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A Guide to Australian Monitors in Captivity
da Danny Brown
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263 pagine3 ore
Sintesi
Detailed information on all aspects of captive husbandry relating to the most commonly kept species of Australian monitor species including individual chapters on Large Terrestrial and Arboreal Monitors, Rock, Small Terrestrial, Small and Medium Arboreal and Water Monitors. General Husbandry chapters cover stock selection, handling and hygiene, transportation, security and safety, quarantine, indoor and outdoor enclosure options, enclosure size, compatibility, ventilation, substrate choices, hide sites, enclosure enrichment, heating, lighting, thermostats, invertebrate and vertebrate food items, artificial diets, culturing insect foods, dietary supplements and dealing with feeding problems. Breeding chapters include visual sexing techniques, other sexing techniques including some revolutionary new methods, courtship and mating, cooling and separation, reproductive strategies, caring for gravid females, nest facilities, egg management, artificial incubation facilities and regimes, temperature dependent sex determination, and hatchling care. Complete with a comprehensive health and disease chapter.
Editore: ABK PublicationsPubblicato: Apr 1, 2012ISBN: 9780975820070Formato: book
Anteprima del libro
A Guide to Australian Monitors in Captivity - Danny Brown
INTRODUCTION
Australia is often referred to as ‘the land of monitors’ by lizard enthusiasts. Of the 50+ species of monitors found worldwide, at least half of them are found in Australia, which is also home to both the smallest monitor species and to a number of the largest monitor species in the world. These lizards may be referred to, in text and colloquially, as ‘goannas’ and ‘varanids’, however I prefer the term ‘monitor’.
Monitor species vary in colouration from drab brown to ornately patterned black, white, yellow and green.
They live in almost every habitat possible in Australia, including desert, dry forest, riverine areas and rainforest. They may be entirely terrestrial, entirely arboreal, both terrestrial and arboreal or aquatic in their habits. Most species are diurnal, but some exhibit crepuscular or nocturnal behaviours under certain conditions.
More than 95% of monitor species are endemic to Australia and have developed in isolation from much of the herpetofauna of the rest of the world. For this reason, their habits and peculiarities are unique and therefore much of the information about their captive care is not relevant to Australian species. The uniqueness of these lizards also make them popular as pets worldwide, with many Australian species among the most widely kept monitors overseas.
Despite the fascination with Australian monitors, very little literature is available on their care and a lot of literature is based on incorrect assumptions and broad generalisations of their natural requirements. Much of this information has either oversimplified the requirements of a species (leading to later disappointment) or painted a picture of such dismal likelihood of success that it has impeded the progression of monitor culture.
It is the intention of this book to approach the keeping of these species from a different perspective. Each unique species has been dealt with individually, with the provided information being derived from my own personal experiences and from the experiences of other people who have kept and bred these species. This has been supplemented with relevant natural history information to provide a much more balanced view of the care and breeding of these species.
It is an unfortunate fact that many Australian monitor species are kept overseas in greater numbers than in their country of origin, as many Australian species have been ‘imported’ into Europe and the United States of America—Australian authorities are somewhat disinclined to allow new species into the hobby and thus we may never get the opportunity to work with them.
While Australian monitor enthusiasts collectively drool over the many exotic and exciting species of Iguanas, Chameleons, geckos and monitors held in other countries, we have managed to overlook many species in our own backyard. It is hoped that the information provided in this book will encourage Australian keepers to look more fervently at what is available now, to ensure that it will continue to be available in years to come. Additionally, it is hoped the information provided here will allow overseas enthusiasts to better maintain their stocks of Australian species so they are not permanently lost.
The information in this book is presented in such a way that the keeper is able to access the precise detail required on each species in a logical manner. Peculiarities of individual species are highlighted, rather than generalised, as has been the failing of many books before this one.
This book covers all Australian that are currently maintained in captivity in moderate numbers at the time of publication—regardless of where in the world they may be maintained. Very rare species are not covered as they are beyond the scope of this text.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT
PET SUITABILITY
Monitors vary in their suitability as pets. Only some monitors, such as smaller terrestrial species, can be regularly handled—most do not respond well to it. Most monitors are best considered as display specimens to be observed and enjoyed for their behavioural traits and activities.
All species can inflict bites and scratch with their claws. Large species can be quite dangerous if not respected.
Monitors are easy to house in captivity despite the range of natural habitats they reside in and their size. Many species can be maintained with relatively low set-up costs, making them appealing to first-time keepers or those with novice facilities.
CHOOSING YOUR STOCK
There are so many species of monitors to choose from that it can sometimes be difficult for a beginner to decide which species is best for them. Some things to consider are:
Who is the monitor for?
Certain species are better suited to adults than children. For example, aggressive or delicate species are not recommended for children. Passive pets may not hold a child’s interest as well as a more interactive species.
Why do you want a monitor?
The intentions you have for a monitor should influence the species you select. Is it to be on display or will it be a handled pet? Few small species enjoy being handled. Species best suited for handling include Ridge-tailed Monitors Varanus acanthurus.
Do you really need a monitor?
You must have the time, space and money to efficiently care for a monitor. They require maintenance—some species require daily attention to remain healthy and others require considerable space and expensive food. Selecting the wrong species can leave a new keeper frustrated and disillusioned with the hobby.
Can you afford the initial set-up costs?
The actual purchase price of a monitor is often the smallest portion of the total set-up cost. A new keeper must purchase enclosures, lighting and heating. Different classes of reptiles have different requirements—monitors are not the most expensive but still require costly accessories. Cutting corners during the initial set-up will haunt you later.
Can you feed the species properly?
Species with broad dietary needs are much easier to cater for. Selecting a monitor that only dines on insects may become a burden if you cannot access or afford a regular source of live food. Large species are ravenous feeders and can be expensive to maintain in optimum condition.
What sex do you purchase?
Generally, a male is the best choice when selecting a single monitor—they are often more active, a little brighter in colour and less inclined to suffer from reproductive disorders. However, they may be more aggressive—particularly larger species.
Do you purchase an adult or a juvenile?
Many keepers feel that purchasing a juvenile allows them to develop a bond with their pet. The disadvantages of purchasing juveniles are that they may be more difficult to care for and are often sold unsexed. However, they are usually less expensive and initially require simpler husbandry features. Some keepers prefer adults or sub adults—these monitors are already past the difficult stage, can be sexed and are of a size that allows them to be placed immediately into adult accommodation.
Do you purchase captive bred or legally wild caught specimens?
Captive bred monitors are far more reliable specimens than legally wild caught. Captive bred specimens are more inclined to eat commercially available foods, have limited previous exposure to parasites and generally live longer. Legally wild caught specimens may be preferable when purchasing rare species not readily offered for sale. In the case of large monitors, legally wild caught adults allow breeding activity to be achieved much sooner than raising a juvenile which make take several years to reach maturity.
Should you purchase unrelated stock?
There is certainly evidence to suggest that long term inbreeding can reduce fertility and health in monitors. Where possible, see if individuals from different parents can be purchased. If not, make sure that you aim to sell unrelated offspring either by maintaining a second unrelated population or by swapping hatchlings with an associate.
Who should you purchase from?
Dealers and breeders both sell reptiles. Dealers generally have more stock available but fewer species to choose from. They are less able to provide information on the history of the monitors offered for sale and the level of advice varies greatly between each dealership. Breeders are usually able to provide greater individual history but may have limited stock. Some buyers prefer to purchase locally, however, interstate purchases can be rewarding when dealing with breeders who have a good reputation. No matter where you purchase from, make sure the seller provides adequate care instructions—just because an individual has specimens for sale does not necessarily infer any level of expertise.
Who will care for your monitors when you are not available?
Monitors will tolerate an owner’s absence for a short period of time. However, if a monitor has special needs, these will have to be catered for during any absence.
Selecting an Individual Monitor
Once you have determined which species or species group you are interested in keeping, it is time to select a healthy specimen. The following guidelines can be helpful.
•Within a group of monitors, select an individual that is bright, alert and active—these are often the most dominant specimens and generally the best feeders.
•If possible, observe the monitor’s response to food. Assuming an individual has not recently been fed, it should at least recognise the presence of food—even if your presence is somewhat intimidating.
•Check the monitor’s movement is free and clear of the ground and that it does not move abnormally compared to others in the group.
•Check the monitor is breathing normally. Is it breathing through an open mouth—if so it may be suffering from respiratory distress or heat stress.
•If possible, handle the monitor to get an indication of its weight and strength. A weak or sickly individual will feel light and will not struggle unduly when handled.
•Examine the monitor’s physical build. Is the tail fat and rounded? Are the hips protruding? Are the muscles of the face rounded and plump? Avoid underweight monitors.
•Inspect the feet and limbs. Missing toes may not affect the health of a specimen but you should be able to negotiate a lower price. Swelling around the feet may indicate infection.
•Look down the spine for any obvious changes in symmetry, curvature or bumps.
•Check the eyes are bright and that both open simultaneously.
•The skin should shed cleanly. Retained sheds may not be significant in a single individual but if multiple monitors within the enclosure have problems, it may indicate overly hot and dry conditions.
•Inspect the tail—is it the original or a modified tail? A modified tail is usually defined by a significant change in the tail colouration and surface features. It is more common in monitors for the tail to form a stump at the site of damage. A modified tail is not a significant issue but some keepers require a perfect tail on a specimen. A modified tail may indicate fighting between individuals, rough handling, wild origins or heat or cold stress. An individual with tail changes is no less healthy than one with a normal tail—but it may demand a lower price.
•Check for surface parasites. They often occur in monitors housed in outdoor enclosures, in enclosures with natural furnishings such as leaf litter, and in wild caught specimens.
•Determine if the individual has been sexed. Ask the seller about the sexing method that has been used and, if possible, request that the sexual features be demonstrated to you.
•Inspect the monitor’s enclosure. Note if the conditions are clean and tidy or if the occupants are overcrowded.
•Observe the health of other monitors in the enclosure. Note if the seller appears to possess a genuine knowledge of the animals in his or her care.
HANDLING AND HYGIENE
Monitors are the most difficult of all lizards to handle. They have several features that may make handling problematic—including very sharp teeth and claws, long tails that can whip around and ‘venom’. The use of correct handling techniques when managing monitors is necessary to prevent injury to the monitor and to the handler.
Monitors’ teeth are designed to crush and cut simultaneously. Bites from small monitor species will penetrate human skin. The degree of danger is directly related to the size of the monitor, its crushing power and how much can fit in its mouth at any one time.
Monitors’ claws are also efficient weapons. Designed for digging and climbing, they can be used to grip objects and hang on in such a manner that they become difficult to remove.
Larger monitor species are adept at using the tip of their tail as a whip, and will strike with considerable force and accuracy if approached at close range. The range of a tail whip is generally 1.5–2 SVL—you may be struck before you get within suitable grasping reach. Tail whipping may be used as a warning that you are approaching the monitor’s personal space and that it is in no mood to argue.
The presence of ‘venom glands’ in monitor species is a new field of research that grew from an urban myth—the claim was that prey bitten by Varanus komodoensis died as a result of septicaemia from the bite wound. Researchers investigated the possibility that other chemical factors such as pain enhancers, vasodilators, anticoagulants, neurotoxins and myotoxins were potentially involved. The study revealed the presence of ‘venom glands’ along the lower jaw of many monitor species. However, scientists and varanid enthusiasts are likely to argue the validity of these studies for many years to come.
I have never personally been bitten by a large monitor to test the theory that, in addition to the surgically precise cuts (I have seen many dogs attacked by monitors), there are other components of the bite that add to the pain and bleeding involved.
Bites inflicted by a small sized monitor species are certainly far different to what one would expect from a skink of the same size. In my experience, a bite by Varanus primordius is one of the most painful—spreading wheals and swelling of the skin within 10–15 minutes of the bite. It also inflicts a throbbing sensation similar to a wasp sting for one to two hours after the bite.
If a monitor does bite, individuals will often hang on tenaciously—all you can do is wait for them to get bored and let go. For small monitors, place the monitor and the bitten limb in a dry 20-litre bucket, allowing it to release its grip in its own time while still being restrained from escaping.
The methods of handling monitors vary depending on their size. Small sized monitors up to 30cm SVL can be managed using the same techniques employed when handling medium to large sized skinks. Some monitor species such as Varanus acanthurus may be tame enough to be managed much like a tame blue-tongued lizard. They may possess sharp claws, but they are not really capable of inflicting much more than superficial scratches.
The key to handling monitors is to keep the head immobilised—these lizards have a habit of relaxing and appearing docile before biting when you are not paying attention.
Larger monitors should be handled with caution. When handling a monitor of 30–50cm SVL, grasp the individual’s shoulder area with your primary hand and position the individual’s head either between the index and middle fingers or index finger and thumb. In the former, then place thumb behind one of the individual’s front legs and place the other front leg between the ring and pinkie fingers—this will immobilise the entire front end from above. The hind limbs and tail can be immobilised using the other hand in much the same method—supporting the pelvis, hind limbs and tail. The key is to ensure the claws point downwards and away and that the monitor is unable to turn around and bite.
For larger sized monitors, the head and tail must be controlled and the grip maintained. This can be achieved by encircling the lower neck with one hand and encircling the tail base with the other. As long as the grip is firm, the claws should remain pointing away and the tail and head should be stabilised. Sometimes it can be helpful to have a second person assist.
Never attempt to reposition a monitor in mid-air. If your grip must be adjusted, the monitor should always be placed on the ground—the first thing a large monitor will do if it feels your grip loosening is spin around and grab at you with its claws to feel more secure. A large monitor gripping your rib cage as if it is the only available tree is unpleasant and difficult to remove.
When handling wild caught monitors it is important to remember they may naturally feed on carrion and their oral cavities and front claws may have remnants of whatever they just ate. Therefore, basic disinfection should be carried out following a bite or scratch. Having observed many dogs bitten by monitors, I have found these lizards will dislodge their teeth in a wound. I have observed cases where teeth have remained as a nidus of infection for many weeks after a bite, eventually suppurating and making their way to the surface.
TRANSPORTATION
Once you have selected a monitor, you will have to transport it to its new home. There are two main options with different requirements to take into consideration— short journeys or longer journeys.
Short Journeys
A short journey refers to the movement of a monitor within a single facility or between facilities within driving distance of each other. The former is generally for the purposes of pairing, separation, removal of offspring or pre-sale. The key to safely transporting monitors on short journeys is preparation and the use of safe and secure storage containers appropriate for the species being transported. It is recommended to always have a range of containers stored nearby that can be used in case of an emergency.
For the transportation of most small species, takeaway food containers purchased in bulk from supermarkets and commercial catering suppliers are suitable. Ventilation holes in the containers are essential—use an inexpensive soldering iron to melt appropriately sized holes around the perimeter or on the lid. Lunch boxes and various sealed food containers can be treated with much the same method, but these containers take up more space.
Bags should be avoided for transporting any monitor smaller than 10cm SVL—I have experienced mishaps including escapes, thread entanglements and crushing injuries.
Among very small species, I have never experienced issues with aggression between individuals in the same container if the container is an appropriate size. However, when in doubt, opt for one monitor per container.
For the transportation of medium sized monitors, larger plastic containers with lockable lids are recommended. Buckets with lids are suitable for use for moving at home. Cardboard mailing tubes with ventilation provided via holes in the plastic caps are also suitable. Bags can be used but they must be clean, made of lightweight cotton, have all seams turned to the outside and be of an appropriate size—a bag 3 SVL wide x 5 SVL deep is ideal for a single specimen. Rounded corners will help prevent suffocation. A method known as ‘goose necking’ can be used to seal the bag—simply twist the end of the bag and fold it back on itself. Then close it with multiple rubber bands, plastic cable ties or a cloth tie to prevent escapes.
When handling species with long tails, ensure the tail tip does not become trapped in the bag opening. For increased security, place the bag inside a plastic tub, small foam esky, cardboard box or bucket. Do not stack the bags—this may limit ventilation for monitors located on the bottom. Tape or clothes pegs can be used to separate bags within a single container.
Only one individual should be packed per bag. Be aware of specimens bagged in proximity to each other—predators can still smell prey through bags.
Large species are more difficult to accommodate—their sharp claws can tear through some materials. Large, heavy grade bags and pillowcases may be used if they are of sufficient thickness. Hessian or plastic feedbags are not suitable.
Double bagging is recommended for transporting very large lizards—the bag should then be placed in a hard plastic or timber container. Rubbish bins with lockable lids are useful for short-term holding periods. Lengths of water pipe with ventilated caps can also be useful. Only one individual should be packed per container.
When transporting monitors by vehicle, precautions must be taken to avoid fluctuating temperatures. Containers must be kept out of direct sunlight and positioned to ensure they do not roll around in the vehicle. Clear tubs can act as miniature greenhouses, killing monitors even after minimal exposure to direct sunlight. Temperature fluctuations can be controlled to some degree by placing all containers inside an insulated box such as a polystyrene esky— this also prevents bagged animals from moving around and rolling themselves into the sunlight.
On hot days in vehicles where air conditioning is not available, small ice bricks can be placed inside the esky to cool it. These blocks must not be placed directly against the container and should be wrapped in a light towel. Reptiles should never be left in a closed vehicle. Despite their heat loving nature, they will stress and die if forced to endure consistently high temperatures.
Special precautions must be observed for aquatic species or very small species. Small species should be packed in wet sphagnum moss to provide moisture and to allow the evaporation to cool the local environment. Larger aquatic species may travel better if packed in moistened cloth bags.
Long Journeys
Due to the wide reach of the internet and telephone, it is not unusual that we may never meet the person we purchase our reptiles from. The long distances involved in many transactions mean monitors are regularly transported via road and air.
Transporting monitors by road in Australia is unreliable. In my experience, the only courier services that can be trusted are the few specialist reptile transportation companies in operation. Although other courier companies may accept reptiles, this does not mean their vehicles or drivers are aware of, or prepared for, the special requirements of transporting live reptiles.
It is the sole responsibility of the reptile keeper to ensure they follow freight protocols and regulations so freight companies can continue to provide the services we expect them to.
Reptiles should be packaged according to guidelines set down by the International Air Transport Authority (IATA). If all keepers comply with these regulations, minimal problems should arise. When mishaps do occur, keepers must remember they are not the only person freighting items that day. If items are misdirected, temporarily misplaced or flights are cancelled or redirected, items packaged correctly are unmistakable and are far less likely to be misplaced. Monitors are generally quite resilient. Misplaced monitors will generally cope quite well for the first 24–48 hours..
The basic requirements for the transportation of monitors via air freight in Australia (IATA 2005) are—
•All containers and bags should contain some type of packing material such as crumpled or shredded paper.
•All animals held in a single bag should be of the same size and species.
•IATA’s recommended packing densities are generally excessive and not recommended for health and safety reasons. The recommendations are the same for when containers are used. Note that the recommendations given are for maximum densities. Therefore, it is more appropriate to calculate the size of a bag or container for a single animal based on its SVL size.
•If the bag is suspended within the container, it must be suspended from both ends and the maximum number of animals should be halved.
•Monitors with a SVL of 900–1200mm must be double bagged.
•Monitors with a SVL of more than 1200mm must have their mouths taped shut.
•When transporting large monitors, the position of the head should be marked on the exterior of the box.
•Boxes must be constructed according to the following criteria:
Timber Boxes
•Must be constructed from water resistant fibreboard, hardboard or plywood with a minimum of three ply.
•Must have small ventilation holes or ventilation holes screened with wire mesh.
•Must have separate ventilation provided in each divider within a multi-compartment container.
•May be surrounded by polystyrene to provide insulation.
•Must have smooth internal surfaces.
•Must be labelled with an approved label indicating the presence of live animals within the container and an approved label indicating the correct orientation of the package.
Plastic Containers
•Must be constructed from rigid plastic that is capable of supporting the weight of the containers stacked around it—either upright or upside down—without bending, cracking or collapsing.
•Must be of a size that allows an animal’s entire ventral surface to have contact with the floor of the container within.
•Must have ventilated openings on all sides.
•Animals must be contained within a timber box placed inside the plastic container.
•Small monitors should be fed no less than six hours and larger monitors no less than 12 hours before packaging. All reptiles will cool in transit and are unable to digest food during this period.
•Internal containers should include a non-slip surface—slightly moist paper towel or toilet tissue is suitable as it will stick to the container floor and maintain higher humidity, which can be important for very small specimens. For small arboreal specimens, shredded paper is ideal as it provides a lightweight and safe surface to grip on to. It should be packed tight enough to ensure it does not move around within the container but allows the specimen to move between the paper strips. For bagged specimens, shredded paper is also ideal for supporting the bags and for providing separation between adjacent bags.
PURCHASE AND FREIGHT ETIQUETTE
Buying and selling monitors can sometimes be quite a frustrating process. However, most problems can be avoided if buyers and sellers follow some basic common sense rules.
Buyers
•Check your licence conditions before purchase. Make sure your specific licence allows you to keep the species you are enquiring about.
•If you have no intention of purchasing an individual, do not put the seller through the process of advising on feeding and housing, supplying photos, organising freight prices and checking flight availability—you will be called a ‘tyre kicker’. Such people are the curse of the reptile scene and force many a breeder underground and to cease advertising.
•Do not attempt to undercut other purchasers by offering more than the successful bidder. Apart from being rude, a seller willing to accept this deal could be willing to mislead you about other aspects of the sale.
•Do not be late for a face-to-face purchase or advise if you are running late.
•Pay promptly. Do not string a buyer along—they will be turning down other potential buyers while they await your payment. Do not expect the seller to ship before the payment has been sighted.
•Assume freight will be an additional cost. Sellers rarely advertise freight inclusive prices.
•Advise the seller once you have paid.
•Advise the seller of
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