Four Portraits, One Jesus, 2nd Edition: A Survey of Jesus and the Gospels

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ONTENTS

List of Abbreviations

Introduction

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NTRODUCTION TO THE

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OUR

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OSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels?

2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels: Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research

3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories: Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research

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ETTING OF THE

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OSPELS

4. The Historical and Geographical Setting of the Gospels

5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism

6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels

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OUR

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7. Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God

8. Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah

9. Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People

10. John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father

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11. Searching for the Real Jesus

12. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels

13. The Contours and Chronology of Jesus’ Ministry

14. Jesus’ Birth and Childhood.

15. The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry

16. The Message of Jesus

17. The Miracles of Jesus

18. The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus

19. The Death of Jesus

20. The Resurrection of Jesus

Conclusion

Glossary

Index

E

XPANDED

C

ONTENTS

List of Abbreviations

Introduction

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NTRODUCTION TO THE

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OUR

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OSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels?

Four Gospels, One Jesus

The Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John

The Gospel Genre

The Gospels Are Historical Literature

The Gospels Are Narrative Literature

The Gospels Are Theological Literature

Why Were the Gospels Written?

The Gospel Audiences: To Whom Were the Gospels Written?

Why Four Gospels?

Why Only Four Gospels?

Reading the Gospels Today

Reading Vertically: Following the Story Line

Reading Horizontally: Comparing Their Accounts

When Is a Harmony Legitimate?

Conclusion

Addendum: Sources for Information about Jesus outside of the Gospels

The Letters of Paul

Greco-Roman Sources

Flavius Josephus

Later Jewish Sources

Apocryphal Gospels

Agrapha

Conclusion

2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels: Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research

How the Gospels Came to Be: The Development of the Gospel Tradition

Source Criticism and the Synoptic Problem

Why Are the Three Synoptic Gospels So Similar?

Traditional Solutions to the Synoptic Problem

The Literary Interdependence of the Synoptics

Markan Priority

The Two- (or Four-) Source Theory: Mark + Q (+ M & L)

The Farrer Hypothesis

Matthean Priority: The Griesbach-Farmer Hypothesis

Conclusion: Observations and Cautions toward a Solution

Form Criticism: Seeking the Spoken Word behind the Written Word

Method of Form Criticism

Assessment of Form Criticism

Redaction Criticism: Studying the Evangelists as Purposeful Editors

Method of Redaction Criticism

Assessment of Redaction Criticism

3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories: Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research

Narrative Criticism: The Gospels as Story

The Storyteller

Narrative World and Evaluative Point of View

The Story Receiver

Plot: The Progress of the Narrative

Characters

Setting

Rhetoric: Narrative Patterns and Literary Devices

Assessment of Narrative Criticism

Other Methods and Approaches

Rhetorical Criticism

Performance Criticism

Canon Criticism

Structuralism

Poststructuralism and Deconstruction

Reader-Response Criticism

Feminist Criticism

Ethnic, Liberationist, and Postcolonial Approaches

The Approach of This Text

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4. The Historical and Geographical Setting of the Gospels

The Persian Period (539–334 BC)

The Greek Period (334–166 BC)

Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of Palestine (334–323 BC)

Ptolemaic Domination of Palestine (323–198 BC)

Seleucid Domination of Palestine (198–166 BC)

The Maccabees and Jewish Independence (166–63 BC)

The Maccabean Revolt (166–135 BC)

The Hasmonean Dynasty (135–63 BC)

The Roman Period (63 BC–AD 135)

Herod the Great

The Herodian Dynasty

Roman Rule and the Pax Romana

The Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73

After the War

Geography and Ethnicities

Israel and Palestine

Hebrews, Israelites, Jews

Judeans and Galileans

Samaria and Samaritans

Phoenicia

Decapolis

Syria

Perea

Nabatea

Idumea

5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism

Core Jewish Beliefs

Monotheism

The Covenant: Israel as God’s Chosen People

The Law (Torah): Standards for Covenant Faithfulness

Temple, Priesthood, and Sacrifices

One Temple for the One True God

Levites and Priests

The High Priest

The Sanhedrin

Synagogues, Scribes, and the Study of Torah

Synagogue Worship

Scribes

Groups within Judaism

Sadducees

Pharisees

Essenes

Zealots, Social Bandits, and Other Revolutionaries

Herodians

People of the Land (Am-ha-Eretz)

Trends in First-Century Judaism

Apocalypticism

Messianic Expectation

Literary Sources for First-Century Jewish Life

Josephus

Philo

The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Apocrypha

The Pseudepigrapha

Rabbinic Writings

6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels

Daily Life in New Testament Times

The Family

Food and Meals

Clothing and Style

Villages, Towns, and Cities

Work, Trades, and Professions

Commerce, Transportation, and Communication

Entertainment and Leisure

Social Values

Group Rather Than Individual Mentality

Honor and Shame

Family and Kinship

Hospitality

Social Status and Position in Life

Patronage

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7. Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God

Literary Features

Literary Style

Topical Ordering of Events

Intercalation or Sandwiching

Triads, or Sets of Threes

Irony

Structure

The Plot of Mark’s Gospel

Introduction: The Preparation of the Messiah and Son of God (1:1–13)

The Authoritative Words and Deeds of the Messiah and Son of God (1:14–8:30)

The Suffering of the Messiah as the Servant of the Lord (8:31–15:47)

Conclusion: The Resurrection Announced (16:1–8)

Mark’s Portrait of Jesus: The Suffering Messiah and Son of God

Other Characters in Mark’s Gospel

The Antagonists: Satan’s Forces and the Religious Leaders

The Disciples: Antagonists or Protagonists?

Minor Characters

Theological Themes

The Kingdom of God

Jesus the Servant-Messiah

Discipleship: Following the Servant’s Suffering Path

Narrative Purpose

The Historical Setting of Mark’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting

Authorship

Setting and Occasion

Reading Mark Today

8. Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah

Literary Features

Concise Style

Fulfillment Formulas and Old Testament Quotations

Topical Arrangement

Structural Signals and Matthew’s Outline

The Plot of Matthew’s Gospel

Prologue: The Genealogy and Birth Narrative (Chaps. 1–2)

The Appearance of the Messiah (3:1–4:11)

The Ministry of the Messiah to Israel (4:12–10:42)

The Responses to the Messiah: Rejection by Israel, Acceptance by the Disciples (Chaps. 11–20)

The Messiah Confronts Jerusalem (Chaps. 21–25)

The Messiah Is Rejected: Arrest, Trial, and Crucifixion (Chaps. 26–27)

The Messiah Is Vindicated: The Resurrection and the Great Commission (Chap. 28)

Matthew’s Portrait of Jesus: The Messiah

Jesus the Messiah

Immanuel: The Presence and Wisdom of God

Jesus the Son of God

Other Characters in Matthew’s Gospel

The Disciples

Peter among the Disciples

The Religious Leaders

The Crowds

Theological Themes

Promise-Fulfillment and the Climax of Salvation History

The Kingdom of Heaven

Jesus and the Law

Narrative and Theological Purpose

The Historical Setting of Matthew’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting

Audience and Occasion

Place and Date

Authorship

Reading Matthew Today

9. Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People

Literary Features

The Unity of Luke and Acts

Luke’s Sources

Literary Style

Historiography

The Travel Narrative or Journey to Jerusalem

The Plot of Luke’s Gospel

The Prologue (1:1–4)

The Birth of the Savior (1:5–2:52)

The Preparation of the Savior (3:1–4:13)

The Galilean Ministry of the Savior (4:14–9:50)

The Mission of the Savior: The Journey to Jerusalem (9:51–19:27)

The Savior in Jerusalem: Conflict and Controversy (19:28–21:38)

The Passion of the Savior in Jerusalem (22:1–23:56)

The Resurrection and Ascension of the Savior (24:1–53)

Luke’s Portrait of Jesus: The Savior for All People

Prophet Like Moses, Mighty in Word and Deed

Messiah, the Lord

Other Characters in Luke’s Gospel

Apostles in Training

The Religious Leaders

Theological Themes

Promise-Fulfillment: The Salvation of God

The Dawn of Salvation and the Coming of the Spirit

Divine Sovereignty and the Purpose of God

Salvation for Outsiders: A New Age of Reversals

Jerusalem and the Temple: Settings of Rejection and Salvation

Joy, Praise, and Celebration

Prayer and Intimate Fellowship with the Father

The Historical Setting of Luke’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting

Authorship

Date

Occasion and Narrative Purpose

Reading Luke Today

10. John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father

Literary Features

Unique Content

Unique Literary Style

The Relationship of John to the Synoptics

Two Historical Settings, Two Levels of Meaning

Structure

Teaching Types: Personal Conversations, Public Debate, and Private Teaching

The Signs of the Gospel

Metaphor and Symbol

Irony

The Plot of John’s Gospel

The Prologue (1:1–18)

The Book of Signs (1:19–12:50)

The Book of Glory (13:1–20:31)

Epilogue (21:1–25)

John’s Portrait of Jesus: The Son Who Reveals the Father

Other Characters in John’s Gospel

The Disciples

The Antagonists: The Religious Leaders, the World, and Satan

Minor Characters

Theological Themes

The Revelation of the Father through the Son

Salvation as Knowing God, Eternal Life in the Present

The Paraclete

Narrative Purpose

The Historical Setting of John’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting

Authorship

The Composition of the Gospel: A Johannine Community?

Place, Occasion, and Date

Reading John Today

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11. Searching for the Real Jesus

The Historical Quests for Jesus

The First Quest: The Nineteenth-Century Quest for the Historical Jesus

No Quest: Rudolf Bultmann and the End of the First Quest

The New (Second) Quest and the Post-Bultmannians (1953–1970s)

The Third Quest

Questions of Method and Context

Is the Quest Legitimate? Historical Pessimism versus Historical Optimism

Worldview Considerations: Natural or Supernatural Presuppositions?

What Is Our Data? The Scope and Reliability of Sources

How Do We Proceed? Inductive versus Deductive Methodologies

What Was Jesus’ Context?

What Was Jesus’ Message? An Eschatological or Noneschatological Kingdom?

What Criteria Do We Use?

Criteria of Authenticity

Criterion of Dissimilarity

Criterion of Multiple Attestation

Criterion of Embarrassment

Criterion of Semitic Flavor

Criterion of Divergent Traditions

Criterion of Coherence

Contemporary Portraits of Jesus

A Political or Social Revolutionary

A Cynic-Like Philosopher

A Charismatic or Spirit-Endowed Holy Man

A Jewish Sage or Wisdom Teacher

An Eschatological Prophet

The Messiah

Conclusion

12. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels

The Role of Presuppositions in Historical Research

Were the Gospel Writers Biased?

Starting Points: A Hermeneutic of Suspicion or Trust?

The Burden of Proof

Luke-Acts and Ancient History Writing

A Generally Reliable Gospel Tradition

The Testimony of the Eyewitnesses

The Faithful Transmission of the Gospel Tradition

The Church’s Willingness to Preserve Difficult Sayings and Accounts

The Distinction between the Words of Jesus and of Christian Prophets

The Absence of Discussion on Key Issues in the Later Church

The Ethical Argument: Were the Disciples Deceivers?

Contradictions between the Gospels?

Paraphrasing and Interpretation

Abbreviation and Omission

Reordering of Events and Sayings

Reporting Similar Events and Sayings

The Historical Reliability of John

The Author as Eyewitness

Alleged Contradictions with the Synoptics

John’s Style and Jesus’ Words

The Christology of John

Conclusion: The Gospels as History and Theology

13. The Contours and Chronology of Jesus’ Ministry

Basic Contours of Jesus’ Ministry

A Portrait of Jesus from Afar

The General Progress of Jesus’ Ministry

A Chronology of Jesus’ Life

The Date of Jesus’ Birth

The Date of Jesus’ Ministry

The Date of Jesus’ Crucifixion

14. Jesus’ Birth and Childhood

The Genre of the Birth Narratives: History or Fiction?

The Ancestry of Jesus

The Virginal Conception

Bethlehem Birthplace

The Census

The Birth of Jesus

Jesus’ Family Life

15. The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry

John the Baptist, Herald of Messianic Salvation

The Baptism of Jesus

The Temptation of Jesus

16. The Message of Jesus

Jesus the Teacher

Jesus’ Central Message: The Kingdom of God

The Jewish Background

Jesus and the Kingdom

Jesus and the Law: The Ethics of the Kingdom

The True Essence of the Law

Jesus as Fulfillment of the Law

The Greatest Commandment and the Character of God

Grace and Works: The Free Gift and the Cost of Discipleship

Social Justice: The Rich and the Poor

The Parables of the Kingdom

The Nature of Parables

The Purpose of the Parables: To Reveal and to Conceal

Interpreting the Parables

17. The Miracles of Jesus

The Question of Miracles

Philosophical Objections to Miracles

Miracles and the Historical Method

Did Jesus Perform Miracles?

Ancient Parallels to Jesus’ Miracles

The Significance of Jesus’ Miracles: The Power and Presence of the Kingdom

Exorcisms

Healings

Raising the Dead

Nature Miracles

Conclusion

18. The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus

The Authority of Jesus

Announcing and Inaugurating the Kingdom

Authority over Demons and Disease

Authority to Speak for God: Jesus’ Use of Amēn (Truly I Say to You)

Authority over the Law and the Sabbath

Authority to Forgive Sins

Authority at the Final Judgment

The Aims of Jesus

Calling Disciples: A New Community of Faith

Dining with Sinners: The Universal Offer of the Kingdom

Jesus and the Gentiles: Salvation for All Humanity

The Triumphal Entry

Cleansing the Temple

The Messianic Titles

Messiah (Christ)

Son of Man

Son of God

Lord

Jesus as God?

19. The Death of Jesus

Historical Circumstances of the Death of Jesus

Pilate and the Romans

Jewish Opposition

Jesus’ Perspective on His Coming Death

Did Jesus Foresee His Death?

The Significance of Jesus’ Death

20. The Resurrection of Jesus

Rationalistic Explanations for the Resurrection

The Swoon Theory

The Wrong Tomb Theory

The Theft Theory

Visionary and Legendary Development Theories

Historical Evidence for the Resurrection

Jesus Was Crucified by the Romans around AD 30

Jesus Was Buried in the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea

The Tomb Was Discovered Empty on the Third Day

Many Credible Witnesses Saw Jesus Alive

The Transformed Lives of the Disciples

The Significance of the Resurrection

The Jewish Background

The Significance of the Resurrection for Jesus and the Church

Conclusion

Glossary

Index

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BBREVIATIONS

I

NTRODUCTION

Congratulations! You are about to embark on a study of the most important person in human history. To Christian believers, the Gospels record the greatest story ever told, the events of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus the Messiah. They narrate the climax and turning point of human history, when God acted decisively to achieve salvation for people everywhere. To study the Gospels is to study the foundation of Christianity.

Even to those who do not follow Jesus as their Lord, the Gospels serve as the primary source documents for information about the most influential life ever lived. Jesus of Nazareth has been the topic of more books, movies, discussions, and debates than any person in history. Even our calendar is dated from the beginning of this man’s life. Millions have dedicated their lives to serving him. Countless thousands have died as martyrs for his cause. Great good has been done in his name, from feeding the poor to educating children, to providing medical aid and developmental assistance for impoverished nations. Great evil has also been done, from crusades of conquest to the slaughter of innocent people, to the torture of those labeled heretics.

But who was this man Jesus, and how did his movement begin? In this textbook, we will examine the nature and content of the four gospels, the primary source documents on the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. Where did these books come from? What was their purpose? What can they tell us about Jesus? These are the questions we will seek to answer.

This book is an introductory survey. Part 1 (chaps. 1–3) provides information concerning the nature of the Gospels and methods that have been developed for their study. Part 2 (chaps. 4–6) is concerned with the historical, religious, and cultural background to the Gospels—their first-century setting. Part 3 (chaps. 7–10) is a study of the four gospels as narrative literature—their content, themes, and theology. Finally, part 4 (chaps. 11–20) turns to the question of the historical Jesus, examining

the Jesus quests of the last three centuries, the historical reliability of the Gospels, and the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.

This second edition of the text includes an expanded and updated bibliography, the introduction of new theories (e.g., the Farrer hypothesis to the synoptic problem), new methods (e.g., performance criticism), a new section on geography, expanded discussion on various topics, and a significant increase in footnotes citing primary sources and seminal works. Because this is an introductory survey, however, I have continued to keep footnotes to a minimum. Instead, bibliographies at the end of each chapter direct the student to resources for further study.

No one approaches history as an unbiased observer, and it would be naive to assume that this textbook could be written without presuppositions or a point of view. It is appropriate, therefore, to state my own. My goal is to produce a text that is both methodologically critical and confessionally evangelical (in the traditional [nonpolitical] sense of that term). The text is critical in that it seeks to utilize the best literary and historical tools and resources available today. I have also tried to present the data in a fair and balanced manner, without glossing over problems or selectively manipulating results. The text is evangelical in that it is written from the perspective of one who confesses Jesus as Lord, and who believes that these gospels are not merely human documents but the inspired and authoritative Word of God. While I will seek not to let these assumptions bias a critical analysis, it is unnecessary and even inappropriate to deny them. Indeed, adopting the same evangelical mind-set of the Evangelists (the gospel writers) will allow us to enter their world more fully and to hear the gospel story as it was intended to be heard—as the good news of salvation achieved through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus the Messiah.

In the first edition of this text, I expressed my gratitude to those who read parts or all of my drafts and offered many insights and suggestions, especially scholars Frank Thielman, Gary Burge, Jeannine Brown, and Donald Verseput, and students Marci Ford, Bill Zettinger, Janice Raymond, and Mike Anderson. I remain grateful to these friends, as well as those at Zondervan who labored with me to bring the work to fruition, especially Stan Gundry (who first approached me about its writing), Jack Kuhatschek, Katya Covrett, Brian Phipps, and (for this second edition) Laura Weller and Dale Williams. My gratitude now extends to all those over the past decade who have used the text for their own study and for courses they have taught or attended. I am most grateful for the encouragement I have received as well as the many helpful suggestions.

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INTRODUCTION TO

THE FOUR GOSPELS

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