references, all used by Jesus regarding Himself that follow Peter’s confession. All of them are used in Jesus’ private instruction to His disciples, indicating the direction that His Messiahship would take. Contrary to popular belief, this would not involve a political kingdom, but would culminate in the death of the Son of Man on the Cross and His final victory in His resurrection.

¹Richards, Lawrence O., The Teacher’s Commentary, (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books) 1987.

NAZARETH — the city from which Jesus’s mother came (Luke 1:26) and where Jesus grew up (Matthew 2:23; 13:54; Luke 2:4, 51; 4:16). Nazareth was an insignificant agricultural village nestled in the hills four miles from Sepphoris, the capital of Galilee. It is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, in Josephus, or in rabbinic writings. Not surprisingly, Jesus’s Nazareth origins are held up to scorn by those skeptical of his mission (John 1:46).

A Hebrew inscription found at Caesarea lists Nazareth as one of the villages in which priestly divisions (cf. Luke 1:8–9) were resident after the Jewish revolt. Some scholars allege that this notice suggests a degree of piety attributed to Nazareth, which has not produced any archaeological remains with pagan symbolism. Indeed, the few remains found include Jewish stone vessels, simple pottery, and perhaps a ritual bath.

Based on rock-cut tombs surrounding the village and scant remains in the center of the modern city around the Church of the Annunciation, it appears that Nazareth could not have had a population of more than five hundred in Jesus’s time. Like most of Galilee, the site was settled by Jews in the second century BCE who were preoccupied with farming. Little evidence of houses has been discovered; no roof tiles, frescoes, mosaics, or even plastered floors have been found from the first century, and luxury items are absent. The typical dwelling probably consisted of a small group of rooms around a central courtyard; some people may have made use of caves in the slopes. Thus, Nazareth was by all indications a simple peasant village, and even the rebuilding of nearby Sepphoris by Herod Antipas does not seem to have elevated its socioeconomic level.¹

¹Pheme/Reed Perkins Jonathan L., Nazareth, ed. Mark Allan Powell, The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised and Updated) (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 691.

SANHEDRIN — meaning a sitting together, or a council. This word (rendered council, in the King James Version) is frequently used in the New Testament (Matthew 5:22; 26:59; Mark 15:1) to denote the supreme judicial and administrative council of the Jews, which, it is said, was first instituted by Moses, and was composed of seventy men (Numbers 11:16, 17). But that seems to have been only a temporary arrangement which Moses made. This council is with greater probability supposed to have originated among the Jews when they were under the domination of the Syrian kings in the time of the Maccabees. The name is first employed by the Jewish historian Josephus. This council is referred to simply as the chief priests and elders of the people (Matthew 26:3, 47, 57, 59; 27:1, 3, 12, 20), before whom Christ was tried on the charge of claiming to be the Messiah. Peter and John were also brought before it for promulgating heresy (Acts. 4:1–23; 5:17–41); as was also Stephen on a charge of blasphemy (6:12–15), and Paul for violating a temple by-law (22:30; 23:1–10).