Non-Chemical Weed Control

Turkey

Preface

Weeds are the yield-limiting biotic factors that grow in crops without human attention. They feed on moisture and nutrients, which are otherwise to be used by crop plants. Also, weeds occupy space and snatch the light that is supposed to be utilized by crop plants. In addition, weeds interfere with the crop growth processes by exuding certain chemicals and also through root interferences. Ultimately, weeds disturb the growth of crop plants, deprive them of resources, decrease the crop yields, and increase the cost of production. In some crops, weeds may cause minor yield losses ~<10%; however, in several field crops (having an important role in global food security), weeds may reduce yield by nearly 50%. In several instances, weeds can also result in total failure of the crop. On a global scale, these losses approach to billions of dollars along with a considerable reduction in food availability. Owing to these facts, weed researchers are working all over the world to fight against weeds.

Since its advent in the mid-20th century, chemical control has been the most followed weed control method. This weed control method contributed significantly to reduce the damages caused by weeds to crops and highly improved the crop yields over the last 5–6 decades. However, several problems are also associated with this weed control method. Most important of these include herbicide residues in food, environmental pollution, and herbicide resistance evolution in weeds. Hence, researchers from all across the globe are focusing on weed control methods that may provide an alternative to herbicidal weed control. Moreover, chemical weed control is not permitted in cropping systems such as organic farming. Hence, nonchemical weed control methods are inevitable to suppress weeds in such farming systems.

Classical nonchemical weed control methods include the use of preventive, cultural, and mechanical weed control methods. Although these methods possess effectiveness against weeds, they do not provide enough weed control, which may satisfy the standards of intensive and precision farming. Recent literature addresses the use of nonchemical weed control methods in modern agriculture and organic farming. However, in most of the cases, the classical techniques of nonchemical weed control have been discussed. Moreover, most of such literature is composed of research publications rather than books or monographs. This book brings the most recent nonchemical weed control techniques (in addition to classical nonchemical weed control methods). The book is useful for teaching and research staff of universities and agricultural research institutes and students. Other communities who will benefit from this book include the extension specialists and growers, particularly the ones who prefer to grow their food organically.

Khawar Jabran, Duzce University, Turkey

Bhagirath S. Chauhan, The University of Queensland, Australia

Chapter 1

Overview and Significance of Non-Chemical Weed Control

Khawar Jabran⁎; Bhagirath S. Chauhan†    ⁎ Düzce University, Düzce, Turkey

† The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia

Abstract

Weeds are among the most important pests of agricultural crops that not only decrease the crop yields but also severely damage the quality of produce. Herbicides are usually effective in suppressing weeds occasionally supplemented with other weed control methods. During recent times, a number of factors have increased the importance of non-chemical weed control methods. Some of these are environmental concerns arising by overuse of pesticides, rising demands for organic food, and an evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds. This chapter discusses why non-chemical weed control is needed? and also provides an overview of currently available non-chemical weed control techniques.

Keywords

Weeds; Yield losses; Organic farming; Non-chemical weed control methods

1.1 Introduction

In addition to other criteria, effective control of all pests is required to achieve sustainability in any agricultural system. Weeds are a serious pest of crops and have been infesting crops since the onset of agriculture. Optimum growth and development of crop plants depend on the balanced nutrition and availability of moisture, space, and photosynthetically active radiation (Fageria et al., 2010). Weeds also aim at consuming these resources for their growth, development, and reproduction. Hence, weeds and crop plants are usually in a consistent competition for nutrition, space, moisture, and light (Guglielmini et al., 2016). Weeds also interfere with the growth of crop plants, for instance, they may reduce the light reaching crop plants through shading or exude some allelochemicals that impact crop plants negatively. Hence, a sustainable weed control is required owing to severe weed-crop competition and damages caused by weeds to crops.

Throughout the human history, physical or mechanical methods of weed control have been used. It was the end of the nineteenth century when some inorganic salts (e.g., copper salts) and botanical oils were used as pesticides for controlling weeds or other pests. Discovery and introduction of 2,4-D was an important step that opened the doors to the discovery, development, and formulation of several other herbicides (Peterson, 1967). After their discovery and use in agriculture, herbicides have been providing a great contribution in managing weeds in increasing crop yields.

Despite all the benefits gained through herbicide application, resistance evolution in weeds against herbicides and environmental concerns have come out as serious issues (Powles, 2008; Heap, 2014). The sustainability of weed control achieved through herbicide application has become questionable after the onset of issues of herbicide resistance, environmental pollution, and other ecological concerns (Powles, 2008; Heap, 2014; Gaba et al., 2016). In the wake of these issues, non-chemical weed control methods are required to substitute or at least supplement the herbicidal weed control. The European Union (EU) advises the growers to adopt integrated pest management while banning many of herbicides due to environmental implications of their use (Moss, 2010).

Non-chemical weed control may provide the benefits such as safe and healthy food production and environmental conservation. Such weed control methods are also inevitable for the successful implementation of organic farming systems (Bond and Grundy, 2001; Jabran et al., 2015). The current situation, however, indicates that knowledge gaps exist regarding the technologies involved in non-chemical weed control methods. This book Non-Chemical Weed Control is aimed at bringing together various important non-chemical weed control methods. The book is also aimed at discussing the knowledge gaps and flaws in the use of non-chemical methods for weed management and the possible solutions.

This chapter is aimed at providing a brief introduction to various concepts and issues that are related to non-chemical weed control. The chapter discusses the factors that highlight the need for non-chemical weed control, the relationship of food security and weed control, and finally, provides an overview of non-chemical weed control techniques.

1.2 Herbicide-Resistant Weeds

Resistant evolution in weeds against herbicides is the greatest challenge faced by weed science (Heap, 2014). There are > 250 weed species that have evolved resistance to 161 herbicides; in total, there are 26 known herbicide sites of actions, and weeds have evolved resistance against 23 of these (http://www.weedscience.org/). Out of the resistant weeds, > 100 are narrow-leaved, while nearly 150 are broad-leaved plant species. The number of countries and crops where herbicide-resistant weeds have been reported is 68 and 91, respectively.

The problem of herbicide resistance in weeds has been worsened due to factors such as a limited number of existing mode of actions and a rare discovery of new herbicides or target sites. Moreover, repeated use of same herbicides and monoculture accelerates the herbicide resistance evolution in weeds. Non-chemical becomes the alternate weed control strategy in the wake of the existence of herbicide resistance in weeds.

1.3 Environmental and Health Challenges

One among the aims of sustainable development is the provision of a safe environment to current and future generations. Environmental safety may be compromised and harmed by the overuse or misuse of chemicals, such as herbicides. The houses located in a close proximity (< 750 m) to farming fields with the heavy use of herbicides are easily contaminated with herbicide residues (Ward et al., 2006). Herbicide application is aimed at controlling weeds in crop plants; however, nontarget plant species are also frequently damaged after spray. Recent work from France indicated that applications of herbicides were killing the rare plant species while having no positive effect on crop yields or control of problematic weeds in wheat (Gaba et al., 2016). These results show there can be certain ecological issues as a result of herbicide use.

The negative impacts of herbicides on environment or organisms have been reported with scientific evidence. For example, atrazine was found to disturb reproduction and hermaphroditism in wild leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) (Hayes et al., 2002). Rohr and Palmer (2005) evaluated the sensitivity of salamanders Ambystoma barbouri to various concentrations of atrazine herbicides. An exposure of salamanders to ≥ 40 μg/L of this herbicide changed their behavior and accelerated a water loss in their body.

Not only honeybees facilitate the pollination in many plants, but also their visits may improve the yield and quality of many fruit and field crops. Recently, a decrease in honeybee colonies has been observed in areas (particularly, in the United States), where pesticides were used at a high rate (Potts et al., 2016). Herbicides are also expected to cause serious adverse effects on honeybees. For example, exposure of honeybees to atrazine, glyphosate, or their combinations could disturb their metabolic pathway (Jumarie et al., 2017).

Sterling and Arundel (1986) reviewed the effects of phenoxy herbicides on health and reported that these herbicides might cause several diseases and illnesses in humans. They noted that phenoxy herbicides were associated with congenital abnormalities (if parents were exposed to these herbicides) and various types of cancers. Similarly, heavy use of glyphosate has increased the chances of human exposure to this herbicide during and after application under field conditions and through consumption of water contaminated with glyphosate (Myers et al., 2016). A study conducted in Sri Lanka indicated that kidney diseases in farmers were associated with spraying glyphosate and other pesticides in paddy fields without wearing suitable clothes and other protections and drinking water from an abandoned well that had been previously sprayed with glyphosate (Jayasumana et al., 2015). According to Camacho and Mejia (2015), aerial sprays of glyphosate in Colombia caused several health problems to humans living in that area. Most important among health issues were an increased number of miscarriages, increased number of respiratory and skin diseases, and increased visit number of patients for availing medical care. Research from the US studied relations of acetochlor to cancer (Lebov et al., 2015). There was a possible link between exposure to acetochlor and cancer; however, the researchers did not provide a firm conclusion owing to lack of clear trends in results. In a study from France, high concentrations of acetochlor and alachlor were recorded in the urine of pregnant women holding rural background (Chevrier et al., 2014).

1.4 Food Security and Weed Control

Global food security is directly dependent on the amount of cereals, pulses, vegetables, and fruits that are produced from the agricultural fields. A decrease in the production of these food types will disturb the supply of food items (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012). Hence, the factors that constrain the realization of production potential of food crops indirectly disturb the food security (Kahane et al., 2013). This implies that food security is indirectly negatively impacted by several abiotic and biotic factors that hinder the crop productivity. Weed infestation can impact the food security by decreasing the crop productivity in infested fields. For instance, a heavy weed infestation may impact food securities in the countries where a major portion of food needs are fulfilled through single or a few crops (Tshewang et al., 2016). Weeds cause a decrease in crop yield and produce quality as well. Compared with other pests, weeds are known to cause the highest damage to crop productivity (Oerke, 2006). For instance, weeds may cause 35% decrease in productivity of cotton, 37% in rice and soybeans, 30% in potatoes, 40% in maize, and 23% in wheat (Oerke, 2006). The lack of weed control or inefficient weed management will cause a severe decline in productivity of crops that will ultimately disturb the regional and global food security. Hence, an effective weed control is required to ensure adequate food production and food security.

1.5 Organic Crop Production and Weed Control

Organic production systems are advocated owing to their health benefits achieved through the provision of food that is free of harmful chemical compounds. Organic crop production systems do not allow the use of synthetic herbicides for weed control. Hence, non-chemical weed control is required to be practiced under such conditions (Bond and Grundy, 2001). Prohibition of herbicide use in organic agriculture results in high weed infestations compared with the fields under conventional agriculture. Under organic crop production, weed management is totally relied on non-chemical methods, such as tillage, cover crops, high seed rates, and mulches. Demand for organic food will increase the importance of non-chemical weed control.

1.6 Role of Non-Chemical Weed Control in Integrated Weed Management

Integrated weed management (IWM) makes use of multiple techniques to achieve sustainable weed control (Harker and O'Donovan, 2013). Use of IWM for controlling weeds can provide environmental and economic benefits. Use of herbicides is one among these techniques in IWM, while the rest comprise non-chemical practices. This means that achieving IWM is impossible without practicing the non-chemical weed control methods. There is a range of choices for non-chemical weed control methods that can be chosen according to the nature of crop, intensity of weed infestation, climate, growth stages of weeds and crops, critical period for crop-weed competition, available resources, and yield goals (Harker and O'Donovan, 2013; Bajwa et al., 2015). Advancement in non-chemical weed control is inevitable if sustainable IWM needs to be achieved.

1.7 Role of Non-Chemical Weed Control in Home Lawns, Home Grown Vegetables

The location of home lawns and home gardens is usually very close to residential places; hence, it may not be a good idea to apply herbicides in these areas for controlling weeds. There is greater likeliness of human contact to herbicides from these areas compared with agricultural fields outside (Harris and Solomon, 1992; Nishioka et al., 1996).

The vegetables are consumed fresh or cooked almost immediately after their harvest, whereas cereal grains, legumes, etc. are consumed much later after herbicide application. This long duration may cause a decay/loss of herbicides in cereals or legumes; however, this may not be possible in short periods available with vegetables (Tadeo et al., 2000; Claeys et al., 2011). Many times, herbicide spray may directly fall on fruits if the weeds are sprayed on fruit-bearing vegetable plants. These factors make non-chemical weed control more important for home lawns or home-grown vegetables. Ultimately, replacing herbicide application with non-chemical weed control under such places will help to achieve environmental protection and health safety.

1.8 An Overview of Recent Non-Chemical Weed Control Methodologies

All of the ancient weed control techniques were non-chemical. It was until the late 19th century when some inorganic chemicals were used for controlling weeds. The discovery of 2,4-D in the middle of the 20th century started a new era of excellence in the discipline of weed control. Afterward, herbicides have been contributing tremendously in controlling weeds and increasing crop productivity. Even today, herbicide application is important, but not a sole method of weed control. Non-chemical weed control methods may be complex, possess a lower efficacy than herbicides, and require high expenditure, but they are needed for the sake of environmental and health safety (Moss, 2010).

Weed control through herbicide application is usually supplemented with non-chemical weed control methods. Broad categories of non-chemical weed control may include preventive strategies, cultural weed control, physical/mechanical weed control, allelopathy, and biological weed control. Table 1.1 provides a summary of currently available non-chemical weed control methods. Weed control methods such as the use of tillage have usually been a consistent constituent of weed management plans for farmers. Although less frequent, there has been an implementation of preventive measures and classical cultural weed control (such as crop rotation, intercropping, and cover cropping). The cultural technique of flooding may be useful for controlling weeds in rice. Farmers always have a choice to observe such easy, inexpensive, and environment-friendly methods to suppress weeds at their farms. Usually, these methods may require some agronomic management and negligible extra costs but could help effectively in reducing weed populations in various crop production systems.

Table 1.1

In non-chemical weed control, most importantly, farmers have the choice to choose the competitive crop cultivars against weeds and increase the pressure on weeds through agronomic management (e.g., high seed rates and narrow row spacing). The science of allelopathy provides an important option to suppress weeds by sowing allelopathic crop cultivars (Jabran et al., 2015; Jabran, 2017). Like allelopathy, other nonconventional, non-chemical weed control methods are developing quickly. Important examples of such methods may include thermal weed control and use of electric systems and electromagnetic fields for suppressing