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Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance
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Inizia a leggereDescrizione
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance provides an important guide to recognizing, assessing and addressing the broad range of environmental factors that can inhibit rice yield.
As a staple food for nearly half of the world’s population, and in light of projected population growth, improving and increasing rice yield is imperative. This book presents current research on abiotic stresses including extreme temperature variance, drought, hypoxia, salinity, heavy metal, nutrient deficiency and toxicity stresses. Going further, it identifies a variety of approaches to alleviate the damaging effects and improving the stress tolerance of rice.
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance provides an important reference for those ensuring optimal yields from this globally important food crop.
Covers aspects of abiotic stress, from research, history, practical field problems faced by rice, and the possible remedies to the adverse effects of abiotic stresses Provides practical insights into a wide range of management and crop improvement practices Presents a valuable, single-volume sourcebook for rice scientists dealing with agronomy, physiology, molecular biology and biotechnologyAzioni libro
Inizia a leggereInformazioni sul libro
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance
Descrizione
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance provides an important guide to recognizing, assessing and addressing the broad range of environmental factors that can inhibit rice yield.
As a staple food for nearly half of the world’s population, and in light of projected population growth, improving and increasing rice yield is imperative. This book presents current research on abiotic stresses including extreme temperature variance, drought, hypoxia, salinity, heavy metal, nutrient deficiency and toxicity stresses. Going further, it identifies a variety of approaches to alleviate the damaging effects and improving the stress tolerance of rice.
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance provides an important reference for those ensuring optimal yields from this globally important food crop.
Covers aspects of abiotic stress, from research, history, practical field problems faced by rice, and the possible remedies to the adverse effects of abiotic stresses Provides practical insights into a wide range of management and crop improvement practices Presents a valuable, single-volume sourcebook for rice scientists dealing with agronomy, physiology, molecular biology and biotechnologyAnteprima del libro
Advances in Rice Research for Abiotic Stress Tolerance
IRRI-Bangladesh.
Chapter 1
Major Constraints for Global Rice Production
Shah Fahad¹,², Muhammad Adnan¹,³, Muhammad Noor¹, Muhammad Arif⁴, Mukhtar Alam¹, Imtiaz Ali Khan¹, Hidayat Ullah¹, Fazli Wahid¹, Ishaq Ahmad Mian³, Yousaf Jamal¹, Abdul Basir¹, Shah Hassan⁵, Shah Saud⁶, Amanullah⁴, Muhammad Riaz⁷, Chao Wu², Mushtaq Ahmad Khan¹ and Depeng Wang⁸, ¹Department of Agriculture, The University of Swabi, Swabi, Pakistan, ²College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, P.R. China, ³Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan, ⁴Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Production Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan, ⁵Department of Agricultural Extension, Faculty of Crop and Food Sciences, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, ⁶College of Horticulture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P.R. China, ⁷Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan, ⁸College of Life Science, Linyi University, Linyi, P.R. China
Abstract
Global mean air temperature is projected to rise by 1.4–5.8°C from 1990–2100, due to increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Investigations predict that in 21st century the sea level may rise by 1 m or more, which would adversely affect one billion people by 2050. Coastal regions, being major irrigated rice-growing zones, are prone to be devastated by climate change, loss of wetlands, heightened storm damage, and increased salinity from saltwater intrusion. Scientists reported 23% improvement in rice-grain yield due to increasing CO2 from 365 to 627 mg kg−1; however, this increase is nullified by increasing mean air temperature. Both low and high temperature at high and low altitude respectively, reduce rice yield. Scientists found a 10% decrease in rice yield by per degree centigrade increase in minimum temperature. Similarly, decrease in rice yield was noticed in many parts of the world due to scarcity of good quality water, drought, salinity, land degradation, poor weed control, low input use, uneven patterns of rainfall, high disease occurrence, poor soil fertility, and some socioeconomic issues. Therefore, integrated management systems must be developed through eco-friendly agronomic practices, research, and modeling to overcome these hurdles for obtaining sustainable and profitable productivity of rice.
Keywords
Biotic and abiotic constrains; climate change; drought; rice; salinity
1.1 Introduction
Rice is from the genus Oryza and family Poaceae, has 22 known species and has great economic importance (Bajaj and Mohanty, 2005). Worldwide, Oryza glaberrima (Steudel) and Oryza sativa (L.) are commonly cultivated species of rice (Lu, 1999). These are adapted to diverse climatic conditions and can be cultivated both in dry and wetland environments at high and low altitudes. In Bhutan and Nepal, rice can be cultivated at heights of over 300 m from sea level and in India (Kerala) at 3 m below sea level (Khush, 1984). Globally, it occupies nearly an area of 158 million hectares (M ha), producing 470 million tons (Mts) of milled rice in 2009 (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010). Nearly 90% of the world rice is obtained from Asia (nearly 640 million tons), with China and India as the major contributors.
Roughly, 75% of the world’s rice is obtained from 85 to 90 M ha of paddy lowland areas (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010), where rice can be grown on a same field up to three times in a year. This system occupies 56% of the total rice area (Swain et al., 2005) in Asia. The yield of paddy rice is 9.1, 6.3, 5.9, and 3.6 t ha−1 in Korea (PDR), Indonesia, China, and India, respectively (Swain et al., 2005; Chandler, 1979). Globally, 20% of the rice is obtained from 40 to 45 M ha rainfed low-land systems (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010). Due to drought and/or floods under such ecological conditions in Asia, the yield of rice is comparatively low. Average yield in upland rainfed rice systems is normally very low, only almost 1 t ha−1, because of uneven patterns of rainfall, low input use, poor weed control, and high disease occurrence. On other hand, globally, 11–14 M ha is occupied by deep-water ecosystems which is comprised of major rice growing areas such as Bhutan, India, Vietnam, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia. Average rice yield in deep-water ecosystems is low, almost 2 t ha−1 (Chandler, 1979), due to drought and late flooding which results in poor crop stand, weed competition, and lack of fertilizer application (Chandler, 1979).
Rice is a staple food of more than half of the world’s population; more than 3.5 billion inhabitants depend on rice for obtaining 20% of their daily calorie intake (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010). Rice consumption is more than 100 kg per person annually in some African (e.g., Madagascar, Liberia) and many Asian countries. Due to green revolution technologies, rice production has improved to a great extent in past five decades. Population of underdeveloped countries grew by 90% between 1966 and 2000, while rice production improved by 130%, from 257 to 600 M t between 1966 and 2000, respectively, due to which 18% average increase occurred in per capita food availability. The dramatic increase (18%) in world food production was due to development of diversely adaptable, high yielding, insect and disease resistant rice cultivars, which were further facilitated by: adaptation of modern irrigation methods, application of mineral fertilizers, and good governance. In spite of this 18% increase, 800 million people in the world from developing countries still go to bed hungry. Worldwide, three billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, one out of five babies are born underweight, and chronic hunger takes the lives of 2400 people every day.
According to UN projections, the global population will increase from six to eight billion between 2000 and 2025 (United States Bureau of Census, 1998) and will need to produce 40% more rice by 2025 due to the drastic decrease in rice growth during the 1990s (Brown, 1996, 1997; Fahad et al., 2018). Based on UN population and income projections, the worldwide rice requirement is appraised to grow from 439 Mt (milled rice) in 2010 to 496 Mt in 2020, and will further increase to 555 Mt in 2035. This will account for an overall increase of 26% in the next 25 years, but its growth rate will decline from 13% for the first 10 years and to 12% in the next 15 years. In Asia, rice intake is expected to rise from 388 Mt in 2010 to 465 Mt in 2035 (67% of the total increase), despite a decrease in rice per capita intake in China and India (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010). It is projected that 33% more rice will be required by Americas and total rice consumption will increase by 30 Mt in Africa (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT, 2010).
1.2 Major Constraints for Global Rice Production
To satisfy the growing demand of rice in the future, scientists initiated various rice biotechnological advancement programs and some further categorizations, like biotic and abiotic limitations, were identified. In short, these biotic, abiotic technical, and socioeconomic factors alone, or in combination, restrict rice adoption to improved technologies and create hurdles to obtain higher potential yields. Thus, there is a need for integrated approaches for nullifying these constrains. By summarizing these production limitations, we will be able to understand the reasons for low rice productivity in the present and the future.
1.2.1 Abiotic Factors for Global Rice Production
1.2.1.1 Scarcity of good quality water
Only 38 million km³ of water (2.7% of the Earth’s total water) is fresh and is fit for intake by terrestrial flora and fauna (Sarma, 1986). About 76% of this fresh water are captured in permanent ice caps and glaciers, and 11% is held underground at a depth of more than 1000 m. Approximately 4.5 million km³ of fresh water is prevailing for consumption, of which 97% is available as underground water within 1 km depth. Only 0.14 million km³ of fresh water is found in lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere which can be best utilized for irrigation purposes. On the other hand, high population growth also upsurges fresh water requirements for residential purposes and decreases both available land and fresh water for agriculture, causing large-scale irrigation development to slow down considerably since the early 1980s (Gleick, 1993).
According to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, 1998) projection, over the next two decades India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Vietnam will suffer, and have been suffering, due to the sharp decrease in per capita water availability. The urban population in Asia is estimated to rise from about 35% of the total population in 1990 to over 50% in 2025 (IRRI, 1998). If water demand for residential use exceeds supply, inter-sectorial competition will increase that will have adverse effects on agricultural water obtainability, food production, and environmental quality. For example, in the Angat (Philippines) the quantity of water diverted for Metropolitan Manila enlarged progressively at about 10% per annum during 1980–95, which decreased water supply for irrigation to its 28,000 ha rice fields. Similarly, diversion of irrigation water to the urban sector is also taking place in Jatiluhur of West Java, Indonesia, and in the Guangxi Region of China, which has adversely affected agricultural productivity (Bhuiyan et al., 1995).
By 2025, the population in Asia is expected to grow by 53% (Hossain and Fischer, 1995) and demand for rice is projected to increase by 70% over the next 30 years (IWMI, 2000). Thus, in the future, irrigated rice will have to satisfy a large proportion of this additional demand. In contrast, urban and industrial demands are receiving priority over irrigation. These conditions are pushing rice paddy cultivars to be grown on marginal land irrigated with low-quality water (Gregorio, 1997). Continuous drought and fresh-water scarcity created numerous difficulties in rice production, which is why the use of low-quality water is inevitable which creates further problems, like salinity indicated that a huge area of the Guilan province (China), though suitable for rice cultivation, is now contaminated from groundwater salinity due to irrigation with poor quality water.
Rice, being an aquatic plant, grows and produces well when grown in flooded soil than when grown in dry soil (De Datta and Mikkelsen, 1985). Unlike other crops, rice suffers from water stress at soil water contents even above field capacity. Thus, adequate water availability is very important for good growth and high yields of rice. Water scarcity and drought limits the yield potential of rice. Similarly, alternate wet-and-dry field conditions causes nitrogen (N) loss and high weed infestation in rice fields. Farmers in most rainfed ecosystems, therefore, use the less risky traditional varieties and small amounts of fertilizers which often cause low production.
Irrigation has contributed a lot to the achievement of the green revolution in Asia. In the past 30 years, in irrigated ecosystems rice yield grew by 2.6% per year (Hossain and Fischer, 1995). About, 76% of the world’s rice is obtained from 55% of irrigated rice (IRRI, 1977). Inefficient irrigation systems are also one of the major problems in rice cultivation. About 5000 L of water are applied for each kilogram of irrigated rice (IRRI, 1995), 25%–30% of which reached the field. About 150–250 mm of water is applied to rice for land preparation depending on water content and soil type of the field and it may be as high as 1500 mm. About 60% of applied water for land preparation is lost from the topsoil through cracks (clay soil) and lateral drainage (Tuong et al., 1994; Tuong and Cabangon, 1996). Another reason for excessive water-use in rice cultivation is that farmers keep the main field flooded for one month during preparation before rice sowing so the majority of water may be lost through runoff, seepage, percolation, and evaporation (Valera, 1977).
Rice can also be grown in a rainfed (upland or lowland) environment. Globally, rainfed rice is grown on around 45% of rice-cultivated areas, which contribute approximately 25% to the total rice production. Drought ranks first among the major constraints for rice production in rainfed environments. Garrity et al. (1986) reported that, half of lowland and all upland rice in rainfed conditions are subjected to severe and mild droughts. Rice cultivation in subtropical regions, like north and central China, northwest India, and Pakistan, are mostly dependent on summer rainfall, with supplementary irrigation. Dry-season irrigated rice is more common in south China, south and east India, and Southeast Asia. It is estimated that wet-season irrigated rice areas in Pakistan (2.1 M ha), north China (2.5 M ha), and north and central India (8.4 M ha) will suffer from water scarcity by 2025 (IWMI, 2000). In south and Southeast Asia, about 22 M ha dry-season irrigated rice areas exist in the economic water scarcity
zone (IWMI, 2000). Over-exploitation of groundwater during the past few years has resulted in severe difficulties rice production in China and south Asia (Postel, 1997; Sha et al., 2000; Geng et al., 2001). On average, the northern China water table has lowered by 100–300 cm year−1, and up to 50–70 cm year−1 in most states of India. This lowering of the water table causes increased costs of pumping, fluoride contamination, and soil salinity. These key problems restrict rice productivity in the rice–wheat-growing areas in China, northern India, and Pakistan. China’s government has banned flooded rice cultivation in Beijing due to the drying of Yellow River (Postel, 1997; Geng et al., 2001). Further in China, 4 M ha of irrigated rice area was converted to other crop cultivation in between 1970 and 1990s (Barker et al., 1999) due to water scarcity. For example, in Zhanghe (Hubei Province, China), water allocated to irrigation declined by 20% due to high competition with other sectors in cities and industries, which also resulted in a 20% reduction of irrigated rice areas in 1980–90s (Dong et al., 2001). Similarly, many cases of high competition of water for agricultural and other sectors exist elsewhere in Asia (Bhuiyan et al., 1995).
1.2.1.2 Salt stress
Salinity is an abiotic stress which adversely affects crop growth and production (
) and has an electrical conductivity (EC)≥4 dSm−1. The salinity problem is very common in arid and semiarid areas where precipitation is low and evaporation is high, by which salts are brought to the root zone through capillary rise (Szabolcs, 1989). Salinity may also occur in coastal areas due to sea water intrusion. Salinity is a soil disease which has devastated almost 900 M ha of land (6% of total global area) (Fageria et al., 2012), which nearly accounts for 20% of the global cultivated area (FAO, 2008a) and also half of the total irrigated land of the world (FAO, 2007). Of the total global cultivated land, 23% is considered saline and 37% is sodic and it has been projected that half of global irrigated lands (2.5×10⁸ ha) are extremely affected by salinity and water logging. The salinity problem is more profound for agriculture in south and southeast Asia, which contributes almost 90% of the world’s rice production (Aslam et al., 1993).
Cereal crops vary in their response to salinity, from barley being the most tolerant and rice being the most sensitive (Munns and Tester, 2008). Currently, salinity is the second major abiotic constraint in rice production after drought (Gregorio, 1997). Shannon (1998) declared rice as the most salt-sensitive cereal crop and found that salinity had variable effects on different growth and developmental stages of rice. According to Lutts et al. (1995), rice seedlings are very sensitive to salt toxicity, while Shannon (1998) reported its susceptibility at the early vegetative and later reproductive stages. Several reports stated that salinity depressed grain yield relatively at a greater extent than vegetative growth. Khatun and Flowers (1995) observed that salt toxicity adversely affect panicle length, spikelets per panicle, and 1000-grain weight in rice crop. Salinity also reduced rice yield in southern Spain (Aguilar et al., 1997) and Kuban River in Krasnodar (Russia Federation) (Zelensky, personal communication). Salinity induces both biochemical and physiological changes in rice (Gregorio, 1997) and causes growth inhibition and yield decline by creating difficulties in crop-area establishment, leaf-area development and decreased dry matter (DM) production, delayed seed sets and can also cause sterility (Asch and Wopereis, 2001) documented that, salinity drastically affects seedling growth, seedling establishment and grain yield components, such as spikelet number and tiller number, thus, ultimately leading to a reduction in grain yield. Munns and Tester (2008) reported decrease in photosynthesis results in unfilled spikelet due to salt toxicity. Salt toxicity in soil before heading harmfully effects the number of tiller in rice, which affects the number of panicles and weight of each panicle during the period of three leaf stages until booting documented that in saline soils usually symptoms similar to stress from drought conditions appear, because of the decrease in water absorption due to osmotic effect. Salinity also delays flowering and ripening and reduces the number of tillers, biomass, and leaf area in rice crops. According to Asch and Wopereis (2001), irrespective of seasons and growth stages, salt toxicity reduces rice yield, the number of panicles, and grains and causes sterility in all rice cultivars (Tables 1.1–1.4).
Table 1.1
Worldwide Fertility Status of Rice-Growing Areas
aRegion names and definitions as reported in FAOSTAT.(FAOSTAT 2013. Database available at http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx.)
Table 1.2
Relative Distribution of Soil Conditions With Respect to Soil Quality for Rice-Growing Areas of the World
Note that, in each column, the sum of percentages exceeds 100 because soils often have more than one property. (FAOSTAT 2013. Database available at http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx.)
Table 1.3
Insects at Various Crop Stages of Rice
Table 1.4
Diseases at Different Crop Stages of rice
1.2.1.3 Nutrients imbalance and soil constrains
Inappropriate farming methods, deforestation, and overgrazing causes soil degradation such as loss of organic matter and nutrient depletion, acidification, salinization, and chemical contamination, as well as deterioration of physical properties, such as water and wind erosion. These processes have adversely affected approximately 2000 M ha of cultivable land across the globe. Almost 80% of all degraded land in the world are located in Africa, Asia, and South and Central America. Worldwide, physical and chemical soil degradation accounts for 555 M ha (Oldeman, 1994) salinization (Richards, 1954), acidification (Sumner, 1997) nutrient depletion, loss of soil organic matter (SOM) (Nye and Greenland, 1961), and human induced pollution. Soil degradation is a major threat to food security and it may become a major constraint to food production in the future.
Numerous physical and chemical problems in soil, such as excessive soil tillage, low soil C and Zn and K deficiencies, and the inefficient use of N, are considered major hindrances for wheat and rice crops (Chatrath et al., 2007; Joshi et al., 2007; Adnan et al., 2018). These constraints are majorly responsible for low productivity in wheat and rice cropping systems (Ladha et al., 2003; Ladha et al., 2007; Nagarajan, 2005). Worldwide, 90% of the rice is produced by Asia, which experiences high soil degradation. Rice yield is showing a declining trend as a result of the negative nutrient balance and poor soil and crop management (Uexkuell and Von, 1992).
Problems like deficiency of phosphorus, zinc, or iron and the excess of salts, iron, or aluminum have reduced rice yield approximately on 50 M ha of rice land in Asia. Zn deficiency is the major and widespread nutritional problem in lowland rice, because flooding reduces Zn solubility (Neue et al., 1990). Zinc deficiency mostly occurs in leached ultisols and oxisols with high pH or high amounts of organic matter, but Zn depletion may also prevail in acidic soil as well due to Zn-S formation (Oberthuer et al., 1996). Similarly, iron is also least soluble in reduced condition which is why iron deficiency is a serious problem in rice production (IRRI, 1977) and may cause a yield reduction as high as 65% in susceptible rice cultivars (IRRI, 1979). Rainfed, lowland rice of about 4 M ha in Asia is also negatively affected by iron toxicity in acidic soil with low P and K content. Iron toxicity is the most complex soil-related stress because many other soil and climatic factors influence soil iron content (Cho and Ponnamperuma, 1971). Aluminum toxicity is also a prominent constraint in acid uplands and lowlands rice systems. It is also often related with manganese toxicity in uplands rice systems. Howeler and Cadavid (1976) and Coronel et al. (1990) reported poor root growth, reduced nutrient- and water-absorption and induced drought sensitivity as a result of aluminum toxicity in rice.
Potassium (K) deficiency has also become a restraint in rice growing areas that were previously K-sufficient (Chen et al., 1992; Mohanty and Mandal, 1989; De Datta and Mikkelsen, 1985; Oberthuer et al., 1996; Uexkuell, 1985; Dobermann et al., 1996a) and modern rice cultivars have an equal requirement of K and N. Evidences of K depletion observed in farmers’ fields comprise alluvial, illitic soils in India (Tiwari, 1985), lowland rice soils of Java, Indonesia (Sri Adiningsih et al., 1991), and vermiculitic clay soils of Central Luzon, Philippines (Oberthuer et al., 1996). Dobermann et al. (1995) reported that, additions of Ca and Mg by groundwater irrigation reduce K availability because of a wide (Ca+Mg)/K ratio. S and Zn deficiencies in marginally productive lowland rice soils were also observed due to intensification (Blair et al., 1978; Uexkuell and Von, 1992). Sulfur deficiency is also inducing over time in several rice areas due to residues removal and replacement of sulfur-containing fertilizers with non-S fertilizer (Yoshida, 1981).
SOM, is also a key indicator for measuring soil quality and productivity. It is depleting over time due to climate change and intensive farming system (Fan et al., 2010). China is a major rice-producing country, but OM content in China’s soil is relatively lower than that in Europe and the United States. Approximately 7.4% of the world total degraded land are found in China (Lal, 2002). It is reported by China’s ministry of land and resources (2009) that, in China more than 66% of cultivated land are poorer in intermediate soil quality level, and the quality is declining day by day, thus leading to low rice yields (Chen et al., 2011). Rice yield is reported to be lower than 1.5 t ha−1, compared with 7.6 t ha−1 on high productivity land in Northeast China (Fan et al., 2010). The thickness of topsoil in China has progressively decreased from 22.9 to 17.6 cm between the 1930s and 1980s and will have to reduce further with continuous soil erosion (Lindert, 2000). In China, among described soil limitations for rice production, soil acidity, toxicity of Al, Mn, and Fe, deficiencies of N, P, and K and some trace elements (B, Mo, and Zn) are the most prominent (He et al., 2004). This is why there is a need for basic and applied research to find solutions for these soil-related constrains for rising rice productivity and food security.
1.2.1.4 Climatic factors
It is projected that the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the air will affect the climate and global mean air temperature, which are estimated to increase by 1.4–5.8°C between 1990 and 2100 (IPCC et al., 2001). Recent investigations predict that the sea level may rise by 1 m or more in the 21st century, which would adversely affect one billion people by 2050 (Hansen and Sato, 2011; Brecht et al., 2012). Coastal regions, being the major rice growing zone in the world, are prone to be devastated by climate change through sea level rise, heightened storm damage, loss of wetlands, and increased salinity from saltwater intrusion. Climate change is the greatest threat to aquaculture, coastal agriculture, and infrastructure (Brecht et al., 2012; Fahad et al., 2013; Fahad et al., 2014a). Thus, climate is considered a main uncontrolled driving force in agricultural production (Decker, 1994).
Rice is adaptable to a wide range of climatic conditions. However, temperature and radiation are two major environmental factors which, directly or indirectly, play a vital role in rice production. Huke (1982) and Fahad et al. (2015a) declared temperature as one of the major production constraints in rice productivity, as both low and high temperature at high and low altitude respectively, reduce rice yield. Peng et al. (2004) found a 10% decrease in rice yield by per degree centigrade increase in minimum temperature, while Lobell (2007) found that the rising of maximum temperatures is more harmful to rice yields than a drop in minimum temperatures in most countries, For example, rice yield in Aomori Prefecture in Japan in 1980 dropped from 6 to 3 t ha−1 due to low temperature (Kushibuchi, 1997). Similarly, in 1993 due to the dropping of average night temperature below 11°C in summer, caused a high rate of grain sterility in northern Italy, Japan, and Korea (Tran, 1994). The cooling of the atmosphere during the reproductive stage was observed to be the major constraint to rice production in California, USA (McKenzie et al., 1994), Australia (McDonald, 1994), and Southern Brazil (Terres et al., 1994).
Likewise, most of the simulations showed improved rice growth due to an increase in photosynthesis under various climate change scenarios because of enhanced CO2 fertilization, (Kim et al., 2001; Bannayan et al., 2005; Krishnan et al., 2007; Fahad et al., 2015b; Fahad, et al., 2016a). For example, it was reported by Ainsworth (2008), that increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration from 365 to 627 mg kg−1 brought about a 23% improvement in rice grain yield (ranging from 10% to 70%) in a meta-analysis of 98 studies. This improvement was attributed to a greater number of panicles, more filled grain, and greater seed weight (Baker, 2004; Ainsworth, 2008). Kim et al., (2001) and De Costa et al. (2006) also reported a rise in the total DM of rice plants with high CO2 (12%–40%). In contrast, the yield was expected to decline as a result of increasing air mean temperature due to global warming by greenhouse gasses, which would nullify the positive effects of elevated CO2 on rice grain yield. Global warming interferes with pollination which causes floral sterility (Matsui et al., 1997; Nakagawa, and Horie, 2000; Baker, 2004; Fahad et al., 2016b; Fahad et al., 2016c; Fahad et al., 2016d). Rice grown at low altitude are usually grown near to their limits of temperature tolerance, which is why global warming may subject them to higher stress.
The incidence of recurrent floods and droughts are the consequence, in most of the parts of the world, of climate change. This affects most of the rainfed rice cultivable zones (Assam, North Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal) every year (Prasad, 1986). Many researchers demonstrated that in upland, rainfed rice systems drought is significantly contributing to the yield gap, whereas flash floods submergence is the key constraint of rainfed, lowland rice productivity (Herdt, 1996). Conventional technologies cannot mediate the problem of floods and droughts, which are leading to yield losses in rice.
1.2.1.5 Lack of resistant rice varieties
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the world’s oldest cultivated crop. According to Poehlman and Sleper (1995) the center of origin of rice is China and India where it has been cultivated for thousands of years. Asian countries like, China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia produce about 90% of the world’s rice (USDA, 2014). Brazil and United States are the non-Asiatic countries where rice is produced in large amounts (Poehlman and Sleper, 1995). Like other cereals, rice provides staple food for over half of the world’s people (FAO, 2008b).
Rice crops are affected by a number of diseases, insects, and pests. The development of resistant varieties is considered an economic and convenient approach to control specific diseases on a large scale and with no side-effects for the crop. Such long-term approaches of variety development require knowledge of pathogen population structure, mechanisms of genetic changes in pathogen populations, and interaction with environment. The lack of resistant varieties for different prevailing diseases in different countries was the main barrier in achieving high production. To combat the epidemic results of some rice diseases, like bacterial blight in 1960s, different breeding approaches accompanied by modern molecular and physiological techniques were utilized (Mew et al., 1982). The results of these breeding strategies, especially in IRRI, can be seen in the development of the continuous release of disease-resistant rice varieties throughout the world. Although maximum rice yields have been achieved by the release of new varieties, due to the continuous change in genetic makeup of pathogens new races are developing making it difficult for farmers to have a new variety each time they plant.
1.2.2 Biotic Factors for Global Rice Production
1.2.2.1 Insects and pests
Rice crops are attacked by a number of insects like terrestrial arthropods and nonrice pest insects that visit rice ecosystems, causing further concerns (Thongphak et al., 2012). According to Pathak and Khan (1994) there are about 800 species worldwide, of which around 100 species attack rice while rest are considered friendly insects. Rice crop has almost 20 insect-pests, including stem borers, gall midge, defoliators, and vectors (leafhoppers and plant hoppers) which cause economic damage to the rice crop directly or act as vector in disease transfer (Pathak and Khan, 1994). In Southeast Asia and China the important insect-pests are stem borer, gall midge, brown plant hopper, and leaf hopper, while gall midge, brown plant hopper, and yellow stem borer are major causes of rice yield losses in South Asia (Sardesai et al., 2001). These pests cause damage to rice plants by chewing its tissues, boring into stems, or sucking fluid saps from stems which disturbs the physiology of the grains and ultimately reduce crop yield.
China and India have the greatest diversity of rice pests. Rice-growing areas of China and India have a large amount of plant hoppers and leafhoppers, which are responsible for major economic losses to rice yield. China has developed enough genomic strategies to combat the issue of rice pests by keeping the number below a threshold level, but rice-growing developing countries still depend on conventional ways to control pests in their rice fields (Asghar et al., 2013).
1.2.2.2 Weeds
Rice fields may have a variety of weeds, often from the previous year’s seed, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs surviving in the soil. The presence of weeds in a rice field is greatly influenced by cultural practices like, continuous planting of rice on the same piece of land. Such continuous growing and unchanged cultural system encourages the adapted weed to grow. Perennial weeds can be observed in non-tilled rice fields. Comparatively, crop rotations encourage a variant flora of weeds to grow. Three types of weeds are found in rice fields, grasses, sedges, and broad-leaved weeds. In grass weeds we have Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloacrussgalli, Setaria glauca, Digitaria longifolia, Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum, and Cynodon dactylon. Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus iria, Cyperus difformis, and Fimbristylis milliaceae are included in sedges. Broad-leaved weeds of rice include, Ecliptaalba, Commelina benghalensis, Sphenoclea zeylanica, Ludwigia parviflora, Monochoria vaginalis, Monochoria vaginalis, and Aegetarum conyzoides.
Just like insects, pests, and diseases, weeds are also major constrains in achieving high yields (Savary et al., 2000). Based on previous research reviews, it is difficult to extrapolate results from the relevant local data or from a particular cropping situation for a large-scale study. (Savary et al., 1998). Generally the yield losses are due to the assembly of many weeds present in crop, and it is difficult to differentiate them substantially in competitive ability (Weaver and Ivany, 1998). Therefore, an evaluation of weed species’ relative importance in response to yield reduction is not easy. Usually the cultural practices vary among the countries, which is why the resulted yield losses are variable. It has been estimated that uncontrolled weed growth may cause between 44% and 96% rice yield loss, depending on the rice culture (Ampon-Nyarko and De Datta, 1990). According to Mondal et al. (2017), the overall production loss due to pests in India is 33%, whereas weeds caused 12.5% production losses. They also observed that the density of weeds in transplanted summer rice was normally higher than that of kharif rice. To achieve maximum yield, we have to improve farmers’ cultural practices that will significantly contribute to the future gains in rice yield in many countries.
The major impact of weeds on rice crops include increased production cost, serving as hosts for rice pests, effect rice harvesting and its quality, aquatic weed problem, social costs, and rice–weed competition. It has been reported that cost on controlling rice weeds like, herbicides and cultural and mechanical practices and hand weeding are expected to be about 15% of the world rice production. Weeds not only increase the social and harvesting cost, but also provide food, shelter, and reproduction sites for insects, nematodes, and rodents. This means that by removing weeds, we are indirectly removing secondary hosts for pest. Farms with weeds directly interfere with the harvesting operation and increase its cost or indirectly reduce its quality and market value by contaminating rough rice. Weeding by hand or with simple tools requires a significant number of field labors.
Farmers normally apply recommended fertilizers to their rice crop, which are also available to weeds. Aquatic weeds compete for nutrients, light, water, and favorable temperatures throughout the year, especially in the tropics. Sometimes the presence of aquatic weeds in high densities cause excessive water loss through evaporation and hinder water flow in irrigation canals. The presence of such aquatic weeds is also hazardous to persons living nearby water, viz, the association of the weed Ceratophyllum demersum with the intermediate host snail vector of schistosomiasis. Some of the weeds have allelopathy (chemical production by living or decaying weed plant tissues) and may adversely affect the growth of rice plants.
1.2.2.3 Diseases
Among the cereal crops, rice is the most important one due to its use as a staple food for more than half of the world. As the world population is increasing so the supply of rice must be doubled to fulfill the demand for food by 2050 (FAO, 2009). Like other crops the ability of rice to attain high production has been reduced due to the presence of biotic and abiotic factors. In biotic factors the most important one is diseases of rice, viz, sheath blight, bacterial blight, rice blast, brown spot, narrow brown spot, bacterial leaf streak, and grassy stunt.
Bacterial blight
Bacterial blight is caused by Xanthomonas oryzaepv. oryzae (Xoo). The symptoms of bacterial blight can be seen during the seedling stage in the form of grayish-green rolled leaves which turn yellow as the disease progresses. As the disease progresses further, the yellow color changes to straw-colored wilt leaves and ultimately the death of whole seedlings. Bacterial blight mostly occurs in tropical and temperate regions of the world, especially in irrigated and rainfed areas when strong winds are coupled with heavy rains. Blight is the most destructive rice disease in Asia and resulted in a historic epidemic in India during the late 1970s.
Sheath blight
Sheath blight is a fungal disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani. The symptoms of sheath blight can be observed in temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions on rice crops from tillering to milk stages. According to the IRRI report sheath blight causes a yield loss of about 6% across lowland rice areas in tropical Asia.
Rice blast
Rice blast is a fungal disease caused by Pyricularia grisea. Like other fungal diseases (viz, brown spot, kernel smut, eye spot, leaf smut, root rot, seedling blight and stem rot) rice blast causes severe damage, usually during the seedling stage. Rice blast is a major threat to rice as it reduces the rice yield by 30% globally, the equivalent of feeding 60 million people. The pathogen has been reported to attack almost all parts of the plant, including the leaf collar, leaf blade, stem, and panicle. Research has revealed that rice blast is caused by a new pathogen, Magnaporthe oryzae, and is one of the major sources of reduced rice yield and increased production cost. Increasing rice production is the most viable option to combat global food insecurity, especially in temperate regions (Wang and Valent, 2009). Losses due to plant infections may reach 50% or more (Khush and Jena, 2009), and the cost of its mitigation via fungicide application can reach over $70 ha−¹. Rice blast is capable of 100% yield loss in rice; however the information about the intensity of actual losses were recorded as 5%–10%, 8%, and 14% in India (1960–61), Korea (mid-1970s), and China (1980–81), respectively. In the Philippines, yield losses of 50%–85% were reported due to rice blast.
Rice yellow mottle virus
Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) is a plant viral disease. RYMV results in yellow leaves with alternating yellow and green stripes, stunting, reduced tillering, leaf mottle with yellow stripes, incomplete panicle exertions, and spikelet sterility. RYMV is transferred spontaneously by insects (entomophily) from an infested plant to a healthy plant, or through contact between infected and healthy plants. Infestation in rice fields can be observed by the presence of yellow patches.
Sheath Rot
Sheath rot is a fungal disease usually associated with a virus disease infection. The disease is identified by rotting growing panicles being incompletely exerted with numerous empty grains. Stem borers are the main vectors of sheath rot spread in infected plants. The losses due to this disease can be reduced by growing resistant rice varieties, eradication of seed-borne pathogens, seed treatment, and the systematic use of fungicides.
Brown Spot
Brown spot is a fungal disease and can be identified as oval symptoms on leaves. The fungi can infect both seedlings and mature plants. The disease is caused by Bipolaris oryzae, Cochilobolusmiya beans. Basically it is a seedling disease, but can also infect both leaves and panicles in rice. The seedling grown from infested seeds can cause about 50% seedling mortality and also suffer with blight. A major epidemic of brown spot was observed in Bengal during 1942, the Great Bengal Famine,
which resulted yield losses from 50%–90% and resulted in the death of two million people. The epidemic of Bengal was caused by the continuous temperature of 20–30°C for 2 months coupled with unusual cloudy weather during the flowering and grain-filling stages.
1.2.3 Social and Economical Constraints
According to Evenson and Golin (2003), the proportion of researchers to extension workers (the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education) is very low. This is a major constraint because profitable technology is not extending into the farming community. The lack of education in the rice farming community is a serious problem, as better-educated farmers are more willing to adopt new technologies (Sanchez and Swaminathan, 2005). Rice cultivation is also harmfully affected by many socioeconomic and policy constraints throughout the world, such as unfavorable input and output pricing policies at a national level. Less output and high input prices decrease profit and heighten competition among farmers at local and global markets. Small farmers have limited or no access to credit, inputs, markets, and market information. Rural rice farmers face the challenges of poor rural infrastructure and transportation. Literature demonstrates that worldwide, social and economic institutions are not firm, but are changing as new, good opportunities arise (Otsuka and Place, 2001). So there is a need for collaborative research (between social scientists and researchers) and good policies for the development and adaptation of new strains of rice. Many studies (Thakur, 1994; Jha, 1998) found that there is a need for the creation and expansion of more feasible, problem-based, cost-effective, and area-specific technologies for rice production.
The unavailability of farmer organizations hinders rice producers from opening credit facilities. Therefore, growers cannot expand production due to financial constraints (Defoer et al., 2002). In Vietnam and India, major socioeconomic constraints in rice production are poor farming communities, poor infrastructure, and high input cost. In India, almost 46% of rice growers were affected due to the lack of technical knowledge (Timmer et al., 2010). Some human health-related problems, such as malaria and bilharzia due to stagnant water, are severe threats for improving rice productivity in underdeveloped countries (Balasubramenian et al., 2007). Rice growing areas are also decreasing due to the shortage of labor, urbanization, industrialization, and increasing water competition in major rice-producing countries. Other issues like global warming due to the emission of methane gas, bio-diversity depletion, and soil water pollution by pesticides and fertilizer application also threatens rice productivity (Ferrero et al., 2001). Thus, there is a need for development of integrated management systems through eco-friendly, agronomical research supported by modeling for improved and sustainable productivity of rice.
1.3 Conclusions
Rice is adaptable to a variety climatic conditions. It can be cultivated in dry and wetland at low and high altitudes. Globally, rainfed rice is cultivated on nearly 45% of the rice area and contributes approximately 25% of the total rice yield, while 76% of the world’s rice is obtained from 55% of irrigated fields. Worldwide, rice is grown on 158 M ha with a production of 470 Mts milled rice, of which 90% is contributed by Asia. The average yield in upland rainfed rice systems is normally very low, almost 1 t ha−1, due to the uneven pattern of rainfall, deprived weed control, low input use, and high disease incidence. About half of rainfed lowland rice and all rainfed uplands rice are subjected to drought. Globally, fresh water scarcity and drought creates serious challenges for rice production. Being an aquatic crop, rice suffers from water stress and soil water contents even above field capacity, as about 5000 L of water is required for each kilogram of irrigated rice. Globally, the irrigated rice area has reduced over time due to water scarcity. Similarly, salinity is the second major abiotic constraint in rice production, after drought. Rice is the most salt-sensitive cereal crop and salinity has variable effects on the growth and developmental stages of rice; it depresses reproductive growth relatively at a greater extent than vegetative growth. Asia, being the main producer of rice, is most vulnerable to soil degradation. In Asia, rice productivity on approximately 50 M ha suffers due to the deficiency of phosphorus, zinc, or iron and excess of salt, iron, or aluminum. Rainfed lowland rice of about 4 M ha in Asia is also negatively affected by iron toxicity in acidic soil with low P and K content. Rice yield is reported to be lower than 1.5 t ha−1, compared with 7.6 t ha−1, on high productivity land in Northeast China. Temperature and radiation are the two major environmental factors which directly, or indirectly, play a vital role in rice production. Temperature is a major production constraint in rice productivity, as both low and high temperature at high and low altitudes, respectively, reduce rice yield. Scientists found a 10% decrease in rice yield by per degree centigrade increase in minimum temperature. The rise of maximum temperatures is more harmful to rice yields than a rise in minimum temperatures in most countries. Similarly, increasing CO2 from 365 to 627 mg kg−1 improved rice grain yield by an average of 23% (ranging from 10 to 70%) due to CO2 fertilization; this effect, however, is nullified by increasing mean air temperature. Rice productivity is also harmfully affected by social, economic, and policy constraints throughout the world: such as unfavorable input and output pricing policies, lack of education, poor rural infrastructure, and human health-related problems such as malaria and bilharzia due to stagnant water in rice fields, which are serious threats to increased rice production.
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