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Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries: A Primer
Azioni libro
Inizia a leggereLunghezza: 683 pagine8 ore
- Editore:
- Elsevier Science
- Pubblicato:
- May 10, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780128147795
- Formato:
- Libro
Descrizione
Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries: A Primer offers a simple description on how different lithium-ion battery chemistries work, along with their differences. It includes a refresher on the basics of electrochemistry and thermodynamics, and an understanding of the fundamental processes that occur in the lithium-ion battery. Furthermore, it reviews each of the major chemistries that are in use today, including Lithium-Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium-Cobalt Oxide (LCO), Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium-Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), Lithium-Nickel Cobalt Aluminium (NCA), and Lithium-Titanate Oxide (LTO) and outlines the different types of anodes, including carbon (graphite, hard carbon, soft carbon, graphene), silicon, and tin.
In addition, the book offers performance comparisons of different chemistries to help users select the right battery for the right application and provides explanations on why different chemistries have different performances and capabilities. Finally, it offers a brief look at emerging and beyond-lithium chemistries, including lithium-air, zinc-air, aluminum air, solid-state, lithium-sulfur, lithium-glass, and lithium-metal.
Presents a refresher on the basics of electrochemistry and thermodynamics, along with simple graphics and images of complex concepts Provides a clear-and-concise description of lithium-ion chemistries and how they operate Covers the fundamental processes that occur in lithium-ion batteries Includes a detailed review of current and future chemistriesInformazioni sul libro
Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries: A Primer
Lunghezza: 683 pagine8 ore
Descrizione
Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries: A Primer offers a simple description on how different lithium-ion battery chemistries work, along with their differences. It includes a refresher on the basics of electrochemistry and thermodynamics, and an understanding of the fundamental processes that occur in the lithium-ion battery. Furthermore, it reviews each of the major chemistries that are in use today, including Lithium-Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium-Cobalt Oxide (LCO), Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium-Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), Lithium-Nickel Cobalt Aluminium (NCA), and Lithium-Titanate Oxide (LTO) and outlines the different types of anodes, including carbon (graphite, hard carbon, soft carbon, graphene), silicon, and tin.
In addition, the book offers performance comparisons of different chemistries to help users select the right battery for the right application and provides explanations on why different chemistries have different performances and capabilities. Finally, it offers a brief look at emerging and beyond-lithium chemistries, including lithium-air, zinc-air, aluminum air, solid-state, lithium-sulfur, lithium-glass, and lithium-metal.
Presents a refresher on the basics of electrochemistry and thermodynamics, along with simple graphics and images of complex concepts Provides a clear-and-concise description of lithium-ion chemistries and how they operate Covers the fundamental processes that occur in lithium-ion batteries Includes a detailed review of current and future chemistries- Editore:
- Elsevier Science
- Pubblicato:
- May 10, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780128147795
- Formato:
- Libro
Informazioni sull'autore
Dr John Warner is a sought-after and recognized battery industry expert and an experienced sales, business development, strategic marketing, and product management executive with nearly 30 years in the automotive and battery industries. Currently, Dr Warner serves as the founder and president at Warner Energy Consulting LLC and has led the sales and marketing functions for several major battery manufacturers and start-ups. Prior to his work in the battery industry Dr Warner worked with General Motors in a wide variety of leadership roles in program management, portfolio planning, strategy, and powertrain as well as another six years as an automotive product mechanical designer.
Dr Warner also serves as the president for the global industry trade group NAATBatt International and he also serves as the Chair for the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Battery Size Standardization Committee, Co-Chair for the SAE Bus Battery Safety committee, and Co-Chair for the SAE Advanced Battery Concepts Committee. He received his Doctor of Management, Organizational Leadership degree from the University of Phoenix, and his MBA, International Business and Leadership Studies and BA in Industrial Management from Baker College.
Correlati a Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries
Anteprima del libro
Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries - John T. Warner
296
Preface
John T. Warner
When the idea of writing a second book came to me, I was trying to get a better understanding of what was really happening inside of the lithium-ion battery. I spent more than a decade working in the sales, marketing, and executive management side of the lithium-ion battery business but I felt that I needed to get a better understanding of what was happening inside the electrochemical cell at the atomic level. In fact, the impetus of this book really comes from me realizing that I really did not know what an ion was. The ion is the core of the lithium-ion battery, but I realized that I had an idea what it was but really was not sure that I really understood what it was or how it worked. It then occurred to me that there could be many other people out there who would benefit from having a clear description of the operations that leads to a deeper understanding of the lithium-ion cell. It was this idea that led to the nearly year and a half I spent researching for this book. I researched the history and the future of each of the components of the lithium-ion battery cell, what were people researching in the past, and what are they researching now. I searched for the best and simplest descriptions for what was happening inside the battery cell. This part was critical as I really needed to break the operation down into its core pieces, which was not always easy as many texts did not agree with each other while others did agree but showed it from different perspectives which I found to be somewhat confusing.
At the same time, I realized that I was fielding a lot of calls about the raw materials for lithium-ion batteries. Where did they come from? Would there be enough? How are they processed? Since I was already looking at the functions and chemistries it was a natural fit to expand the scope to include some discussions on the materials which then led to the need to discuss the manufacturing steps for the modern lithium-ion battery. I based this chapter on the current processes and those that have been used over the past decade or so. There are many new processes that are being evaluated or beginning to be integrated into current processes but the fact is most of the current capacity is based on the same basic processes.
This book may offer a deeper dive than some people need, but I believe that for those of us in the lithium-ion battery industry having a deeper understanding of the fundamental science behind lithium-ion batteries it can help us to ensure we are able to find the right solution to each application. If you are in the battery industry but not a chemist, you may find that this book helps to clarify some of these concepts. I do not claim to make you a chemist once you are done, but you will have a much better understanding of what is happening inside the lithium-ion battery cell.
This book would not have been possible without the help of a lot of folks. First and foremost, my wife and children, whose support through the long writing and research process was instrumental in allowing me to complete this book. I have also been very fortunate in having some amazing mentors in the industry. At the top of the list is Bob Galyen, who as I write this is the Chief Technology Officer of the largest lithium-ion company in the world. In addition to his day job
Bob takes time to work with standards groups, he leads the SAE Vehicle Battery Standards Steering Committee and has served in each of the leadership roles of the industry trade group NAATBatt International, and today holds the role of Chairman Emeritus. But even with all these extracurricular activities he makes time to help mentor a group of executives and leaders to help develop the next generation of leaders in the industry. There are also several chemists and scientists who were kind enough to provide technical guidance and review to make sure I was able to accurately describe the complex reactions. I hope I have done them justice! Without this type of help and mentoring I may not have had the resources to be able to bring this book to completion.
I truly hope you enjoy and maybe even learn something new. Keep powering up!
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract
For many of us today electricity and lithium-ion batteries seem a lot like magic. Understanding just what magic is involved with bottling lightning and breaking down the how
of lithium-ion batteries to give the reader a clear and simple understanding of what is happening inside the battery cell is the focus of this book. Chapter 1 introduces the purpose, which is to help demystify the topic of battery chemistries and how they work and offer clear and simple explanations using graphics and images. Subsequently, it describes the method that I used to develop this book and the processes I used to come to the knowledge within the book. Relying on the process of inquiry similar to how knowledge has been created for thousands of years by some of the greatest thinkers in human history such as Plato, DaVinci, and Einstein this book attempts to reduce the complexity of battery chemistry and its operation to make it simple and easy to understand.
Keywords
Lithium-ion; Battery; Rate of technology change; Battery eras; Industrial age; Portable age; Mobile age
Chapter Outline
1.1Batteries and chemistry
1.2Chapter outline
In Greek mythology Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus as a gift to humanity. That gift was to be the spark that enabled technology to allow human civilization to truly take off (Hesiod, 2008). Today, technology continues to be a boon helping to make human life easier. And in fact, it has really become the foundation for modern life. Technology is the undercurrent that makes modern life run, but as it has gotten more complex we find that we really don’t understand much about it or how it works—we just expect it to work. And lithium-ion batteries can be considered the core of much of modern technology—it is the source that powers our life. In fact, it’s not difficult to draw a similarity between Prometheus’ fire and the harnessing of electricity by Ben Franklin, Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, and others.
But much like the Greeks, few of us really have a good understanding of how these technologies work—lithium-ion batteries fall directly into that category. For the clear majority of people today batteries, much like automobiles, computers, smart phones, and other technologies, just work—until they don’t—we use them, we charge them, but we don’t really understand how they work. We do not entirely understand how they do what they do and usually do not care until they run out of juice. Arthur C. Clarke, futurist and science fiction author wrote Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic
(Clarke, 1977, p. 39) and in fact, for many of us today electricity and lithium-ion batteries do seem a lot like magic. Just what magic is involved with bottling lightning? That is the focus of this book and I will do my best to bring the technologies surrounding lithium-ion battery chemistries down to Earth much like Prometheus. This book will break down the how
of lithium-ion batteries to give the reader a clear and simple understanding of what is happening inside the battery cell.
But the faster technology advances and the more mobile it becomes, the more dependent it is on having an adequate energy storage supply. Many current vehicle technologies, such as hybrid and electric vehicles, are enabled by the evolution of higher energy batteries that have allowed them to achieve greater fuel economy, electric drive capability, and reduced or even eliminating emissions. Even nonhybrid vehicles are highly dependent on electrical energy due to the emergence of technologies like lane departure warning, adaptive cruise controls, self-parking capabilities, and infotainment systems.
Other new technologies are emerging that are dependent on energy storage, such as autonomous vehicles, drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), unmanned or autonomous underwater vehicles (UUVs and AUVs), unmanned delivery vehicles, and household robotics just to name a few. All these technologies are enabled through the advancement of energy storage technologies and lithium-ion batteries are the preferred solution for many of them.
And that only covers vehicle and transportation technologies! At the end of the 20th century Bill Gates himself forecast that technology was about to bring humankind to an inflection point where …change in consumer use becomes sudden and massive
(Gates & Hemingway, 1999, p. xvi) that will create radical change in both our business and personal lives. Of course, Gates was referring to the impact of the internet, digital information, and connectivity which has not only proven to be a very accurate statement but may actually have underestimated the impact. Throughout the rest of our daily lives the addition and embedding of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) (International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2017) which describes all technologies that are interconnected through a network of communications and are today embedded in every aspect of our life. This includes smart phones, tablet computers, laptop computers, desktop computers, fitbits, 3D printers, smart thermostats, smart refrigerators, smart televisions, and an ever-increasing number of other appliances and tools. These technologies have a couple of things in common. One is that they are all becoming wireless and they can virtually all be connected via a wireless network and second is that many of them need some form of energy storage system, in other words a battery, to provide their power.
New medical technologies are being introduced every day due to the increasing capabilities of energy storage technologies. From wireless technology used in hospital equipment to implantable devices to wireless tools that can be used to diagnose and treat patients in remote villages that have no electrical infrastructure. All of these technologies are enabled due to the regular improvements that batteries have experienced over the past few years. And as the use of medical nanobots and microbots increases the next generation of solid-state batteries are being used to power them.
Wearable technology is also beginning to emerge in many different types of products, and electronics are even beginning to get embedded in our clothing. Beginning with the evolution of the wristwatch into a device that monitors your health, the number of steps you take, the number of steps you climb and now you can even get your email and your text messages on your wrist. Companies like Google have introduced technologies like their Google Glasses, to allow users to access the internet using eye tracking technologies. This is evolving into a new realm of virtual reality devices that allow us to see the world around us in a different manner. All these factors have pushed the demands on batteries even further.
As we have watched technology around us continue to evolve into more complex systems, it seems that our understanding of how things work has diminished at an equal rate, kind of like an inverse Moore’s Law. Think about that for a moment, do you really know how your smart phone works? What about your laptop or tablet computer, do you know what the different components are within them, what the software is made up of and how they function? Even your automobile has become a moving computer, 30 years ago it was common place for most people to be able to service their own vehicles but today you just about need to be an electrical engineer to work on a car. There’s not much room for the backyard mechanics any longer.
The speed of technology change continues to grow at an increasing rate. Looking at the length of the curves in Fig. 1 (Felton, 2008), we see that newer technologies appear to be seeing higher levels of adoption at a much faster rate than older technologies. For example, while the internet took only 15 years to reach 60% of U.S. households, the automobile took more than 50 years to reach and sustain 60% market penetration. Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, coined what came to become described as Moore’s Law
to describe the rate of technology change in relation to computer processors. Moore’s prediction that the number of components on a chip would double every year ended up being pretty accurate.
Fig. 1 Rate of technology change.
However, batteries have not experienced the same rate of change as computer processors. For nearly 150 years lead acid batteries were the pillar of battery technology, with very little change in energy density but significant improvements in manufacturability, life, and cost. Even modern nickel metal hydride batteries were not introduced until the early 1980s and not commercialized in large numbers until the early 1990s. The first commercial lithium-ion batteries were not introduced until 1991 but had been in development for more than a decade prior to their commercial introduction. In less than 30 years since their introduction lithium-ion batteries have grown from use in luxury devices to becoming the platform that powers our daily lives. In fact, if we look at the introduction of different secondary (rechargeable) batteries over the past 130 years we see three distinct stages of battery development. But the introduction of these newer chemistries did not displace the traditional lead acid batteries, in almost every case they ended up in a complementary or new product that could not have been served adequately by lead acid. Lead acid batteries continue to be the mainstay for vehicle starting and many other applications, and while we have seen some premium vehicles moving toward 12-V lithium-ion these prove to be the exception and not the rule but today battery technology is changing quickly.
As shown in Fig. 2 when we look at secondary battery energy density over time there appear to be three stages of battery development that have occurred over the past 130 years. The first stage I will call the Industrial Age
of batteries as these were the earliest batteries used to help power the burgeoning global Industrial Revolution era technologies. These batteries included many variations of lead acid batteries, Thomas Edison’s nickel-zinc and nickel-iron batteries, the sealed nickel-cadmium battery, the valve-regulated lead acid battery, and ended with the introduction of the first nickel metal hydride batteries. During this Industrial Age of batteries the manufacturing processes were improved, the costs were reduced, and the cycle life was increased, but there was not much improvement in energy density of secondary batteries during this period. During this nearly 100-year period we saw specific energy density increase on an average of only about 0.2 Wh/kg per year.
Fig. 2 Modern battery-specific energy over time.
The next stage of battery development I will call the Portable Age
as it coincided with the introduction of so many mobile technologies like the laptop computer, cell phone, smart phone, tablet computer, music player, video game, and many other technologies. During this period humanity began demanding that we should be able to bring our technologies with us everywhere we went, which led to the massive growth in mobile energy needs for these technologies. It was during this period that cellular telephones became commonplace and began to replace the land lines that had dominated personal communication for over a century. During this period we also saw the introduction of the laptop computer. Lithium-ion battery technology enabled both of these tools and gave them the power they needed to become everyday household items by making them truly portable. This Portable Age of batteries roughly begins with the introduction of the first commercial lithium-ion battery in 1991 at just under 90 Wh/kg and continues to late 2008/2009 when cell energy densities reached about 180 Wh/kg effectively doubling the energy in a battery cell.
Today, there is yet another energy storage shift happening as we move from simply portable to truly mobile. In this third age of batteries, the Mobile Age,
we see the battery technologies finally achieving high enough energies to be able to fully electrify vehicles. These efforts began in earnest in the mid-2000s but it was the 2009 introduction by the U.S. government of the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) which provided more than $2.3 billion dollars for …renewable energy generation, energy storage, advanced transmission, energy conservation, renewable fuel refining or blending, plug-in vehicles, and carbon capture and storage
(The White House: Office of the Press Secretary, 2016). This investment in the U.S. battery manufacturing industry led to the emergence of several companies that still continue to be major players in the world market today, these investments included an EnerDel factory in Indiana, and Dow-Kokam, Johnson Controls, A123 and LG Chem factories in Michigan, a Saft plant in Florida, as well as many other investments in battery manufacturing, recycling, and clean energy. These investments helped to accelerate the development of lithium-ion batteries and led to the current technologies that have reached as much as 285 Wh/kg. This equates to a specific energy density increase of an average of 10.5 Wh/kg per year over the past 28 years during the Portable and Mobile ages of batteries. So, comparing the Mobile and Portable Age rates of improvement to the Industrial Age rate of improvement, and then to the previous era of specific energy density the improvement is more than 51.5 times faster and even within the Mobile Age specific energy densities have increased in the range of 200% since the beginning of the Portable Age.
Of course, looking at it from the energy density perspective is only one way to look at the evolution of lithium-ion technology. Another is to look at it based on volumes compared to those developments. In Fig. 3 I outlined the commercialization timeline for the modern lithium-ion battery, beginning in the mid-1970s with the earliest laboratory research to about 1979 when Dr. John Goodenough at Oxford and Dr. Ned Godshall at Stanford made their first discoveries that led to the first commercial lithium-ion battery sales in by Sony 1991. From the first lab work to first commercial sales of 18650-type cells was about 16 years. From there the 18650 cell growth exploded as it found ready and willing applications in portable computing, cellular telephones, and similar portable electronic devices. But if we look at the fit for use
case for automotive electric vehicles, it took another 18 years before the first high-volume production electric vehicles powered by lithium-ion cells hit the streets—the Tesla Roadster, Chevrolet Volt, and Nissan Leaf. It was still nearly 10 more years before the cumulative PHEV and EV sales in the United States reached 1 million units when the 2018 sales reached 370,000 plug-in and fully electric vehicles. This sales volume makes PHEV’s and EV’s combined sales almost 2% of the U.S. new vehicle market share. So just keep in mind when you start getting excited about a new discovery in the laboratory that it took lithium-ion about 45 years from the time it was discovered
in the labs until it reached market acceptance in the electric vehicle space.
Fig. 3 Lithium-ion development timeline.
But why are all these technology discussions important and what does it have to do with understanding battery chemistry? In other words, what is the so what
of it all? In short, technology change is now occurring at such a fast rate that we, as a society, have lost touch with how most of those ever-evolving technologies work. When it comes to batteries, most of us, even those of us in the battery industry, still have very little understanding of what makes them work and the forces that are happening inside the battery.
One example of this is that batteries do not only store energy, that is a common misunderstanding. What they actually do is store the chemicals that when they are put under an electrical load create a chemical reaction which generates a current flow (energy) thereby allowing energy to be stored in its chemical form. It is this chemical reaction, or more accurately, these chemical reactions that we are concerned with gaining an understanding of in this book. When a load is applied to a cell a current is created as the lithium-ions flow from the anode through the separator and into the cathode. This is all the result of a series of chemical reactions that occur within the battery cell. Batteries represent a combination of intersecting sciences ranging from physics to inorganic chemistry to electrochemistry, thermodynamics, and mechanical engineering. All these sciences must interact in just the right manner to provide energy on demand.
That brings us, of course, to the subject of chemistry which will be the focus on much of this book. If you are like me then that word alone can send shivers of fear down your spine. Most people have only a vague and limited understanding of chemistry that came from a high school class. I would not hesitate to guess that chemistry may fall right behind public speaking and math, as one of the most frightening and confusing topics for many people.
But not to fear, like you I needed a simple and clear explanation of how lithium-ion batteries work and this book is the result. Much like my first book, "The Handbook of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Design" (Warner, 2015), this book is intended to help demystify the topic of battery electrochemistry and how lithium-ion cells work while offering a clear and simple explanation through the use of graphics and images. I am a visual learner so for me to understand something I most often need to show it visually. My home and office whiteboards and my notebooks are often filled with different sketches and drawings of things so that I can really get my head around them. In summarizing his biography on Leonardo Da Vinci, Walter Isaacson described one of the conclusions he reached during his research as being the need to think visually. He wrote, Too often, when we learn a formula or a rule – even one so simple as the method for multiplying numbers or mixing a paint color – we no longer visualize how it works
(Isaacson, 2017, p. 522). Consequently, I have attempted to create very simple illustrations for many of the concepts, processes, and reactions in order to help simplify them. In fact, I will state now that some of these may be oversimplistic illustrations in order to make them clear.
Why do we use lithium-based chemistries? What is lithium and where is it in my battery? How much lithium is in there? Why do different chemistries act differently? What is a SEI layer and why does it form? Why is lithium iron phosphate considered to be a safer
chemistry than others such as nickel manganese cobalt, nickel cobalt aluminum, or others? What are side reactions
? Why is heat generated during a battery discharge? What impact does the use of different electrolyte salts have on batteries? Where is the lithium anyway? And, what in the world is the rocking chair effect? Those are just a few of the questions this book will attempt to answer. We will examine the basics of the chemical and electrochemical reactions, but without the confusing formulas and instead using simple graphics intended to help clarify the concepts.
I have spent my career in the executive management, sales, marketing, and product management areas, but each of these functions requires a solid understanding of how these cells work. I have spent nearly a decade working in the lithium-ion battery industry, and over two decades in the automotive industry, and have been able to work with some of the most knowledgeable people in the world in these topics. But what qualifies me to write this book? Well, I share Da Vinci’s desire to seek out knowledge for its own sake
(Isaacson, 2017) which has made me a life-long learner
studying a wide range of fields, subjects, and topics that may not have an immediate impact on my work life. But it has allowed me to see influences across subjects and make connections that I may not have been able to make otherwise. As I have evolved through my working career I often found myself working closely with these experts in many different fields and because of my natural curiosity and desire to understand how things work, I asked a lot of questions. Why does that work that way? Why did that happen? What causes these results? What does that really mean? How did you calculate that? In short, I found that my own curiosity led me to ask a lot of questions, which turned out to be the best pathway for me to build my own knowledge and get a better understanding of how things worked.
But I didn’t invent anything new here, Socrates was known to use the process of asking questions to help discover, or as he considered it to reveal a priori knowledge. This process later became known as the Socratic method of inquiry. Socrates wrote that, …I am quite conscious of my ignorance….it seems that I am wiser than he is to this small extent, that I do not think I know what I do not know
(Plato, 1993, p. 42). Throughout his life Leonardo Da Vinci filled up notebook after notebook with, in addition to his many drawings and sketches, lists of questions to ask and people to talk to. Using this curiosity and ability to make analogies across sciences Da Vinci would ask questions like why is the sky blue?
and would make himself reminders to do things like describe the tongue of a woodpecker.
Then through experimentation and study he would determine the answers to these questions (Isaacson, 2017). Albert Einstein even discussed the importance of curiosity and questioning during an interview with Life magazine editor William Miller saying, Then do not stop to think…about the reasons for what you are doing, about why you are questioning. The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existence
(Miller, 1955, p. 64).
Management theorist Peter Drucker wrote that a company, or an individual, should do a knowledge analysis
to understand whether we have the right knowledge which will in turn lead to asking what he termed as diagnostic questions like Do we have the right knowledge?.
Drucker also noted that knowledge must continually progress in order to remain knowledge (Drucker, 1996). Taiichi Ohno introduced the concept of asking The 5 Why’s
into the Toyota Production System as a means of getting to the root cause of an issue (Ohno, 1988). In his book "Great Leaders ask Great Questions" (2014) John Maxwell describes the many benefits of asking questions in relation to becoming a better leader. In other words, we cannot sit on our laurels when it comes to learning and growing, we must continuously seek knowledge.
I certainly do not claim to be the smartest guy around and am definitely not in the league of Socrates, Da Vinci, or Einstein, but I do believe in beginning by knowing how much I do not know and using my own curiosity to ask a lot of questions in an attempt to fill in those blanks. So that is where this book, like many of my other endeavors, began—by trying to gain a better understanding of the core engineering principle’s around lithium-ion chemistry and educating myself. This allowed me to start as an open book
in which new concepts and ideas can be written as I have become a self-educated engineer.
I have used some of these same techniques and strategies to increase my own knowledge and understanding of the intricacies and complexities of lithium-ion batteries and how they work. We all know the old saying the only dumb question is the one that you don’t ask
which still holds true today. Only by asking questions and then asking the right questions are we able to learn and grow. And I asked a lot of questions and not all of them were the right ones, but I would not have known which ones were the right ones had I not asked. In this book I have worked to simplify the explanations of this rather complex topic of lithium-ion battery chemistry. I have attempted to do this without requiring the reader to need to memorize complex chemical formulas like those you may have learned in your high school or college course and more importantly I have worked to express these concepts in very simple terms. In fact, I may oversimplify some of the concepts beyond what may make a chemist or scientist comfortable in order to simplify these concepts for easier understanding by the rest of us who are not engineers or chemists, but I have always been comfortable pushing the limits of
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