Health Benefits of Green Tea: An Evidence-based Approach

Preface

Tea, made from the leaves of the plant Camellia sinensis, has been used as a medicinal herb for thousands of years. In modern days, green and black tea are popular beverages widely consumed worldwide. Black tea is the most common type of tea consumed, mostly in Western countries; whereas green tea is more popular in Asian countries, such as Japan and China. Many classical writings have described the beneficial effects of tea. The production, properties and medicinal value of tea were described in the epic book Cha Jing (Classics of Tea) by Lu Yu, the Chinese Saint of Tea in the 8th century. The health-beneficial effects of tea were described in Japan in the book Kissa Youjouki (Tea and Health Promotion) in the 13th century by Zen priest Eisai. In his renowned book Ben Cao Gang Mo (Compendium of Materia Medical) in the 16th century, Li Shizhen, a great Chinese physician and pharmacologist, described in detail the beneficial and possible deleterious effects of tea. These classical writings were primarily based on experience and observations. Can they sustain the scrutiny of modern scientific research criteria?

During the past decades, the possible health-beneficial effects of the different types of tea have been studied extensively using modern scientific methods, and many of the results have been published in scientific journals. A literature search in PubMed in January 2017 under the key words tea and health yielded 4951 publications. However, some of the beneficial effects of tea may have been over-interpreted in the news media and popular magazines. In this book titled Health Benefits of Green Tea: An Evidence-based Approach, the scientific data and bases for many of the reported health-beneficial effects of green tea and tea constituents are discussed. Black tea and other types of tea (such as white tea and Pu-erh tea) are also discussed in some chapters. Since green tea closely resembles the original tea leaves in chemical composition, it is important to understand the properties and activities of green tea first. This knowledge can be used subsequently to understand the properties and activities of other types of tea, whose compositions are altered during postharvest processing. This book is intended to provide the background and research results to serve as a core of information, upon which new research information can be built. Most of the chapters of this book were written by Japanese scientists, who have a tradition to conduct systematic studies on different aspects of tea during the past several decades. Many of the results and concepts described in some of the chapters were published in Japanese journals, which may not be commonly read by Western investigators.

In this book, Part 1 provides a general perspective about research on tea and health, including a brief historical view (Chapter 1) and studies from China (Chapter 3), Japan (Chapter 4) and Africa (Chapter 5). Chapter 2 describes a specification for Japanese green tea. Chapter 6 on the synthesis of catechin probes for molecular dynamic studies explains why these are important for understanding the mechanisms of action of tea catechins. In addition, Chapter 7 on the bioavailability and biotransformation of tea polyphenols provides a background for understanding the biological activities of tea constituents inside the body. In Part 2, the anticancer effects are discussed. It starts with Chapter 8 discussing the molecular mechanisms of cancer prevention and therapy by tea catechins and their relevance in humans. It is followed by Chapter 9 on colorectal cancer prevention by tea catechins in the laboratory to their application in human prevention studies. Chapter 10 on the 67 kDa laminin receptor as a target for (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) illustrates the power of in-depth mechanistic investigations to help us understand the basis of the biological effects. The final chapter of Part 2 (Chapter 11) is devoted to the important topic of clinical trials and drug development.

As diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and related diseases are major health issues in modern society, Part 3 is devoted to discussions on the beneficial effects of green tea in preventing these diseases. Chapters 12, 13, and 15 are dedicated to the reduction of body fat and prevention of obesity. Chapter 16 is devoted to the anti-diabetic effects and Chapter 14 to the preventive effects against cardiovascular diseases by green tea catechins. Part 4 discusses many other health-beneficial effects including chapters on multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens (Chapter 17), influenza and the common cold (Chapter 18), immunomodulation (Chapter 19), oral health (Chapter 25), and radioprotective effects (Chapter 26). Chapters on the preventive effects of catechins against hepatitis and liver fibrosis (Chapter 20), aging, neurodegeneration, and dementia (Chapters 21 and 22) are also included. A unique amino acid in tea, theanine, and other tea constituents on stress and aging are discussed in Chapter 24. The effects of a high-molecular-weight polyphenol preparation derived from black tea and oolong tea on mitochondrial functions are discussed in Chapter 23. The book finishes with the effects of catechins on intestinal microbiota and health (Chapter 27), and much of the research was conducted before the importance of the gut microbiome was appreciated.

It has been my pleasure to work with Dr. Yukihiko Hara, the Editor in Chief of this book who provided the leadership; and co-editors Drs. Mamoru Isemura and Isao Tomita, who worked tirelessly to make this book a success. We believe the chapters collected in this book reflect our current understanding of the prevention of major chronic and some infectious diseases by tea and tea constituents. Some common themes for the actions of tea polyphenols against different diseases, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolism-regulatory actions, are emerging. The modern experimental results provided a scientific basis for some of the beneficial health effects described in the classical literature. It is important for future studies to better elucidate the molecular basis for the beneficial as well as possible harmful effects of tea constituents to human health. We hope the information presented in this book would help researchers to design laboratory and human studies to address this issue.

Chung S. Yang

Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA

1 Efficacy of Tea in Human Health

Isao Tomita

*

University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan

*tomitit@aqua.ocn.ne.jp

Abstract

Recent scientific findings on the effects of tea (Camellia sinensis) on human health are reviewed. Some mechanistic explanations are discussed in relation to the special nature of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate which works not only as an antioxidant but also as pro-oxidant. Though there are still some discrepancies between the results in animal models and those of epidemiological studies, the reasons will be uncovered in the near future.

Keywords: antioxidant, chronic disease prevention, health effects, pro-oxidant, tea catechins

1.1 How the Physiological Effects Caused by Tea Drinking Attracted Humans

There are many legends which told us to explain why the people in ancient China began to drink tea. One of the stories told is about Wan Tu, the ancient Chinese emperor. He was banished to a remote southern part of China (Yunnan province) due to his cruel and tyrannizing governance. One day, he was sitting in the shade of a large bush in the area where Camellia sinensis grew and drank hot water. There, he found that some leaves were floating in the hot water. After he drank the brewed tea with the leaves, he felt excited and freed from fatigue (Wild, 1994).

It is now known that the leaves of tea (C. sinensis) contain caffeine (2–4% in dry leaves) and theobromine (~0.1%) both of which are soluble in hot water and show special physiological functions, such as stimulation of the central nervous system. It is also well known that the tea leaves contain a large amount of catechins (8–20% of the dry weight) of which the major one is (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (Fig.1.1).

Fig. 1.1. Chemical structures of catechin and its related compounds. AIDS, acquired immune deficiency syndrome; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; UV, ultraviolet.

Tea catechins are oxidized to various dimerization products, theaflavins, theasinensins, and proantocyanidins and further to polymerization products, thearubigins, in the process of tea preparation (Fig. 1.1). The taste of tea is very unique: bitter, and astringent because of the presence of the above substances. It may be worth knowing that their contents are quite different depending on the species of Camellia leaves. The leaves of C. sinensis, Camellia taliensis, and Camellia irrawadiensis are all known to contain caffeine, theobromine, and catechins, but other species such as Camellia furfuraceae and Camellia sasanqua have no such components (Nagata and Sakai, 1984, 1985). Tea leaves are also known to contain the special amino acid, theanine (0.5–3%) which is rarely found in the plant kingdom.

1.2 Strong Antioxidant Properties of Tea and its Relation to Disease Prevention

Since tea drinking has a long history of more than 3000 years, there have been many scientific research studies on the nature of the components. These include isolation of the responsible substances for their characteristic taste, color, aroma, and physiological functions. However, it was not until the late 20th century that the research on tea as a functional food (beverage) was carried out. It was at this time that it was found that oxygen radicals, such as the superoxide anion radical (·O2–) and the hydroxyl radical (·OH) formed from various stimulants, could cause degenerative disease and even aging. The term oxidant stress has become popular, and it was believed to be a main cause in developing diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, stroke, coronary heart disease, diabetes, and so on. The negative correlation between the mortality of such chronic diseases and the consumption of common vegetables and fruits containing various flavonoids as antioxidants seemed to accelerate this area of research (Hertog, 1996).

Cao et al. (1997) reported that tea has a very strong antioxidant activity compared with those of common vegetables in their ORAC (oxygen radical absorbing capacity) assay. We also recognized that the tea extracts as well as its main constituent, EGCG and its metabolites, exerted strong antioxidant activities in rats (Tomita et al., 1998). The development of evaluating methods for detection of antioxidant activities using TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reacting substances), 15-isoprostane F2t and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine as biomarkers contributed greatly to this area of research.

In another area of study at that time, a convenient method using microorganisms such as Salmonella typhimurium TA and Escherichia coli WP2 to detect mutagenic and antimutagenic substances was employed, and pioneering works on the antimutagenic properties of tea extracts were reported in 1984–1985 (Kuroda and Hara, 1999). Their anticarcinogenic effects in various assay systems at the stage of anti-initiation and anti-promotion were also demonstrated and reported (Nakamura et al., 1997). General mechanisms of antimutagenesis and anticarcinogenesis were discussed in detail in the First International Conference which was held at the University of Kansas, USA in October 1985. The presentation on the effects of tea (extracts) seemed to attract successive research in different and diverse fields. Tea research done in the last 30 years has revealed that green as well as black tea will be the most common and acceptable beverage to avoid or decrease the risk of various diseases (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2. Possible effects of tea on health. AIDS, acquired immune deficiency syndrome; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; UV, ultraviolet.

However, now, we have to respond to the question: Why are the antioxidant effects of tea catechins and their related compounds so powerful despite their limited absorption into the body? Their absorption is less than 2–3% of the intake, and the maximum concentration in blood is only 0.03–0.38 μmole/l for EGCG (T1/2 = 2.5–5.1 h) and it is far too low to expect direct antioxidant activity.

1.3 How Do Catechins Exert their Various Effects on Lifestyle-related Diseases?

In order to discuss the mechanistic explanation of tea catechins as the bio-antioxidant in connection to disease prevention, recent findings by several researchers on the effects of tea catechins for cell signaling or gene expression must be considered.

It is known that tea catechins as well as other flavonoids work as pro-oxidants (not only as an antioxidants) under some experimental conditions and produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in vitro and in vivo (Cao et al., 1997; Miura et al., 1998; Lambert and Elias, 2010). H2O2 is now known to be an important second messenger, transducing the oxidative signal into biological responses through post-translational protein modification (Forman et al., 2004). In the case of excess H2O2 production, however, it might deteriorate vascular functions, for example promoting vascular diseases through multiple pathways (Shimokawa and Satoh, 2015). Adverse effects may occur by intake of a high amount of green tea extracts (GTE) containing EGCG, possibly due to the suppression of the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and peroxidase in vivo (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3. Dual functions of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). EGCG produces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) under conditions of low activities of catalase/peroxidase. Hence, it acts as an antioxidant and pro-oxidant.

The problems on EGCG-triggered hepatotoxicity and the safety of green tea drinking or intake as a dietary supplement have been extensively discussed (Sarma et al., 2008; Navarro et al., 2013, 2017; Mazzanti et al., 2015; Teschke and Andrade, 2016). It might be related to the above H2O2 production, since the amounts of daily and long-time intake were quite excessive in these studies. For example, the intake of GTE from commercial tablets associated with hepatotoxicity is over 540 mg/day (Bonkovsky, 2006). Although some case reports suggest that liver failure may come from the daily intake of 400 mg EGCG (Patel et al., 2013), the failure might be due not only to the amount of EGCG consumed, but also to the amount of the substances that coexisted in its dietary supplements. A recent report by Isomura et al. (2016), based on their work of randomized controlled trials in humans (odds ratio as the result of four principal reports of 800–1600 mg of EGCG intake was 2.1), suggests that liver-related adverse effects upon intake of GTE or EGCG would be not so serious as long as they are not consumed excessively. Anyway, we should be careful not to have excessive intake of GTE or EGCG, even if they are believed to be an excellent natural medicine. It has been said that the last drop makes the cup run over. The potential hepatotoxicity of GTE or EGCG is also discussed in Chapter 20.

In contrast to the above discussion on the induction of hepatic failure in humans, beneficial effects of EGCG or GTE for not only viral hepatitis, but also non-alcoholic fatty liver disease of humans, have been suggested (Masterjohn and Bruno, 2012). These effects may be easily accepted, since EGCG has been known to have diverse effects such as lipid lowering (suppression of lipid synthesis, enhancement of insulin sensibility, and consumption of energy), suppression of lipid and glucose intake through the intestine, and anti-inflammatory activities, and hence it would contribute to body weight reduction and alleviation of a metabolic syndrome. The possible mechanistic explanation of these effects through AMP-activated protein kinase has been proposed recently (Yang and Hong, 2013; Yang et al., 2016) (see also Chapters 7 and 8).

In recent years, on the other hand, the presence of many special binding molecules for EGCG have been reported, such as the 67 kDa laminin receptor (Tachibana et al., 2004) (see also Chapter 10), vimentin (Ermakova et al., 2005), insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (Li et al., 2007), tyrosine protein kinase Fyn (He et al., 2008), and protein phosphatase 2A (Qin et al., 2008) as well. It is expected that they may explain the role of catechins as powerful antioxidants even at low levels in vivo. It must be noted that catechins also have a role in activating the nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2 and antioxidant response element (Shen et al., 2005).

1.4 Onko-Chishin–He that would know what shall be, must consider what has been

Historically, tea (drinking) was introduced into Japan by several famous Buddhist priests who studied the doctrines of Zen Buddhism in China. Eisai was one of them. He visited and stayed in China twice (1167 and 1187) and learned about Zen in depth. Along with learning the religious discipline of Zen Buddhism, he devoted himself to tea, which kept him out of fatigue during his spiritual exercise and made him convinced that it was good for maintaining physical as well as spiritual health. At the age of 71 (1211), he wrote Kissa Youjouki (the way to prevent diseases by drinking tea). By quoting Chinese literature, he described his belief about the effectiveness of tea, for human health. There is an especially important statement in the latter part of the above book telling us that The drug is for only one individual disease, while the tea prevents all kinds of diseases (Panacea).

The importance of tea for human health, not only for physical health but also for mental health, has been scientifically studied for the past 30 years. The significance of the presence of theanine in tea (about 1% in dry tea leaves) has been recognized and has drawn much attention in recent years. The main reason is that it might be a principal factor along with catechins to suppress cognitive dysfunction in the elderly. The details of the functions of theanine have been described by several authors including Yokogoshi et al. (1998) and these are also discussed in the current volume (see Chapters 22 and 24). There is a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of theanine, EGCG, and caffeine on cognitive function and mood (Camfield et al., 2014). For the reference of readers, the numbers of research papers published in English on tea catechins up to the year 2016 are shown in Fig. 1.4. Though the numbers of scientific reports on theanine are not large, they are steadily increasing in recent years.

Fig. 1.4. Change in the number of research papers published in English on tea catechins over the period 1983 to September 2016.

Finally, our present concern is that there still seems to exist some discrepancy between the fundamental research results using cells and animals and those of epidemiological studies in several areas of investigation. This might be one of the reasons why Dwyer and Peterson (2013) stated that: Epidemiologic investigations should be of sufficient size and duration to detect small effects, involve populations most likely to benefit, use more complete tea exposure assessment, and include both intermediary markers of risk as well as morbidity and mortality outcomes. The answer to this issue must wait for several years until experimental and epidemiological sciences are more advanced. The interested reader is referred to several comprehensive reports (Hara, 2001; Suzuki et al., 2012; Clifford et al., 2013; Hursel et al., 2013; Yuan, 2013; Kim et al., 2014; Blumberg et al., 2015; Chowdhury et al., 2016; Momose et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2016) and the findings in other references listed below for a better appreciation of tea for human health.

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2 Characteristics of Japanese Green Tea

Yoriyuki Nakamura

*

Tea Science Center, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan

* yori.naka222@u-shizuoka-ken.ac.jp

Abstract

Tea has been served as a non-alcoholic beverage for centuries, and has long been considered a source of health benefits. Many different types of tea have been developed over the years, depending on the variety of tea leaves, the harvest season, and the methods of cultivation and manufacture. Japanese green tea is brewed using a unique steaming process that inactivates oxidizing enzymes contained in the leaves, a process that ensures the retention of desirable aroma and taste traits. In addition, the green tea ceremony is an important cultural tradition in Japan, which has considerably influenced not only the tea-drinking habits but also the spiritual life of the Japanese people. The development and application of modern technologies and analytical approaches have led to the detailed examination of the components of tea and their specific health benefits, leading to the accumulation of a large body of scientific evidence regarding the health benefits of tea consumption.

Keywords: classification, cultivation, health benefit, history, Japanese green tea

2.1 Origins of Tea Plants

Tea, coffee, and cocoa are the three most popular non-alcoholic beverages worldwide; tea is the national drink of both China and India, the two most populated countries in the world, and globally is consumed by over two-thirds of the world’s population. Most tea plants are evergreen species within the genus Camellia, in the family Theaceae. There are over 90 species in the genus Camellia, which are distributed primarily in Asia, from Nepal in the west to Japan in the east. These species are organized into 12 sections (Sealy, 1958).

The tea plant Camellia sinensis belongs to the Thea section, along with four other species (Camellia irrawadiensis, Camellia taliensis, Camellia gracilipes, and Camellia pubicosta). Varieties of tea plants are divided into two main groups: C. sinensis var. sinensis, which is called the Chinese type. This type has small leaves and a bush-like tree (Fig. 2.1). C. sinensis var. assamica is called the Assam type and has large leaves and grows to become a tall tree (Fig. 2.2). Although these tea plants seem to have different origins, depending on plant morphology, they may have derived from the same parent species, given the frequency of hybridization events among tea species that results in viable hybrid seeds.

Fig. 2.1. An old tea garden of Camellia sinensis var. sinensis in Japan.

Fig. 2.2. An old big tea plant of Camellia sinensis var. assamica in the Vietnam and Chinese border region.

The parent tea-plant species is thought to have originated in south-western China. The large number of centuries-old tea plants found in this region of Asia encompass a wide range of morphological and physiological traits, and the climate of these provinces is characterized by warm temperature, ample rainfall, and good drainage, which are suitable for tea cultivation. Moreover, soils in this region are ideal for growing tea plants, and were unaffected by past glaciation events (Chang, 1981; Zhuang, 1981).

2.2 History of Tea Consumption

Tea has been consumed in both liquid and a solid form since long before the Christian era. During early times, consumption of tea was restricted to the aristocrats and members of the sacerdotal class; however, tea products eventually became increasingly popular among ordinary people. It is believed that tea was primarily considered a highly precious herb, the consumption of which aided in the purification of the body and preservation of the mind.

Lu Yu (733–803), who is generally acknowledged as the founder of the tea culture, wrote a traditional book on tea during the era of China’s Tang Dynasty called the Classics of Tea or Cha Jing. This book traced the history of tea, the method and tools of cultivation and preparation, and the culture of tea drinking in China. Tea was introduced into Japan by Buddhists shortly thereafter, and into European countries by merchants.

Recent scientific and technological advances have facilitated the analysis of tea components, allowing researchers to examine and identify the specific components that provide health benefits, including nutritional, sensory, and body-modulating functionalities.

Some of the specific chemical components of tea include caffeine, catechins, and theanine, an amino acid unique to tea plants. Caffeine, an alkaloid, has a stimulatory effect; drinking tea thus helps to relieve drowsiness. Theanine, which helps relieve stress and promotes relaxation, is the major amino acid of the tea plant, and is responsible for the umami (good taste). The epigallocatechin gallate accounts for approximately 50% of the total amount of catechins and may reduce the risk of lifestyle-related diseases, whereas the bitter flavor of gallated catechins confers a briskness to the flavor of tea when served as a beverage.

2.3 Classification of Tea

Many varieties of tea have been developed over the long history of tea production, which differ in various aspects, such as harvest season, and methods of cultivation and production. In general, tea types are organized according to the degree of fermentation (oxidation); in China, for instance, tea types are grouped into six categories based on factors relating to fermentation, including: (i) the level of flavonoids, which are the precursors of the color pigments (Fig. 2.3); (ii) differences in catechin content; and (iii) the appearance of the infusion. Amino acid concentrations are high in green and white teas, but low in dark and black teas, whereas catechin concentrations are high in green, yellow, and white teas, but low in dark and black teas. Oxidizing enzymes become active during fermentation, which leads to alterations in several compounds present in the raw leaves: catechins, for example, are converted to theaflavins and thearubigins, whereas chlorophyll is converted to pheophytin, and the color of the leaves and the subsequent infusion transforms from green to brown or red.

Fig. 2.3. Tea made with the same tea leaf (left: green tea; center: blue tea; right: black tea).

Green tea: This type of tea includes both steamed tea (Japanese type) and pan-fired tea (Chinese type), and is consumed primarily in the form of unfermented and green-colored infusions. Green tea is the most common tea in Japan, but recently has gained popularity in many other parts of the world due to the recognition of its health benefits; thus, consumption of green tea is increasing globally. In Japan, in addition to sencha, the most common variety, there are several types of green tea that differ in taste and flavor, depending on the processing conditions (Kapoor et al., 2013). These include gyokuro, hojicha, kamairicha, kabusecha, and matcha, which are described in detail below (see Section 2.7).

Yellow tea: After withering, soft tea leaves are stacked to discolor the green chlorophyll, which gives this type of tea its characteristic yellowish infusion. Yellow tea is scented with phenolic methylsalicylic acid, and has a fresh aroma and a plain taste.

Dark tea: Dark tea is fermented by microbes, and has a brownish yellow or brownish red infusion and a mellow taste. The aroma is musty, smoky, and somewhat phenolic.

White tea: White tea is made from the tips of leaf buds that have attached white hairs, which are then allowed to wither and dry naturally. White tea, which is silver-tipped and elegant in appearance, is regarded as one of the highest-grade teas available in China.

Blue tea: Oolong is a typical type of blue tea. After withering, the leaves are subjected to semi-fermentation. Blue tea has an excellent aroma.

Black tea: Black, or fermented, tea is produced in four stages: (i) withering; (ii) rolling; (iii) fermentation; and (iv) drying/roasting. At present, black tea accounts for approximately 70% of global tea production.

2.4 Global Tea Cultivation

The tea-producing regions of the world are largely restricted to Asia and fall within a narrow band that extends over 40° latitude (from 5°S to 35°N) and 73° longitude (from 67°E to 140°E). More than 40 countries, including China, Japan, Vietnam, and South-east Asia, produce tea. In the early 20th century, the African nations of Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, and South Africa, as well as Iran, Turkey, and other small countries surrounding the Black Sea, also started producing tea. Since then, Brazil, Argentina, and Australia have also begun to produce tea. Approximately