High-Temperature Thermal Storage Systems Using Phase Change Materials

invaluable.

Preface

Luisa F. Cabeza, lcabeza@diei.udl.cat

Nguan H. Steven Tay, Steven.Tay@newcastle.ac.uk

This book is the first compilation of high-temperature phase change thermal energy storage (TES) systems and applications. TES technology allows improved dispatchability of power output from concentrated solar power plants and increases the plant’s annual capacity factor. However, until now, there is no available cost-effective compact storage technology. Most existing TES systems for high-temperature storage currently use sensible heat storage in molten salts, mineral oils, or synthetic oils, which is very expensive, requires large volumes of storage materials, and has potential corrosion problems. TES using phase change materials (PCMs) for high-temperature applications have been gaining interests from the research and industrial world in recent years.

This book gives an overview of the works conducted on high-temperature TES using PCMs on both the static as well as the dynamic systems. Several researchers have been investigating this novel technology in improving the heat transfer enhancement of TES by moving the melted PCM. This book will give details of such technologies developed.

Readers are expected to be able to understand technical texts, but no specific prerequisite knowledge is expected. Nevertheless, some chapters may only be understandable by specific profile readers. Readers should use this book as a summary of the available literature. If deep knowledge in a given aspect of TES is desired, readers are directed to further reading materials or may contact the editor of the book.

This book would not have been possible without the contribution of all the chapter authors. Special thanks to all of them for helping to produce this book which will be useful for many.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Nguan H. Steven Tay¹, Martin Belusko², Ming Liu² and Frank Bruno³,    ¹Newcastle University Singapore, Singapore, Singapore,    ²University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia,    ³Research Professor, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia

Abstract

This chapter gives a brief outline of thermal energy storage (TES) systems, which predominantly store heat as sensible heat in a substance. However, heat energy can be stored as latent energy during the change of phase of the storage material. This storage materials, known as phase change materials (PCMs) can store a greater amount of energy per unit volume than sensible heat storage systems. Details are given of TES uses in addressing the mismatch between the supply and demand of energy (particularly renewable energy) and also enables access to off-peak electricity tariffs offered during times of low electricity demand, and offers load shifting for the electricity grid. PCMs are also described in some detail. This is followed by a description of each of the following chapters in the book.

Keywords

Thermal energy storage system; phase change material; heat transfer enhancement

Contents

References 3

Thermal energy storage (TES) is the term used to describe the capture and storage of thermal energy for later use. The stored thermal energy may be used for a range of thermal processes including heating, cooling, refrigeration, and high-temperature applications. Of most significance, TES is useful for addressing the mismatch between the supply and the demand of energy, particularly relevant to renewable energy. It also enables access to off-peak electricity tariffs offered during times of low electricity demand and offers load shifting for the electricity grid [1].

Thermal energy storage systems predominantly store heat as sensible heat in a substance. However, during phase change heat energy can be stored as latent energy. Phase change material (PCM) thermal storage systems can store a greater amount of thermal energy per unit volume than sensible heat storage systems [1]. The solid–liquid phase change resulting in melting and solidification can store large amounts of heat or cold if a suitable material is selected [2]. What is perhaps the oldest form of latent energy storage is the harvesting of natural ice or snow from lakes, rivers, and mountains for food preservation, cold drinks, and space cooling. There are records of this practice dating back to 350 years ago [3]. More recently, research is being conducted for PCM TES in concentrated solar power plants [4].

Heat transfer enhancement is a critical component to achieving the full storage potential of PCM storage systems. Fundamentally, this involves reducing the thermal resistance between the PCM at the phase boundary and the heat transfer fluid (HTF) [5,6]. The majority of PCMs are made from low conducting materials. As a result, with the exception of metallic PCMs, one of the major problems of using PCMs in a TES is the low heat transfer of the PCM material. During a phase change process, the phase change starts at the heat transfer surface, causing the solid/liquid boundary of the PCM to move away from the heat transfer surface. This phase changed solid PCM acts as an insulator increasing the thermal resistance, thus reducing the heat transfer to the HTF. The heat transfer through the solid PCM is solely by conduction and due to its low thermal conductivity, the heat transfer rate within the PCM is low [7]. There are a number of traditional techniques that have been investigated to improve the heat transfer rate of PCMs used in thermal storage systems, including finned tubes of different configurations, insertion of a metal matrix into the PCM, using PCM dispersed with high conductivity particles and tube-in-tank [8]. There are also a number of additives that have been investigated to improve heat transfer rates. They include thin aluminum strips, thin wall rings made of steel, porous aluminum, porous graphite matrices, copper chips, and carbon fibers [9]. PCM composite with graphite or other high conducting materials has also been investigated [10]. Although effective, these methods add cost and reduce the storage density of the system. Other methods involve using PCM agitation which moves the PCM so that it is dynamic. With this process the resistance in the PCM is reduced and so the heat transfer is enhanced.

The focus of this book is on the application of PCMs for high-temperature thermal processes, particularly Concentrated Solar Power. Part 1 of this book focuses on novel heat transfer enhancement techniques involving dynamic methods developed by the University of South Australia (see Chapter 2: Direct Contact Phase Change Material Thermal Energy Storage and Chapter 3: Dynamic Concept at University of South Australia), German Aerospace Centre (see Chapter 4: Dynamic Concept at German Aerospace Centre) and Fraunhofer Institute of Solar Energy System (see Chapter 5: Dynamic Concept at Fraunhofer), and the applicability of these techniques at high temperature. The design and application of direct contact PCM TES system and dynamic PCM TES system for high temperature will first be discussed in Chapter 2, Direct Contact Phase Change Material Thermal Energy Storage, and Chapter 3, Dynamic Concept at University of South Australia, respectively. The design and development of PCMflux concept will then be presented in Chapter 4, Dynamic Concept at German Aerospace Centre, where a theoretical analysis and experimental investigation will be discussed. Finally, the concept and experimental demonstration of dynamic latent heat storage based on screw heat exchangers will be presented in Chapter 5, Dynamic Concept at Fraunhofer.

Part 2 of this book focuses on the application of PCMs at high temperature in which the PCM is static, and based on research conducted by the University of Lleida (see Chapter 6: Static Concept at University of Lleida) and University of South Australia (see Chapter 7: Static Concept at University of South Australia). Part 3 of this book focuses on the materials (see Chapter 8: Materials for Phase Change Material at High Temperature) and encapsulation (see Chapter 9: Encapsulation of High-Temperature Phase Change Materials) of PCM for high-temperature applications developed and analyzed by the University of South Australia. The last part of this book, part 4, analyzes the environmental approach of PCMs (see Chapter 10: Environmental Approach, conducted by University of Lleida and University of Antofagasta), and the economical approach of high-temperature storage systems (see Chapter 11: Economic Studies on High-Temperature Phase Change Storage Systems, conducted by University of South Australia).

Overall this book provides an overview for those interested in the latest research associated with using PCMs in high-temperature applications.

References

1. Dincer I, Rosen MA. Thermal energy storage: systems and applications Chichester: Wiley; 2002.

2. Mehling H, Cabeza LF. Heat and cold storage with PCM an up to date introduction into basics and applications Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2008.

3. Paksoy HO, editor. Thermal energy storage for sustainable energy consumption [electronic resource]: fundamentals, case studies and design. Dordrecht: Springer; 2007.

4. Liu M, Steven Tay NH, Bell S, et al. Review on concentrating solar power plants and new developments in high temperature thermal energy storage technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2016;1(53):1411–1432.

5. Belusko M, Halawa E, Bruno F. Characterising PCM thermal storage systems using the effectiveness-NTU approach. Int J Heat Mass Transf. 2012;55(13–14):3359–3365.

6. Tay NHS, Belusko M, Bruno F. An effectiveness-NTU technique for characterising tube-in-tank phase change thermal energy storage systems. Appl Energy. 2012;91(1):309–319.

7. Wang F, Maidment G, Missenden J, Tozer R. A review of research concerning the use of PCMS in air conditioning and refrigeration engineering. In: Anson M, Ko JM, Lam ESS, eds. Advances in building technology. Oxford: Elsevier; 2002;1273–1280.

8. Agyenim F, Eames P, Smyth M. Experimental study on the melting and solidification behaviour of a medium temperature phase change storage material (erythritol) system augmented with fins to power a LiBr/H2O absorption cooling system. Renew Energy. 2011;36(1):108–117.

9. Hamada Y, Ohtsu W, Fukai J. Thermal response in thermal energy storage material around heat transfer tubes: effect of additives on heat transfer rates. Sol Energy. 2003;75(4):317–328.

10. Jegadheeswaran S, Pohekar SD. Performance enhancement in latent heat thermal storage system: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2009;13(9):2225–2244.

Part I

Dynamic PCM Systems

Outline

Chapter 2 Direct Contact Phase Change Material Thermal Energy Storage

Chapter 3 Dynamic Concept at University of South Australia

Chapter 4 Dynamic Concept at German Aerospace Center

Chapter 5 Dynamic Concept at Fraunhofer

Chapter 2

Direct Contact Phase Change Material Thermal Energy Storage

Martin Belusko¹, Shane Sheoran¹ and Frank Bruno²,    ¹University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia,    ²Research Professor, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia

Abstract

This chapter presents information relevant to the design and application of direct contact molten salt based phase change material (PCM) thermal storage for high temperatures. Given the limited research, many of the concepts and processes are examined at low temperatures. The focus of this concept is with gas-based heat transfer fluid, although conceptually, a liquid-based system is also presented. The experience associated with a classical direct contact arrangement at low temperature led to the development of a system which was tested at high temperature. It was demonstrated that mechanical design requirements and pumping losses are the most critical factors in developing direct contact PCM thermal storage systems. Experimental results are presented for testing conducted with water and sodium nitrate as PCMs.

Keywords

Phase change material; direct contact heat transfer; bubble columns

Contents

2.1 Introduction 7

2.1.1 Design Criteria 8

2.1.2 Liquid Phase Change Material Storage Systems 10

2.1.3 Gas Phase Change Material Thermal Storage 11

2.1.4 Bubble Column 12

2.2 Detailed Experiments 14

2.2.1 Water/Air Experiments 15

2.2.2 Energy Storage Effectiveness 22

2.2.3 Pressure Reduction Investigation 25

2.3 Prototype Experiments 29

2.3.1 Pressure Loss Investigation 30

2.3.2 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Enhancement 34

2.4 Conclusions 35

References 36

2.1 Introduction

Direct contact heat transfer involves a fluid exchanging heat with another substance through direct contact. By removing the heat exchange intermediary material it is possible to significantly increase the contact heat transfer area, as well as remove the thermal resistance associated with this material. The removal of this material also represents a potential cost reduction of the heat exchange system. Direct contact heat transfer has been used in a variety of heat exchange processes, such as cooling towers, absorption refrigeration, and fluidized beds [1]. The significant heat transfer benefit associated with direct contact could potentially overcome the challenge of improving the heat transfer within phase change material (PCM) systems at relatively low cost. Limited research has been conducted on the potential for this mode of heat transfer in thermal storage, particularly with PCMs, and even more so with high-temperature PCMs.

The characteristics of a direct contact PCM thermal storage include a heat transfer fluid (HTF) passing through the PCM during the phase change process. It is expected that the direct contact will achieve effective heat exchange; however, the impact on pumping power becomes a critical factor. Furthermore, the change in volume of the HTF/PCM mixture is significantly affected. Being in direct contact, the HTF and PCM must be compatible and no mass transfer should occur which degrades either material.

This chapter presents information relevant to the design and application of direct contact molten salt based PCM thermal storage for high temperature. Given the limited research, many of the concepts and processes are examined at low temperature. The focus of this concept is with gas-based HTF, although conceptually, a liquid-based system is presented. The experience associated with a classical direct contact arrangement at low temperature led to the development of a system which was tested at high temperature. Overall it was demonstrated that mechanical design requirements and pumping losses are the most critical factors in developing direct contact PCM thermal storage systems. Experimental results are presented for testing conducted with water, as presented by Belusko et al. [2], and sodium nitrate as PCMs.

2.1.1 Design Criteria

Fig. 2.1 describes the direct contact PCM thermal storage system. The HTF, either a liquid or a gas, passes through the PCM during phase change. The heat transfer is enhanced through the direct contact process from the large heat transfer area that can be achieved by the mixing of the HTF and the PCM. Due to the PCM being subject to the momentum forces of the HTF as it flows through the PCM, the mixture experiences uplift increasing the volume of the system. This uplift is known as the gas holdup for the case when gas is the HTF.

Figure 2.1 Direct contact PCM thermal storage concept with heat transfer fluid. (A) is without HTF flow, (B) is with HTF flow.

The useful energy within a PCM storage device can be defined by the energy storage effectiveness, α, and the modified energy storage effectiveness, α*, which considers pumping losses, defined by Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), respectively, as developed in [3,4]. These equations consider the average heat exchange effectiveness during phase change for both charging, εc, and discharging, εd (Eq. 2.3) as well as the increase in volume defined by the gas holdup, βg. The gas holdup is the volumetric fraction of gas to the total volume of the gas/PCM mixture. A sensible liquid storage system has a storage and modified storage effectiveness of unity, as pumping losses, W˙, volume change, and heat exchange effectiveness are essentially negligible. To consider the work needed to pump the HTF the heat transfer can be reduced by the equivalent thermal power provided by the pumping power (Eq. 2.4). For storing of heat, any electrical energy used can be accounted for by determining the primary energy at the power station, which in this study, was based on a typical power generation efficiency of 35%. For storing of cooling, any electrical energy used for pumping could be applied to a vapor compression chiller system, typically with a coefficient of performance of 3. In both cases a primary energy factor, ϕ, of 3 was applied to determine the thermal equivalent value of pumping power

(2.1)

(2.2)

(2.3)

(2.4)

are the actual and ideal heat transfer rates, respectively.

An important parameter to consider is the volumetric heat transfer capacity density as identified by Martin et al. [5]. A value of approximately 40 kW/m³ was determined for a direct contact PCM system, with liquid as the HTF.

There has been considerable research to evaluate the effectiveness of heat exchange between a HTF and the PCM during phase change. As explained in Belusko et al. [6], given that the heat transfer occurs between the HTF and a constant temperature source at the melting point of the PCM, the effectiveness, at any given fraction, δ, is defined by Eq. (2.5). The Number of Transfer Units (NTUs) is related to the thermal resistance between the HTF and the PCM at the phase change boundary (Eq. 2.6). In a direct contact environment the HTF is dispersed within the PCM, and therefore, a volumetric heat transfer coefficient is more applicable as presented in Thongwik et al. [7]. Martin et al. [5] provide a more detailed analysis, determining the Nusselt number of convection as a function of droplet size. Ultimately any heat transfer relationship will need to apply the most applicable empirical correlation

(2.5)

(2.6)

Uv,δ is the volumetric heat transfer coefficient at a given phase fraction, and m˙ is the mass flow rate.

Implicit in the effectiveness analysis is that sensible energy stored in the PCM is negligible or not available. A direct contact system will incorporate significant turbulence and fluid movement essentially preventing any stratification in the system. This process essentially destroys the exergy stored sensibly in the PCM.

2.1.2 Liquid Phase Change Material Storage Systems

Direct contact within PCM thermal storage using liquid as the HTF has been investigated in several studies. Initially Inaba and Sato [8] investigated spraying liquid PCM into a column of liquid HTF which produced a large number of frozen PCM droplets usable for thermal storage. Martin et al. [5] experimentally investigated a novel arrangement in which a liquid HTF, namely water, was sprayed over a less dense organic PCM which was pumped down through the PCM. Excellent heat exchange was achieved as shown by the high heat transfer coefficients, however the heat exchange effectiveness of the process was not provided. It was highlighted that at higher flow rates the volume of the mixture increased, most likely due to the viscous forces limiting the flow through the PCM, and the water would sometimes become trapped within the frozen PCM. No data were provided on the pumping losses with this configuration.

More recently, Nomura et al. [9] investigated pumping heating oil from below through a sugar-based PCM. Heat exchange effectiveness values of over 0.8 were achieved over the entire phase change process, but dropped at high flow rates. It was suggested that this was due to larger droplets forming at high flow rates, as well as liquid portions being trapped by solid PCM, reducing the contact heat transfer area. Wang et al. [10] compared a direct contact thermal storage system with a conventional coil-in-tank PCM storage system where the HTF, being heating oil, flows through the coil. Measurements identified the direct contact system that achieved higher heat transfer rates over the phase change process. Very recently, Li et al. [11] experimentally investigated a similar system to Martin et al. [5]. It was found that at higher flow rates the heat transfer rate did not correspondingly increase, reflecting a lower heat exchange effectiveness. The maximum flow rate was also limited by the settling time of the HTF through the PCM.

In these studies little discussion was provided into pumping losses and limited information is presented on the increase in volume needed by the HTF/PCM system. Any increase in volume by the direct contact mixture translates to a reduction in the volumetric storage density of the system, and pumping losses affect the net energy savings associated with the storage device, both impacting on the modified energy storage