Ecclesiastes: Believers Church Bible Commentary

BELIEVERS CHURCH BIBLE COMMENTARY

Old Testament

Genesis, by Eugene F. Roop, 1987

Exodus, by Waldemar Janzen, 2000

Judges, by Terry L. Brensinger, 1999

Ruth, Jonah, Esther, by Eugene F. Roop, 2002

Psalms, by James H. Waltner, 2006

Proverbs, by John W. Miller, 2004

Isaiah, by Ivan D. Friesen, 2009

Jeremiah, by Elmer A. Martens, 1986

Ezekiel, by Millard C. Lind, 1996

Daniel, by Paul M. Lederach, 1994

Hosea, Amos, by Allen R. Guenther, 1998

New Testament

Matthew, by Richard B. Gardner, 1991

Mark, by Timothy J. Geddert, 2001

Acts, by Chalmer E. Faw, 1993

Romans, by John E. Toews, 2004

2 Corinthians, by V. George Shillington, 1998

Ephesians, by Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld, 2002

Colossians, Philemon, by Ernest D. Martin, 1993

1–2 Thessalonians, by Jacob W. Elias, 1995

1–2 Timothy, Titus, by Paul M. Zehr, 2010

1–2 Peter, Jude, by Erland Waltner and J. Daryl Charles, 1999

Revelation, by John R. Yeatts, 2003

Old Testament Editors

Elmer A. Martens, Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, Fresno, California

Douglas B. Miller, Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kansas

New Testament Editors

Willard M. Swartley, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana

Loren L. Johns, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana

Editorial Council

David W. Baker, Brethren Church

Derek Suderman, Mennonite Church Canada

Christina A. Bucher, Church of the Brethren

Eric A. Seibert, Brethren in Christ Church

Gordon H. Matties, Mennonite Brethren Church

Paul M. Zehr (chair), Mennonite Church USA

Ecclesiastes

Douglas B. Miller

HERALD PRESS

Scottdale, Pennsylvania

Waterloo, Ontario

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Miller, Douglas B., 1955-

Ecclesiastes / Douglas B. Miller.

p. cm.–(Believers church Bible commentary)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8361-9491-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Bible. O.T. Ecclesiastes–Commentaries. I. Title.

BS1475.53.M55 2010

223’.807–dc22

2010019231

The author’s translation (AT) of Ecclesiastes is used, along with NRSV, TNIV, and NIV. Except as otherwise noted, Bible text is from New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, and used by permission. Quotations marked TNIV are from The Holy Bible, Today’s New International Version®, copyright © 2001, 2005 by Biblica, Inc., used by permission of Zondervan, all rights reserved worldwide. Quotations marked NIV are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc., used by permission of Zondervan, all rights reserved worldwide. Other versions briefly compared are listed with Abbreviations.

BELIEVERS CHURCH BIBLE COMMENTARY: ECCLESIASTES

Copyright © 2010 by Herald Press, Scottdale, PA 15683

Released simultaneously in Canada by Herald Press,

Waterloo, Ont. N2L 6H7. All rights reserved

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010019231

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-8361-9491-3

Printed in the United States of America

Cover by Merrill R. Miller

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10    10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To order or request information please call 1-800-245-7894 or visit www.heraldpress.com.

To my wife, Holly Swartzendruber

Abbreviations

Pronunciation Guide for Certain Transliterated Hebrew Consonants

Contents

Abbreviations

Pronunciation Guide

Series Foreword

Author’s Preface

Introduction to Ecclesiastes

The Relevance of Ecclesiastes

The Unity of Ecclesiastes

Author and Audience

Genre and Structure of the Book

The Theme, Rhetoric, and Message of Ecclesiastes

Concerning Translations

Introduction of Qohelet (1:1)

Part 1 (1:2–6:9): Human Effort

1:2-11 All Is Vapor

1:12–2:26 The King’s Experiment

3:1-22 God’s Work in Time and Eternity

4:1-16 Toil for Self and in Community

5:1-7 Words Before God

5:8–6:9 Enjoyment Instead of Greed

Part 2 (6:10–12:8): Human Limits

6:10–7:14 No One Knows What Is Good

7:15-29 Wisdom and Righteousness

8:1-17 Even the Wise Do Not Know

9:1-10 Enjoy Life Now

9:11–10:15 Time and Chance

10:16–11:6 Living with Risks

11:7–12:8 Youth and Old Age

Epilogue (12:9-14)

12:9-14 Epilogue

Outline of Ecclesiastes

Essays

Approaches to the Book of Ecclesiastes

The Canon and Ecclesiastes

Chasing After Wind

Chiasm

Contradiction and Paradox

Death

Determinism

God

Human Beings

Inclusio

Injustice

The International Setting of Wisdom

The Message of the Book

Metaphor, Simile, and Symbol

Method

Parody

Political Power

Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes

Qohelet

Questions

Revelation

Rhetoric: How Qohelet Argues

Special Terms

All

Evil

Fool and Folly

Gain

Judgment

Pleasure

Portion

See

Shadow

Toil

The Time Poem

Under the Sun

Vapor (Hebel)

Wisdom and Wisdom Literature

Wisdom in Ecclesiastes

Work

Yes-Yet Pattern

Map of Palestine for Ecclesiastes

Map of the Ancient Near East for Ecclesiastes

Bibliography of Works Cited

Selected Resources

Index of Ancient Sources

The Author

Series Foreword

The Believers Church Bible Commentary Series makes available a new tool for basic Bible study. It is published for all who seek more fully to understand the original message of Scripture and its meaning for today—Sunday school teachers, members of Bible study groups, students, pastors, and others. The series is based on the conviction that God is still speaking to all who will listen, and that the Holy Spirit makes the Word a living and authoritative guide for all who want to know and do God’s will.

The desire to help as wide a range of readers as possible has determined the approach of the writers. Since no blocks of biblical text are provided, readers may continue to use the translation with which they are most familiar. The writers of the series use the New Revised Standard Version and the New International Version on a comparative basis. They indicate which text they follow most closely and where they make their own translations. The writers have not worked alone, but in consultation with select counselors, the series’ editors, and the Editorial Council.

Every volume illuminates the Scriptures; provides necessary theological, sociological, and ethical meanings; and in general makes the rough places plain. Critical issues are not avoided, but neither are they moved into the foreground as debates among scholars. Each section offers explanatory notes, followed by focused articles, The Text in Biblical Context and The Text in the Life of the Church. This commentary aids the interpretive process but does not try to supersede the authority of the Word and Spirit as discerned in the gathered church.

The term believers church has often been used in the history of the church. Since the sixteenth century, it has frequently been applied to the Anabaptists and later the Mennonites, as well as to the Church of the Brethren and similar groups. As a descriptive term, it includes more than Mennonites and Brethren. Believers church now represents specific theological understandings, such as believers baptism, commitment to the Rule of Christ in Matthew 18:15-20 as crucial for church membership, belief in the power of love in all relationships, and willingness to follow Christ in the way of the cross. The writers chosen for the series stand in this tradition.

Believers church people have always been known for their emphasis on obedience to the simple meaning of Scripture. Because of this, they do not have a long history of deep historical-critical biblical scholarship. This series attempts to be faithful to the Scriptures while also taking archaeology and current biblical studies seriously. Doing this means that at many points the writers will not differ greatly from interpretations that can be found in many other good commentaries. Yet these writers share basic convictions about Christ, the church and its mission, God and history, human nature, the Christian life, and other doctrines. These presuppositions do shape a writer’s interpretation of Scripture. Thus this series, like all other commentaries, stands within a specific historical church tradition.

Many in this stream of the church have expressed a need for help in Bible study. This is justification enough to produce the Believers Church Bible Commentary. Nevertheless, the Holy Spirit is not bound to any tradition. May this series be an instrument in breaking down walls between Christians in North America and around the world, bringing new joy in obedience through a fuller understanding of the Word.

—The Editorial Council

Author’s Preface

Writing this commentary has been a deeply satisfying experience. Academic interest in Ecclesiastes began with my doctoral dissertation on the word hebel (vapor) in the book, and it continued shortly afterward as work on this commentary began. I believe that the quality of this effort has been strengthened by its extension over more than ten years. So much exciting work has been done with Ecclesiastes in recent decades. It has been invigorating to be engaged in the conversation.

Portions were written in summers or at other times when my teaching load was not so heavy. There were enjoyable conversations with Millard Lind and Paul Keim as we read through the first chapters of Ecclesiastes during a sabbatical in fall 2000. I learned through presentations and subsequent conversations in several Sunday school and Wednesday evening series devoted to Ecclesiastes, as well as through sermons and shorter presentations. Some progress on the manuscript was made during a later sabbatical in spring 2006. In January and spring 2008, the first draft was finished, and then the second draft that summer.

A variety of readers brought critique as well as affirmation, improving the work in many ways. I am extremely grateful for the seasoned insights of my primary editor, Elmer Martens, who came out of retirement to edit one more volume of the Believers Church Bible Commentary. In addition to being the pioneer author in this series (Jeremiah, 1986), he was its Old Testament editor for two decades. Bringing a similar maturity, and especially a commitment to Ecclesiastes, was Bible scholar Daniel C. Fredericks. Other readers included Alison Trembly, David Faber, Lynn Jost, Holly Swartzendruber, and Debbie Miller. The Editorial Council gave helpful guidance during the process. The careful and thoughtful copyediting of S. David Garber was quite valuable. To all of these, with their particular insights and perspectives, I express my deepest gratitude. I wish also to express appreciation to the libraries and librarians of Princeton Theological Seminary and Tabor College for their assistance over the years and also to Tabor for release time during sabbaticals. Most of my debt to scholars is reflected in the bibliography.

I probably would not have much confidence in a commentary on Ecclesiastes unless I knew that the author had struggled personally with at least some of the issues and questions raised by the ancient Israelite sage. So it is worth mentioning that such has been the case for me. I expect such struggles will also be true for many, perhaps most, who read this commentary. May we all accept God’s grace to engage our fears and uncertainties, and to be a channel of that grace to those whose life paths we cross.

—Douglas B. Miller

Hillsboro, Kansas

Introduction to Ecclesiastes

Welcome to Ecclesiastes, a most unusual and exciting book of the Bible. Ecclesiastes has challenged interpreters over many centuries and continues to do so today. The puzzles of the book are numerous. Yet many people, both believers and unbelievers, have recognized its basic theme—that life brings the unexpected, the tragic, and the confusing—and they have found in the author a trustworthy companion for walking through such experiences. The author shows himself to be one who can recognize life’s problems, is not afraid to name them for what they are, and has insight to help us make the most of our existence on this earth. His work may be the most personal book of the Bible, revealing the author’s frustrations, indignation, and reflections on mystery.

The Relevance of Ecclesiastes

In varying degrees, all people face the issues that are addressed by Ecclesiastes: lack of satisfaction or sense of purpose, financial catastrophe, personal tragedy, societal injustice, fear, frustration, chance, uncertainty, physical suffering, old age, and death. The book has proved to be timeless, continually valuable for persons in different locations, life situations, and cultures. Though it is partly accurate to acknowledge that Ecclesiastes is a difficult book and not for everyone, it is better said that sooner or later the message of this book will become both relevant and essential for each person’s life.

In important ways the book faces the dark side of faith, issues that are often troublesome for those who seek to affirm the goodness, power, and love of God. Indeed, the author—in Hebrew Qohelet (pronounced ko-HELL-it), often translated as the Teacher or the Preacher—has much to say about the nature and activity of the Deity; the name God (’elohim) is one of the most frequent terms in the book, occurring forty times. The author essentially affirms the orthodox biblical portrait of God, yet he does not hesitate in ascribing to God some of the pain and inscrutabilities of life.

Many of his concerns are similar to those of Job, but unlike Job, Qohelet speaks only about God and never to God [Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes, p. 243]. The Teacher’s book complements the book of Job because he sympathetically addresses people of faith who share many of Job’s complaints; we could say he was the kind of friend that Job had in mind. He understands those who are disappointed with God, whether pondering in silence or crying out in pain; whether covertly cynical or unafraid to vent their anger openly to God.

Qohelet, with his relentless questions, sometimes scathing criticisms, and refusal to accept simplistic or comfortable answers, has also been a welcome traveling companion for those outside the faith who respect his integrity. For many, ours is a cold, lonely, and silent world. The struggle to determine life’s meaning and purpose is evident across the millennia of human experience. If anything, it has become even more acute in recent times, leading to extreme confusion about personal identity and unsatisfying pursuits of intimacy in virtual communities. According to Phillip Adams, the famous dictum of Descartes—I think, therefore I am—has today become I think, therefore I haven’t a clue (cited in Curkpatrick: 286). With directness and candor, the Teacher takes on identity traps of concern to all people, such as individualism, materialism, hedonism, workaholism, and the feeling of insignificance.

As those in a pluralistic context can appreciate, the book of Ecclesiastes reflects an engagement with diverse perspectives. Qohelet takes on complex issues, such as political leadership and worship practices, as well as concerns with oppression, inheritance, and old age. In the process, the author demonstrates awareness of ancient Babylonian and Egyptian literature. Astutely he models an ability to both appreciate and critique the ideas of those from other worldviews as well as the tenets of his own faith tradition (Huwiler: 174-76; cf. Leithart).

Finally, like many in a postmodern culture, Ecclesiastes is concerned with the ways human beings are limited in their ability to understand what goes on around them. Though some offer presumptuous answers, the author rejects inadequate philosophies that fail to align with reality. But for those who are frustrated at feeling out of control, the Teacher has something to offer. By raising important questions and offering practical answers, he charts a path through a complex world of power relationships. Presenting puzzles, parables, and paradoxes, the Teacher demonstrates credibility as a fellow explorer whose insights can be trusted because they are never overstated.

Novelists, playwrights, songwriters, and movie directors have taken up the themes of Ecclesiastes—knowingly and sometimes unknowingly (see Johnston 2004). Because comedians and cartoonists are also among life’s astute commentators, discussions in the chapters that follow will occasionally draw from the wit and insight of Peanuts (Charles Schulz), Dilbert (Scott Adams), Calvin and Hobbes (Bill Watterson), and a few others. Ecclesiastes has proved to be an enduring resource for wrestling with the recurrent experiences of mortals, for there is nothing new under the sun (1:9).

The Unity of Ecclesiastes

The rabbis of early Judaism debated the worth of Ecclesiastes: Was it Scripture? They wondered, first, whether some of its teachings were heretical. Concerns included its praise of pleasure (e.g., 2:24), its question whether there is value in the life God has created for human beings (e.g., 1:13), and its possible contradiction of Torah at 11:9 (cf. Num 15:39). Yet they valued its emphasis on the fear of God and keeping God’s commandments (5:7; 12:13). The internal consistency of Ecclesiastes was another concern. A section of the Talmud explains that Qohelet’s praise of enjoyment refers to divine pleasure (8:15), and the laughter he criticizes (2:2) is that which is not connected to God’s instructions (b. Šabbat 30b). For reasons such as these the rabbis accepted the book [The Canon and Ecclesiastes, p. 220].

Apparent contradictions in Ecclesiastes are not difficult to find. In addition to the matter of pleasure, the author seems to offer more than one answer to the following questions: Is toil bad or good? Is God’s work knowable? Is it better to be dead or alive? Are the righteous rewarded and the wicked punished? Are women valuable? Does wisdom give an advantage?

Despite initial impressions, many—perhaps all—of Qohelet’s apparent contradictions may be accounted for satisfactorily [Contradiction and Paradox, p. 226]. Though the rabbis at times used harmonization presumptuously, some contradictions can be legitimately explained by this approach (Qohelet hates life at one point, in 2:17, but this is not his final assessment of life). Occasionally the detection of quotations is justified (in 7:1 he states something in order to respond to it). Yet most often the book’s tensions reflect the paradoxical realities of life that lie at the heart of the author’s agenda for writing the book. The Teacher generally counsels to embrace life, but he can wish the relief of death for those who are oppressed. Certain things about God may be stated with confidence, while in other ways God is mysterious. One should be righteous and wise, and yet should not expect that all trouble will thereby be avoided. Pleasure is a good thing, but in itself it cannot truly satisfy. The sage advises his readers how to live in such a world.

Another important issue regarding the book’s unity concerns the author’s use of the term hebel, literally meaning vapor and traditionally translated as vanity. Various proposals have been offered to make sense of the word. Qohelet says that all is vapor at the beginning and end of the book (1:2; 12:8), but in between he uses vapor to describe a varied and complex array of experiences and situations. Some have concluded that the author was haphazard in his writing.

However, when it is recognized that Qohelet has used vapor as a symbol with multiple meanings, we see that he is deliberate in his use of it. After introducing the term as his theme for the book (All is vapor, 1:2), he then shows how humans experience life as vapor in ways that are related to three of its attributes (see discussion of the book’s theme below) [Vapor, p. 258; Metaphor, Simile, and Symbol, p. 237].

A careful study of Qohelet’s word choices and the structure of his work (see following) confirm the positive assessment that concludes the book: The Teacher sought to find pleasing words, and he wrote words of truth plainly (12:10 NRSV).

Author and Audience

The Name Qohelet

The book is introduced as the words of qohelet. The form of this word in Hebrew suggests that it might be the name of a vocation or a title. In fact, in Ecclesiastes 12:8 (and probably 7:27) it is preceded by the article the, "says the qohelet." Otherwise the term is used like a name (1:1, 2, 12; 12:9, 10). This word is not found elsewhere in the Bible, but its root (qhl) is found many times, so we know it has something to do with assembling or gathering. For example, Solomon is described as one who assembled the people (qhl in 1 Kings 8:1). Hence, the early translators of the OT into Greek chose the word Ekklēsiastēs for the book because it indicates someone who has called a group together, such as a synagogue leader. Ekklēsia, the Greek word for assembly, was later used among early Christians to represent the church. These matters encouraged English translators of qohelet to use preacher in the KJV and other versions (e.g., RSV, NASB).

Alternatively, the Hebrew qohelet could be used for one who assembles something else, such as wise sayings. The author as collector of wisdom fits the description, given in the book itself (12:9-14) that Qohelet was a sage. Therefore several translations use the word Teacher for the author (e.g., T/NIV, NRSV). This commentary employs Qohelet interchangeably with the terms Teacher, sage, and author. The word Ecclesiastes refers to the book itself.

Solomon as Author?

The book’s introduction states that the author is the son of David, king in Jerusalem (1:1). The term son of David could refer to any of David’s descendants (not just his immediate offspring), but 1:12 declares (lit.), I am Qohelet. I have been king over Israel in Jerusalem. We therefore find three identifying elements:

son of David—must be one of David’s descendants;

king over Israel—must include the northern sections of the country; and

in Jerusalem—must be someone who reigned during the united monarchy, before the Israelites divided after the death of Solomon.

This description fits only one person: wise and wealthy King Solomon. He is the only son of David who ruled over Israel (not just the Southern Kingdom, Judah) in Jerusalem. (The term Israel is sometimes used of the region of Judah, both before and after the fall of the Northern Kingdom, but the designation king over Israel is used historically only of Saul, David, and Solomon and of northern kings after that.) According to Jewish tradition, when Solomon was young and in love, he wrote the Song of Songs; when he matured, he wrote the practical advice found in Proverbs; and when he grew older, he became cynical and expressed his frustrations in the book of Ecclesiastes.

Despite the clear reference to Solomon in the first chapter and the connections between Solomon and wisdom elsewhere in the Bible, the possibility that he wrote the book of Ecclesiastes is rejected by most scholars for several reasons:

1. The book is ascribed to Qohelet and never to Solomon by name; if the author was Solomon, or if the author wanted readers to believe he was Solomon, it seems that the name would be used, as was done with other books (e.g., Proverbs, the Wisdom of Solomon, Psalms of Solomon).

2. The first-person narrative voice that speaks as a king in the book’s early passages speaks, after the second chapter, as one who is outside royal circles—as a critic of society more than as one of its architects (3:16; 4:13-16; 5:8-9; 8:1-6; 10:16-20).

3. The epilogue refers to the author as a sage rather than as a king (12:9-14).

4. The book’s language is unlike any known examples of Hebrew from the time of Solomon but is similar to Hebrew used after the exile in Babylon, from 539 BC and following; in addition, Ecclesiastes contains several Persian and Aramaic words that are not found elsewhere before the sixth century (for a discussion of the recent debate regarding linguistic matters, see Seow 1996a).

5. The book’s portrayal of social conditions seems inconsistent with the time of Solomon, but it does fit the period suggested by the book’s language, after the exile, when there was economic uncertainty (4:1-2; 7:10) and social instability (6:1-2; 10:4-7).

If the evidence presented above seems persuasive that Solomon is not the author of Ecclesiastes, as it does for most scholars, a question arises: Why would the author make such obvious reference to this wisest of Israel’s kings? If it was to give credibility to the author’s teaching, it seems that he would have maintained the fiction of Solomon consistently throughout the book.

An interesting study proposes that Qohelet uses the persona of Solomon to assist him in a parody of ancient royal literature (Seow 1995) [Parody, p. 240]. Rather than the typical goal of this kind of writing—to motivate allegiance to the monarch and even to declare a kind of immortality for the king through fame—the Teacher declares that all the things accomplished are vapor; they are ephemeral and do not satisfy. By employing the figure of Solomon—Israel’s wisest and wealthiest king, known especially for his building projects—Qohelet can use parody to give his message a striking impact.

Social and Historical Context

Linguistic factors along with various allusions in the book suggest a date of writing between the fifth and third centuries BC (i.e., 400-600 years after Solomon). Scholars are agreed that the writing is set in an era of turmoil: either that of the Persian period (539-332 BC) or the Hellenistic period (332-63 BC), both of which were volatile politically and economically.

Although for some time the consensus has been for the latter (more specifically, the third century, when the Egyptian Ptolemy I and his successors controlled Palestine), persuasive arguments for the Persian period have been put forth more recently (Kugel; Seow 1996b and 2008). It is interesting that a variety of economic terms are prominent in Ecclesiastes. Qohelet addresses the opportunities as well as the risks of his audience that are evident from other ancient documents of this era. Wealth in the newly monetarized economy could come quickly and go just as quickly; justice was uncertain; the ordinary citizen was vulnerable to unstable power structures (see, Eccl 3:16; 4:1-6; 5:8, 10, 13-17; 6:1-2; 8:1-9; 10:5-20; cf. Neh 5:3-5, 15; 13:15-20; Ezra 4:13, 20; 7:24) [Political Power, p. 242].

Regarding the author’s location, house of God (5:1) is a common Hebrew expression for the temple in Jerusalem. Further, the Teacher gives no indication that extensive travel to Jerusalem is necessary for worship (5:1-7). Items that likely would not fit in an Egyptian setting (proposed by some), but would fit Palestine, include the almond tree (12:5) and the use of cisterns (12:6).

Profile of the Author

The description by the writer of the epilogue (12:9-14) fits well with Qohelet’s self-presentation in the book taken as a whole: a sage (not a king) who has edited proverbs and sought to carefully articulate the truth. Qohelet’s comments suggest that he knows poverty and oppression primarily as an observer (4:1-3; 5:8). The difficulties he describes as applying to himself are those of the relatively well-to-do: all the wealth, accomplishments, and pleasure do not satisfy (1:12–2:26); the one who inherits from him may be a fool (2:18-20); he has been unable to achieve the wisdom that he spent time and effort to seek (7:23-24; 8:16-17).

However, there are also indications that Qohelet sympathizes with problems common to the middle and lower classes. He employs the first-person voice in 2:18-23 when speaking of work, exhibits intense emotion with regard to oppression in 4:1-3, and hints that his audience fits somewhere within two economic extremes (5:12; 10:5-7; cf. 10:20). Whatever Qohelet’s wealth, it was not so great as to keep him from having compassion upon those struggling with common problems of daily living. And his appeal to simplicity and community in chapter 4 indicates that his ethic does not justify selfish luxury.

There are hints that the author is no longer a young man. His investigations include matters most appropriate to the more elderly (inheritance, death, disability). His exhortations in 11:7-10 are addressed (wistfully, perhaps) to the young, while the final poem involving old age implies familiarity with that stage of life (12:1-7). The address to my child by the editor in 12:12 is a standard motif of the sages, yet it also reflects the reality that it is seasoned ones such as Qohelet who instruct the young and less experienced. These clues suggest that Qohelet was an educated sage living in Palestine, having at least moderate financial means, and being at least middle aged.

Readers and reading communities bring their own sets of experience, values, and sensitivity to the text that shapes their interpretation. But this seems to be especially so when reading Qohelet’s book. Harold Kushner (37), for example, describes how as a young man he was convinced that Qohelet was also rather young, an idealistic young enemy of falsehood and foolishness, a challenger of pomp and pretense. But when Kushner passed the age of fifty, he became convinced that Qohelet was a bitter, weary man past the mid-point of his life, … a very frightened man (see discussion of the book’s message below). In these determinations, Kushner does not distinguish between the book’s actual author and its speaking voice (or implied author). At any rate, Qohelet has crafted his speaking voice in such a way as to earn the trust of a variety of readers in a variety of circumstances.

The Audience of Ecclesiastes

As for Qohelet’s audience, comments in the book suggest the circumstances of a hardworking and possibly harassed group. Oppression and uncertainty exist around them (4:1; 5:9). They are roughly of the middle classes and thus are not the poorest (they may have servants; 7:21), but also are not those in positions of great advantage (5:8). As is the case with other wisdom writings of the culture (cf. Proverbs), the target audience is predominantly male (see discussion at 7:23-29; 9:9; and 12:12-14). They are motivated by envy of the wealthy (4:4; 9:6) and need to know how to relate discreetly with those in power (8:1-5; 10:4, 16-20). The results of their labor may disappear at any time due to disaster or to a stranger (5:13-15; 6:2). Yet they know no other way. So they work hard, even when it does not seem to be for any good purpose (4:7-8). Through work and wisdom they expect more security and pleasure to be theirs. But any gain, such as pleasure or security, is hard to achieve (1:3; 3:9). Members of this group hang on to hope: if they can exert just a bit more effort, perhaps these can be attained.

The author presents himself as being concerned for his audience. He sees that they have become trapped into viewing every part of their lives, even their religious practice, as a means of manipulating their own success and security. Yet in their determination to achieve the good things in life, they are actually missing those very things. The goal of Qohelet’s instruction, then, is to persuade his audience of another way of living, a proper assessment of work, pleasure, wisdom, and worship that will allow them to make the most of both the good times and the bad times (7:14 T/NIV).

Genre and Structure of the Book

The book of Ecclesiastes is a kind of philosophical notebook, something that has only partial precedent elsewhere among the wisdom literature of the ANE. It contains what are sometimes called reflections: observations that are stated, then considered from several points of view, followed by a conclusion. Although the structure of the book is rather loose and thematically overlapping, this does not indicate a lack of coherence. Sometimes the most systematic of philosophical thinkers, such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, have struggled to arrange their thoughts as neatly as they would like.

Broadly speaking, the book fits among the literature known as wisdom and, more specifically, existential wisdom [Wisdom and Wisdom Literature, p. 267]. The form or genre of Ecclesiastes is most similar to royal inscription and to royal autobiography, two related literary types found in the ANE. The (nonfictional) royal inscription, in which kings boast about their greatness and their accomplishments, is most similar to Ecclesiastes 1:12–2:26 (see commentary), where Qohelet, taking the guise of a king, parodies a royal bragging list. The (fictional) royal autobiography is the apparent memoir of a monarch who writes in order to pass along wisdom gained from experience. Both types report the experiences of the king, but the autobiography targets an audience that is preparing for positions of societal leadership. Beginning with chapter 3, the Teacher ponders a variety of human experiences, though not only those applicable to persons in leadership training. Part of Qohelet’s purpose in borrowing from these literary forms is to challenge the values typically espoused by royalty (Seow 1995; Longman 1991). Because a piece of writing can best be understood within its historical and literary setting, the commentary will occasionally note similarities and