The Contextualisation of Leadership in Paul: Applied to English-Speaking Methodist Churches in Peninsular Malaysia

Introduction

‘Leadership’ is a topic of vast interest, not only in politics and business, but throughout society. Training courses and books on the subject abound. In the Christian community too, there is much teaching about it, some based on Scriptural patterns, some building on business models, and most taught from a western perspective. South African missionary David Bremner writes: ‘We have become so adept at matching biblical passages with cultural leadership patterns that one wonders if what is portrayed as biblical leadership is not merely Christian spice added to cultural broths.’¹ The challenge therefore, as Malaysian Bishop Hwa Yung states, ‘is to develop leadership and ministry models which are truly rooted in Kingdom values’.² What approach then should be taken to develop such leadership models? One way is to examine how leadership was contextualised in the New Testament. This project evaluates the factors which affected the contextualisation of leadership as the apostle Paul ministered in a variety of cultural contexts. The aim is to draw out theological principles which may then be investigated in other contexts, and in Malaysia in particular.

Specific Research Issues

Dean Flemming in his book Contextualization in the New Testament makes the insightful observation that most theoretical reflection on the contextualisation of the gospel has been based on a study of linguistics, anthropology, cross-cultural communication and contextual theology, with little consideration given to the contributions of biblical scholars.³ He believes that the New Testament provides many ‘stories of contextualization’ which reveal how the gospel message was tailored to suit a variety of different groups.⁴ He argues that the gospel engages ‘the cultural and social world of the readers in a way that both participates in that world, and at the same time challenges and transforms it’.⁵ Contextualisation covers every aspect of the church’s mission including the area of leadership.⁶ It is the aim of this book to identify the theological principles at work in the contextualisation of leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings, and to examine the outworking of these in the Malaysian church context. The research question I am seeking to answer is:

What theological principles influenced the process of the contextualisation of leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings, as the New Testament church both built on the understandings of leadership prevalent in the contexts of the time and also challenged and transformed them? In what ways are these principles reflected in English-speaking Methodist churches in Peninsular Malaysia?

There are two main areas of research: the first, and the one to which most attention is given, is the identification of the theological principles underlying the process of contextualisation of leadership in the ministry and teaching of the apostle Paul. By means of an examination of the New Testament writings, particular consideration is given to studying the extent to which existing leadership models within the Jewish and Graeco-Roman cultures were accepted, and the extent to which they were challenged and transformed, under the influence of these theological principles.

The second area of research is a consideration of how these principles are reflected in English-speaking Methodist churches in Peninsular Malaysia today in order to show the value of this research for today’s church. The aim is to encourage the development of churches in which leadership patterns are incarnated in a truly appropriate manner. Hwa Yung states that ‘if Asian theology is to be truly contextual, it must help the churches to rethink their authority patterns, and ways of choosing and training leaders’.⁷ While he suggests that churches should hold Asian cultural characteristics in creative tension with biblical and Christian truths,⁸ the aim of this research is rather to discover theological principles to show which aspects of culture relating to leadership should be accepted and built upon, and which need to be challenged and changed. The intended result is not so much a creative tension, as the stimulation of effective and transformational incarnation of leadership in the context.

Significance of this Investigation

The prime significance of this research results from the paucity of other works in which the contextualisation of leadership patterns in the New Testament has been explored. Dean Flemming has undertaken an exhaustive analysis of how the gospel was contextualised in the New Testament,⁹ but there has been little attempt to study leadership in a similar fashion. In the Christian world there are many books and articles on leadership, and while some have looked at biblical principles or even at theologies of leadership,¹⁰ few have examined in depth how these either reflected or challenged existing patterns of leadership. Andrew Clarke, who is a biblical studies lecturer at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, has done the most work in this area. In Serve the Community of the Church, he examines leadership in the Graeco-Roman world and studies how it was exercised in various social contexts.¹¹ He compares these with Paul’s practice and teaching on leadership. In A Pauline Theology of Church Leadership, he examines Pauline leadership in greater depth, considering in particular the titles, status, power, task and tools of leaders.¹² However, he has not given detailed attention to drawing out principles of Paul’s contextualisation.

In the East Asian context, and in countries influenced by Confucianism in particular, such as those with Chinese, Korean and Japanese cultures, there is some confusion about Christian leadership. Should believers uncritically follow Confucian models which are familiar to the people and seem to be effective? When the leader of a western missionary agency gave a Bible-based lecture on servant leadership at a Korean missionary training college, she was told by the college leaders that her lecture was very good, but the growth of the Korean church was a result of the strength of its leadership. While that kind of argument raises serious questions of biblical interpretation and authority, is it right to replace Confucian patterns with a servant leadership model which sometimes leads to a lack for respect for God-ordained authority? This is an important issue which shows the danger on the one hand of uncritically accepting the interpreter’s preconceptions about biblical leadership, and on the other, of following pragmatic arguments where ministry effectiveness controls the interpretation of Scripture. It is necessary rather to interpret Scripture in a nuanced way which takes seriously the contexts of the interpreter, the church and the text itself.

Although the English-speaking Methodist churches of Malaysia are less Confucian than their Chinese-speaking cousins, there is still some uncertainty in them about how authority should be expressed. This study aims to provide some contextual principles which will help the church in its task of theologising leadership.

Structure

Chapter 1: Contextualisation in the New Testament. The foundation of this work is contextualisation in the New Testament. Dean Flemming is the main scholar who has examined this in depth, and his book Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mission forms the basis of my understanding in this chapter. In drawing out some principles of contextualisation which the New Testament church followed, two particular areas are examined:

i) How God is involved in the process of contextualisation, through the activity of the Holy Spirit and the teaching of Scripture.

ii) The missional context, and the way in which the gospel was incarnated in that context, with the recognition that contextualisation will include both communicating in a contextually appropriate manner (risky though this may be), as well as prophetically seeking to transform that context.

Chapter 2: Background to leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings. After an introduction to leadership, this chapter gives a brief overview of the way in which leadership was organised in Judaism and the Graeco-Roman world in New Testament times, studying only the main institutions which have been suggested as models on which the leadership of the church was based. Two major influences on leadership in the Graeco-Roman context are then introduced: honour-seeking and patronage. Finally, some matters of general application to leadership in the New Testament which influence our interpretation of Paul’s understanding of leadership in the church are examined: Christ’s challenge to the status quo concerning leadership, the scholarly consensus of the development of leadership organisation in the early church, and the influence of congregational size on leadership structures.

Chapter 3: Pauline contextualisation of leadership: God’s activity and word, and the use of titles. The prime focus of Chapters 3 and 4 is to examine how the factors affecting contextualisation identified in Chapter 1 are exhibited in Paul’s style of leadership in ministry, and in his understanding of leadership as expressed in his writings. The underlying aim of this is to identify the theological influences at work in this process of contextualisation of leadership which will be drawn out in Chapter 5. Focus is therefore concentrated on how Paul was influenced by i) God’s guidance through the work of the Holy Spirit and through Scripture, and ii) the context in which the church operated. Attention is especially given to the missional context which is at the heart of the contextualisation process. This chapter examines the use of titles (including words used of Christian leaders which are related to service), noting how these are employed in the context and to what extent they are used in the Pauline churches of the New Testament.

Chapter 4: Pauline contextualisation of leadership: Leadership in practice. This chapter continues to study the missional context, looking particularly at leadership qualifications and leadership style, in order to see how these were contextualised in Paul’s ministry. In conclusion, the research outlined in Chapters 3 and 4 is evaluated to see to what extent the apostle Paul built on the leadership models of the time, and how far he challenged these models and sought to transform them. Paul happily made use of some aspects of existing leadership models: accepting the need for leaders, using existing leadership titles and patterns, showing respect for the elderly, building on household structures and using commendations. However, there were other aspects of existing leadership models that he had to make a prophetic stand against: the importance given to the leader’s appearance, ancestry, honour and status, authoritarian rule,¹³ building a following, taking a priestly role, patronage and strong leadership.

Chapter 5: An analysis of the contextualisation of leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings. This chapter examines the contextualisation of leadership analysed in Chapters 3 and 4, and draws out some general theological principles which influenced Paul in his ministry and writings. Many of these are christological in content: Christ’s unique position as ruler and mediator, and the example shown in his incarnation and crucifixion. The influence of trinitarian thinking in leadership, based on the social doctrine of the Trinity, is considered, as well as the leaders’ exercise of authority in defence of the truth of the gospel.

Chapter 6: Leadership in English-speaking Methodist Churches in Peninsular Malaysia. After giving a brief overview of the historical background of the English-speaking Methodist Church in Peninsular Malaysia, an examination is made of the ways in which the previously studied theological principles affecting the contextualisation of leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings are evident in this church. To help accomplish this, a number of interviews were undertaken among the district superintendents of the Trinity Conference. The interview questions refer to ministerial qualifications, the leader as absolute ruler, the priestly function of the leader, servant leadership, leadership by consensus, leadership hierarchy, and the necessary exercise of strong authority.

Chapter 7: The stimulation of contextualised leadership today. In the light of this study’s research, some guidelines for using Paul’s ministry and writings to draw out principles of leadership for application to the present-day church are suggested. This is followed by an evaluation of the contextualisation of leadership in the Malaysian Methodist churches represented by the district superintendents who were interviewed. Some areas in which Paul’s theological principles of leadership are well reflected are outlined, and then some other areas in which it is suggested that contextualisation may be stimulated even more with the aim of encouraging the churches in their incarnation of leadership. These include a reappraisal of the educational requirements for the pastorate, the pastor showing his vulnerability, and challenging the perceptions of some members that the pastor has a priestly role. Finally, some subjects about which further research might be fruitful are proposed.

Limits and Boundaries

This work is based on an acceptance of the historicity of the New Testament and its description of life in the Roman empire of the first century. It follows Andrew Clarke’s assessment that ‘Paul presents an account of himself and others that recognizes human fallibility, but he is nonetheless a trustworthy servant of Christ and guide in matters of church structure and governance’.¹⁴ No attempt is made to justify this since it is outside the remit of this investigation. The work of scholars who do not accept this understanding is referred to, but the study is not based on contextual models which are incompatible with this.

The Roman Catholic missiologist Stephen Bevans writes that contextual theology takes two things seriously: ‘The experience of the past (recorded in scripture and preserved and defended in tradition) and the experience of the present, that is, context (individual and social experience, secular or religious culture, social location and social change)’.¹⁵ However, in practice, when people talk of contextual theology, they tend to give priority to the second of these things.¹⁶ For example, Robert Schreiter in his seminal book, Constructing Local Theologies, favours the use of contextual models of theology which he argues ‘begin their reflection with the cultural context’.¹⁷ In such an approach, ‘a local theology begins with the needs of a people in a concrete place, and from there moves to the traditions of faith’.¹⁸ Since contextual theology commonly gives a higher priority to the context than Scripture, it is not surprising that, although contextual theology has been used in discussions of contextualisation, little attention has been given to using Scripture itself.¹⁹ This research does not follow Schreiter’s contextual theological method, but begins with Scripture and then moves to applying its message to the local context.²⁰ The transformation of that context is vital, but Flemming asserts that Scripture should be ‘the control and norm for all contextualization of the gospel’.²¹ This approach is appropriate to the applied context of this project since, historically, Methodists have accepted ‘the Protestant principle of the primary authority of Scripture for Christian faith and practice’.²² Furthermore, the English-speaking churches in Malaysia lay great emphasis on the Scripture. For example, the quadrennium theme of the Methodist Church in Malaysia 2009-2012 was ‘Spreading Scriptural Holiness, Transforming the Nation’.²³ This investigation therefore starts from a premise of revelation based on Scripture, and a belief in the basic reliability of the New Testament documents and in the Bible’s authority in matters of faith and conduct. This is also the basis on which I consider that it is legitimate to apply New Testament principles to the current day. However, Scripture is not interpreted as if it were a collection of dogmatic supracultural propositions, without giving due importance to the context.

After a brief study of the factors affecting contextualisation in the New Testament, these are applied to the apostle Paul’s ministry and teaching about leadership, taking into consideration all the writings traditionally considered to have Pauline authorship, including Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians and the Pastoral Epistles.²⁴ Luke’s material relating to Paul in the Acts of the Apostles is also included.²⁵

Within this subject area there are a number of topics which are not considered in this work:

i) Gender. Since this is such a massive area, looking at gender in detail might swamp the rest of the research. Consequently, the decision was made to exclude this from the main research area, leaving it for others to pursue in the future. Many of the principles examined in this study can of course be applied to the leadership of women.²⁶

ii) Itinerant leadership. This study does not distinguish between itinerant and residential leaders but examines leadership principles in both apostolic and local leadership.²⁷

iii) Leadership development, training and effectiveness. The primary focus is put on how leaders exercise their authority, not on how they are trained and prepared, or on what kind of leaders are the most effective.

iv) Social science leadership and organisational theory. Although some secular studies of leadership are mentioned, the purpose of this study is to discover the theological process of leadership contextualisation, not to undertake detailed sociological analyses of leadership.²⁸

v) The detailed functions of leadership. The main focus of this study is on the leader’s qualifications, authority and leadership style. Little attention is given to the detailed responsibilities of leaders.

vi) Leadership titles which do not occur in the New Testament. The Roman empire had a complicated system of government with many different officials and titles. In this study’s examination of leadership titles, no attempt is made to include all of these. Most of those which occur in the New Testament in religious contexts are considered, with particular reference to the Greek titles rather than the Latin, so that a direct comparison can be made with words used in the New Testament documents.

vii) The contextualisation of leadership in church history. The centre of this investigation lies in the New Testament period, and space does not permit an examination of how leadership has been contextualised through the ages.

The main area of application is Malaysian churches which have been established in Chinese communities. These communities are not homogeneous and are influenced in varying degrees by Confucianism, Chinese religions and other non-Chinese cultures. It is therefore probably not possible to identify unequivocally which aspects of leadership understanding result from which cultural influences. Furthermore, since the Chinese-language and English-language churches of Malaysia are different from one another, the decision has been made to focus on just one of these: the English-speaking Chinese-Malaysian churches. Some churches have Indian leaders and so a further limitation is made by considering only Chinese-led churches. To reduce denominational variables, it was decided to limit this study to the Methodist churches of Peninsular Malaysia. In researching the Malaysian context, I conducted interviews with district superintendents in the English-speaking Methodist churches of the Trinity Conference (TRAC), to investigate their practice and experience of leadership, with the aim of gaining insight into the ways in which the theological principles which influenced the contextualisation of leadership in Paul’s ministry and writings are reflected in the Malaysian church context.

¹ Cited by James E. Plueddemann, Leading Across Cultures: Effective Ministry and Mission in the Global Church (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2009), 75.

² Hwa Yung, ‘Leadership or Servanthood?’, in Tan Kang San (ed.), The Soul of Mission: Perspectives on Christian Leadership, Spirituality and Mission in East Asia: Essays in Appreciation of Dr David Gunaratnam (Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: SUFES, 2007), 200.

³ Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mission (Leicester: Apollos, 2005), 14-15.

⁴ Earlier and briefer examinations of contextualisation in the New Testament have been undertaken by Norman R. Ericson (‘Implications from the New Testament for Contextualization’, in David J. Hesselgrave (ed.), Theology and Mission: Papers and Responses Prepared for the Consultation on Theology and Mission, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, School of World Mission and Evangelism, March 22-25, 1976 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1978), 71-85); Dean S. Gilliland (‘New Testament Contextualization: Continuity and Particularity in Paul’s Theology’, in Dean S. Gilliland (ed.), The Word Among Us: Contextualizing Theology for Today (Dallas, TX: Word, 1989), 52-73).

⁵ Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 18.

⁶ Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 20.

⁷ Hwa Yung, Mangoes or Bananas: The Quest for an Authentic Asian Christian Theology (Oxford: Regnum, 1997), 87.

⁸ Hwa, Mangoes or Bananas, 87-88.

⁹ Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament.

¹⁰ E.g. Efrain Agosto, Servant Leadership: Jesus & Paul, St Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2005; Helen Doohan, Leadership in Paul, Good News Studies, 11 (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1984); Leighton Ford, Transforming Leadership: Jesus’ Way of Creating Vision, Shaping Values and Empowering Change (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1991); Don N. Howell, Jr, Servants of the Servant: A Biblical Theology of Leadership (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2003); Hwa, ‘Leadership or Servanthood?’; Lawrence O. Richards and Clyde Hoeldtke, A Theology of Church Leadership (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1980); Robert Russell, ‘A Practical Theology of Servant Leadership’, in Servant Leadership Research Roundtable (August 2003): www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2003/russell_practical_theology.pdf (accessed 12th July 2010); Edward Schillebeeckx, The Church with a Human Face: A New and Expanded Theology of Ministry (London: SCM Press, 1985).

¹¹ Andrew D. Clarke, Serve the Community of the Church: Christians as Leaders and Ministers (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000).

¹² Andrew D. Clarke, A Pauline Theology of Church Leadership, Library of New Testament Studies 362 (London: T. & T. Clark, 2008).

¹³ It is acknowledged that the word ‘authoritarian’ does not necessarily carry negative connotations, but in this book it is used to indicate an overbearing leadership style, in common with its usage by many of the scholars cited below, e.g. Robert J. Banks (Paul’s Idea of Community: The Early House Churches in the Historical Setting, rev. edn (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 178); Clarke (A Pauline Theology, 102, 145); Victor A. Copan (Saint Paul as Spiritual Director: An Analysis of the Imitation of Paul with Implications and Applications to the Practice of Spiritual Direction (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2007), 212); Howell (Servants of the Servant, 260).

¹⁴ Clarke, A Pauline Theology, 33.

¹⁵ Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, rev. edn (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2002), xvi.

¹⁶ Dean Flemming, ‘The Third Horizon: A Wesleyan Contribution to the Contextualization Debate’, in Wesleyan Theological Journal, 30.2 (1995), 144.

¹⁷ Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1985), 12. Max Stackhouse (Apologia: Contextualization, Globalization, and Mission in Theological Education (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988), 81) holds a similar position to Schreiter.

¹⁸ Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies, 13.

¹⁹ Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 14-15.

²⁰ Many theologians today maintain that it is not possible to begin with the text and apply it to a given context. Indeed, because of the contextual nature of Scripture, they doubt whether it is at all possible to use it to judge contemporary contexts (Stackhouse, Apologia, 27). However, Chua How Chuang argues that ‘God’s Word is by its very nature prior to all human understanding, hence all theologizing must in principle begin and end in Scripture’ (‘Hermeneutical Presuppositions in Contextualization: A Bibliographic Survey’, unpublished paper for OMF Mission Research Consultation (Singapore, 2007), 20; see also Bruce J. Nicholls, Contextualization: A Theology of Gospel and Culture (Vancouver, Canada: Regent College, 2003 [1979], 62). Flemming likewise asserts that ‘the starting point for the process [of contextualisation] remains the unchanging gospel message, not the specific and changing context’ (‘The Third Horizon’, 155; see also Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (London: SPCK, 1989), 152). Newbigin rightly argues that one of the fundamental weaknesses of starting with the questions which people are asking in a given context is that the ‘the world’s questions are not the questions which lead to life’ (The Gospel in a Pluralist Society, 119).

²¹ Flemming, ‘The Third Horizon’, 147.

²² Flemming, ‘The Third Horizon’, 144.

²³ See The Methodist Church in Malaysia, The Methodist Church Newsletter (June/July 2011): www.methodistchurch.org.my/newsmaster.cfm?&menuid=6&action=view&retrieveid= 425 Servant Leadership Research Roundtable (accessed 8th July 2016). This belief in biblical authority is a reflection of Article V of the Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church in Malaysia: ‘The Holy Scriptures contain all things necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an article of faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation’ (Methodist Church in Malaysia (eds Hwa Yung, Gopal Sundaram, Cheong Seng Gee, Wong Tik Wah, Hii Ching Chiong, Samuel Ong Boon Leng, Ling Tung Kiing, et al.), in The Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church in Malaysia 2012 (Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: The Methodist Church in Malaysia, 2012), †61). Numbers preceded by the dagger symbol † throughout this work refer to paragraph numbers in The Book of Discipline.

²⁴ The Pauline authorship of the above-named letters was not questioned in the early church, but they are now believed by the majority of modern scholars to be pseudonymous. However, Peter T. O’Brien suggests that ‘the problems created by pseudonymity are greater than the ones solved by it’ (The Letter to the Ephesians, PNTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 46). See also George W. Knight III, The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1992), 21-52; Peter T. O’Brien, Colossians, Philemon, WBC 44 (Waco, TX: Word, 1982), xli-xlix; Charles A. Wanamaker, The Epistles to the Thessalonians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990), 17-28.

²⁵ Steve Walton gives a useful summary of scholarly views of the relationship between the Paul of the Epistles and the Paul of Acts (Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians, in Society of New Testament Studies Monograph Series 108 (Cambridge: CUP, 2000), 2-12).

²⁶ Leaders are sometimes referred to by means of male pronouns in this book; these do not exclude female leaders.

²⁷ For further discussion of this, see Gordon D. Fee, Gospel and Spirit: Issues in New Testament Hermeneutics (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 139; Bengt Holmberg, Paul and Power: The Structure of Authority in the Primitive Church as Reflected in the Pauline Epistles (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004 [1978]), 52; David Horrell, ‘Leadership Patterns and the Development of Ideology in Early Christianity’, in Sociology of Religion, 58.4 (1997), 323-41; Gerd Theissen, Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1978), 8-16).

²⁸ For the use of social studies in examining the early church, see the works of Edwin A. Judge ((ed. David M. Scholer), Social Distinctives of the Christians in the First Century: Pivotal Essays by E.A. Judge (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008 [1960-92])); Wayne A. Meeks (The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983)); Gerd Theissen (Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity). For a critique of these, see John K. Chow, ‘Patronage and Power: A Study of Social Networks in Corinth’, in Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 75 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992), 12-28. For studies of Confucian cultures, see Gary K.G. Choong, Counter-Cultural Paradigmatic Leadership: Ethical Use of Power in Confucian Societies (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011); Farh Jiing-Lih and Bor-Shiuan Cheng, ‘A Cultural Analysis of Paternalistic Leadership in Chinese Organizations’, in J.T. Li, Anne S. Tsui and Elizabeth Weldon (eds.), Management and Organizations in the Chinese Context (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), 84-127; Robert I. Westwood (ed.), Organisational Behaviour: Southeast Asian Perspectives (Hong Kong: Longman, 1992). For a detailed examination of leadership theory, see Bernard M. Bass with Ruth Bass, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications, 4th edn (New York: Free Press, 2008); and of organisational leadership in a cross-cultural context, see Robert J. House, Paul J. Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman and Vipin Gupta (eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004).

Chapter 1

Contextualisation in the New Testament

What is Contextualisation?

The church has been sent into a world marked by a plurality of cultures, which may be delineated on many grounds, including ethnic, social, religious and generational. Whether sharing the Christian faith or engaging in theological thinking, the church needs to relate that faith or theology to each context. Dean Flemming wisely remarks: ‘All theology is contextual theology’, and ‘all theologizing is done from a particular location and perspective whether we are conscious of it or not’.¹

The word ‘contextualisation’ was first used in a theological context by the WCC in 1972.² There is much confusion about the meaning of ‘contextualisation’ and many different definitions of it. This study follows Dean Flemming’s approach:

I take contextualization… to refer to the dynamic and comprehensive process by which the gospel is incarnated within a concrete historical or cultural situation. This happens in such a way that the gospel both comes to authentic expression in the local context and at the same time prophetically transforms the context. Contextualization seeks to enable the people of God to live out the gospel in obedience to Christ within their own cultures and circumstances.³

Flemming here helpfully refers to this process as being one of incarnation, and indeed the best example of contextualisation is the incarnation of Christ.⁴ Since God revealed himself in Christ in a context with all its particularities, it is likewise necessary for the good news of Jesus to be reincarnated to make it intelligible in every context.⁵ However, just as Jesus in his incarnation is still ‘the exact representation of [God’s] being’ (Heb. 1:3), right contextualisation also has to be both ‘culturally authentic and authentically Christian’.⁶ This incarnation applies not only to the gospel but also to all its outworkings, including the structure and leadership of the church.

In this work, the term ‘contextualisation’ is used with the understanding that the gospel should not only be communicated in a given context, but also be rooted in it with the aim of transforming it. In other words, it should include both evangelistic and prophetic elements.⁷ If the process of contextualization does not result in a transformation of the church and wider society, it cannot be said to have been truly effective. However, some scholars, such as the world-renowned missiologist David Hesselgrave, are unhappy with this approach and see contextualisation primarily as cross-cultural communication of supracultural divine revelation by the removal of unnecessary cultural obstacles.⁸ Evangelical anthropologist Charles Kraft’s emphasis too is on communication, although he does allow the importance of cultural transformation.⁹ If however an incarnational model of contextualisation is followed, not only are obstacles to communication removed, but the gospel and its outworkings also take on a new shape according to the cultural context.

The fact that contextualisation is prophetic implies that something about the cultural context needs to be challenged and transformed, and further, that there is an external (divine) authority which demands that the prophetic voice receive a hearing. Wilbert Shenk maintains that in contextualising, the church should not ‘be slavishly or uncritically identified with a culture. On the contrary, it means that the church must be culturally valid precisely in order to bring a radical critique to bear on culture’.¹⁰ This is seen even in Jesus’ incarnation. Although he followed many of the conventions of Jewish society, where necessary he was not reluctant to offer a prophetic critique of the culture with the aim of transforming it.¹¹ This prophetic element will be evident later in this study when examining the contextualisation of leadership.

There are many different approaches to demarking the ways of contextualising and undertaking contextual theology.¹² Stephen Bevans argues that the models which may be followed¹³ reflect two basic theological orientations:¹⁴

i) The first is redemption-centred and is distinguished by the belief that although a culture may not be totally corrupt, it needs ‘radical transformation’, with some proponents arguing that Christ must be brought to it ‘for that culture to have any saving meaning whatsoever’.¹⁵ The Word of God has to be adapted to the context, but that context cannot reveal God’s Word.

ii) The second orientation is creation-centred. It has a weaker view of sin,¹⁶ and a generally positive assessment of human experience and culture since God is already at work and this can be used as a foundation for theology.¹⁷ In models following this orientation, Christ does not need to be brought into a particular culture; it is necessary rather to find him there.¹⁸

In this study, a broadly redemption-centred approach is followed, since it is more consistent with a belief in the authority of Scripture which is accepted by the Malaysian target audience.

Some scholars, e.g. Kraft, believe that it possible to discover a supracultural core (or kernel) of truths which may then be re-clothed for a variety of contexts,¹⁹ but it is doubtful whether this is possible since such core truths are inaccessible.²⁰ It is my contention that the Bible does not provide us with a single master blueprint for leadership which can readily be applied to all cultures, and it is not the aim of this work to draw up such a blueprint. However, the task of discovering principles of leadership is not hopeless. Paul Hiebert, the former Professor of Mission and Anthropology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, applies the concept of ‘centred sets’ to the membership of a believing community.²¹ Traditionally, the model of ‘bounded sets’ has been used to define