Distributed Generation Systems: Design, Operation and Grid Integration

Spain

Chapter 1

Distributed Energy Resources

Mehrdad Mokhtari*; G.B. Gharehpetian*; S. Mohammad Mousavi Agah†    * Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran

† University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Abstract

This chapter is assigned to define a distributed generation (DG) resource. The features and the operation of DG are also explained. The technologies used in DG are also explained. The advantages and disadvantages of DG are given.

Keywords

Distributed generation; Distributed generation technologies

1.1 Introduction

In 1882 in New York City Thomas Edison established the first power plant and distribution network called a power company to provide lighting for the residential sector. Several similar power companies were established in later years. At that time, power generation was decentralized or distributed. In other words, the electrical energy was produced and consumed in the same place. Hence, it was not necessary to establish transmission lines for transmitting the produced electrical energy from the power plant to the consumption place.

In the early 20th century, all power companies were integrated for reasons such as the need to reduce production costs and increase reliability for all subscribers as consumers of electrical energy with the development of the power industry.

At the beginning of 1990, integrated power companies were faced with huge growth in electrical energy consumption due to global population growth and prosperity. This provided challenges for the centralized supply of electrical energy because of electrical energy consumption growth combined with the increasing inability of supplying electrical energy by transmission lines. In addition, following technological developments in the electricity industry, electrical energy production from renewable sources were gradually becoming economically feasible as indicated by increased investment in solar and wind power plants established in the late 1990s.

Environmental considerations became a major concern for humanity because more than 70% of all electrical energy produced came from fossil fuels.

Alarming changes in global climate because of environmental pollution and the consumption of nonrenewable resources of fossil fuels caused designers of electrical energy plants to take into account both environmental considerations and safe and highly reliable electricity generation as a universal human obligation.

In a centralized system of energy production, all the abovementioned problems and challenges exist due to the productive resources with fossil fuels and the need for energy transfer from production centers to consumption places through a broad network of interconnected transmission systems at different voltage levels.

From the electrical perspective, there are electrical energy losses from production centers to consumption places. About 5% of the energy produced in power plants with an efficiency of 30%–40% is wasted. In addition, in the transmission system between 4% and 5% of electrical energy is wasted and at the end of the distribution network about 10%–15% is wasted. The production of electrical energy consumption was raised near the consumption place, however, by considering all abovementioned challenges with a lot of casualties caused by the transfer of the energy from production to consumption.

The transmission lines development projects will be postponed by the release of the network capacity with supplying the electrical energy to the consumption place (transferring of enormous investments from development projects to projects with higher priority). For instance, for a transmission line with a capacity of 110 MW with an annual growth of 5 MW, there is a need for another transmission line with the same capacity. If the annual growth of the loads is supplied in the consumption place, then an investment required for the establishment of a new transmission line will be delayed due to the lack of transmitting 5 MW of electrical energy. In the 1990s this issue led to international acceptance of decentralized or distributed power generation as an ecofriendly method and placed it on the agenda. But it should also be noted that the development of distributed power generation will not be a complete negation of centralized power generation. But the proper placement of these two power generation systems together, due to the annual growth of load, will cause the investment in transmission lines projects to be delayed. However, these investments can be greatly reduced by controlling the load growth through demand-side management and demand response method. With the development of distributed generation (DG) in the 1990s and the willingness of consumers to embrace the gradual establishment of these kinds of resources, forecasts in relation to the installed capacity of these resources show increased growth in the future. However, the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI), predicted that 25% of the total productive resources in the United States would be supported with distributed resources, but for some reason this has not happened. According to Gas Energy Research (GER), installed capacity of DG resources in the world should have reached 27,000 MW by 2015, which is a substantial amount.

The abovementioned key notes represents a worldwide movement to increase DG systems. Table 1.1 presents the prediction of increased installation of DG in the United States between 2006 and 2020. As seen in this table, the latest estimation of the installation of DG in the United States is 19,100 MW (in 2020), which is more accurate than other estimations.

Table 1.1

Increased installation of distributed generation in the United States [1]

1.2 Definitions of DG

A clear definition is necessary for the DG concept because there is diversity and different combinations of phrases in English in relation to DG.

In general, there are two terms in the scientific literature: distributed generation and decentralized production. The evolution of the use of these words indicates that DG has gradually eliminated the term decentralized production in almost all relevant scientific literature.

In addition to these terms, embedded generation is common in some texts. Also, the term distributed resource is sometimes used for the concept of DG.

From the perspective of the electricity market to the DG, the term distributed utility is an alternative to all sets of DG, which are used as a distributed company. Finally, we note that the outdated term power distribution no longer is used in the scientific literature.

As for a definition of DG, with reference to sources in this field, we are faced with two general definitions. According to the first definition given above, DG refers to the energy source that production capacity is limited. Although this definition is correct in some cases, fails in comprehensiveness. But the second definition of DG sources, with the direct ability of the connections to the distribution network and to the consumer, offers a comprehensive definition. Based on the concepts discussed above, the second definition will be used in this book. So in general, these sources are directly connected to the distribution network or the consumer who must be supplied.

Before expressing the characteristics of these resources, it is necessary to highlight a common mistake in connection with the definition of these resources. It is usual that every source of renewable energy for energy production is known as DG or any DG is necessarily called as a renewable source. In other words, a DG addition to the use of fossil fuel resources (as the primary nonrenewable energy source) has the ability to use renewable energy sources.

This mistake occurs in the type of technology used in the production of these resources. On the other hand, it is believed that productive resources should necessarily use the latest technology. DG, in addition to using old technologies such as internal combustion engines, and diesel and gas turbines, also uses new technologies including fuel cells and power electronic converters.

1.3 Features of DG

In this section, the characteristics of DG resources, on the basis of the two criteria of voltage level and production capacity, as discussed in the previous section, are explained.

For the first criterion, the voltage level of the connection as a criterion is very important because the DG can be connected to the distribution network and also directly feed the consumer.

Therefore, the voltage levels of 11, 20, and 33 kV as a medium voltage level to connect the DG sources to the distribution networks and the voltage level of 400 V as a low voltage level for direct connection of these sources to the consumer are considered.

For the second criterion, as production capacity, research centers and researchers have proposed different definitions and ranges. For example, the EPRI has defined a production capacity of 1 kW to 50 MW for the application of a DG as a production source. According to Gas Research Institute (GRI), the production capacity range is from 25 kW to 25 MW. Preston & Wrestler company and Cardel company define the production capacity range of 1 kW to 100 MW and 50 kW to 1 MW, respectively. According to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers French Community (CIGRE), production capacity of DG should be in the range of 50 kW to 100 MW.

However, apart from the criteria presented above, on the basis of production capacity, DGs are divided into four categories: micro (1 W to 50 kW), small (5 kW to 5 MW), medium (5–50 MW), and large (more than 50 MW).

It is important to always consider that with further increase in the range of production capacity, the injection current of DG to the distribution network does not exceed the limit of the tolerable network's current capacity.

1.4 Operation of DG

The operation of DGs is one of the most important subjects in this field. Detailed knowledge of operational abilities of these resources in a manner of using them for each operation will be efficient. For example, examining the possibility of dispatching capabilities for the resources on how to exploit them is very important.

It is possible to control some DGs remotely and others may not be so controlled. So from this perspective, DGs are divided into two categories as dispatchable and nondispatchable. In addition, it is true in connection with the programmability features of these resources. Depending on the wording of the contract signed, some of these resources can be requested for more energy production at certain hours of the day. These types of DGs are called programmable sources. But another group of DGs are not programmable and only receive payments for the production of electrical energy.

In terms of performance, DGs can be classified into two groups. Resources that have the ability for independent performance as a function of the island and resources that are not capable of independent operation. A group of DGs is only capable of supplying their loads once they are connected to their network. But against this category, another group of DG resources are capable to supply downstream loads even if they are disconnected from the network. The independent ability of the DGs are known as island performance.

In addition to the abovementioned abilities, these resources can be used in load management in the network. From the network perspective, DG resources supply a part of the load that causes a part of the network capacity to be freed. Therefore, DGs act to reduce the load of the network and somehow to manage it.

These resources can perform another function as a spinning reserve in the network. In normal operation, although a set of generators are connected to the network, this does not inject any real power into the network.

A major reason for using these types of generators as reserve operational units is to prevent any possible disturbances through quick connection of these units to the network. This role can also be made for DG. Of course, assigning this role to DG needs a contract with the owners. In addition to the main roles of DG mentioned, secondary roles are responsible. As we know, the main goal of DG is the generation of real power, but these resources have the ability to play other roles as well. Some of these roles may be pointed toward the production of reactive power. For example, by connecting a synchronous generator to the end of a gas turbine (as a DG), in addition to active power, reactive power can also be produced.

The production of reactive power from DG due to reduction in active power production, as the main source of income in the electricity market, does not have enough attraction for investors. Therefore, to perform the subtasks of the DG resources, the issues in the ancillary services market should be raised.

Voltage stabilization and power quality enhancement are other subtasks of DG resources. Given that some DGs are connected to the network via power electronic converters cause disturbances in the power waveform in the network because of the nonlinear characteristics of the converters, to maintain the power quality of the network that these resources are connected to is another subtask that should always be considered. It should also be noted that the main task of DG should not be affected by the subtasks.

DG in both public and private ownership is possible. DG resources that are not owned by the public sector are called independent power producers. They are able to sell their production to public companies. But to enter the private sector, convincing answers should be provided to the questions from investors in this field. What motivates the private retail sector to make use of these resources? The formation of this market is the biggest factor encouraging investors to this area. In a very wide distribution network, a combination of active and interested public and private sectors in this area can be operated in a competitive retail market.

1.5 DG Technologies

As mentioned in previous sections, DGs have a large variety in terms of performance and role in the power network. So it is important to have a concise understanding of why these resources are necessary. In the following, we will introduce some of the most important technologies of DG.

1.5.1 Fuel-Based Technologies

There are different types of DG technologies. Fuel-based technology is one of the relatively new types of DG technologies. Combustion engines, microturbines, fuel cells, diesel generators, and biomass are categorized as fuel-based technology.

1.5.1.1 Combustion Engines

In combustion engines, fuel and oxidizer (usually air or oxygen) are reacted and combusted in a closed combustion chamber. In a combustion process, the hot gases at high temperatures and pressures are produced. Because of the expansion of the hot gases, the engine's moving parts are moving and doing mechanical work. Although the purpose of the use of so-called conventional engines is to use the combustion engines in cars, these engines can also be used for DG of electricity.

1.5.1.2 Microturbines

Microturbines are small-scale gas turbines coupled with their own generators at a very high speed that are using a variety of fuels to produce electrical energy. Most microturbines are using high-speed permanent magnet generators to produce alternative electricity. The heat from fuel combustion in turbines is used for energy optimization. Electrical efficiency of the microturbine is 20%–30% and the power range is from 25 to 500 kW [2]. Microturbines are often used in large commercial buildings such as hotels, schools, and offices. Microturbine systems are divided into three categories based on consumption and energy production.

1. Microturbines with a recuperator are more efficient because of using the output heat of the turbines. This type of microturbine is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Performance of the microturbine.

2. Microturbines without a recuperator (with simple cycle) are less efficient and cheaper as well.

3. Microturbines that work based on combined heat and power (CHP) [3]. In Fig. 1.1, the process of a CHP microturbine is shown.

Microturbines can also be divided into two groups as uniaxial (single-shaft) and biaxial (two-axis). In the single-shaft, both compressor and generator are driven by a turbine, while in the two-axis model, the turbine that drives the compressor is on the same shaft and the turbine that drives the rotor of the generator is on the other shaft. In a two-axis model, the appropriate frequency can be directly produced for consumers by using a conventional synchronous generator (e.g., a rotational speed of 3600 RPM) with a separate turbine for generator and gearbox.

Single-axis models usually are designed for operation at very high rotation speed. The frequency of the alternative current produced by these generators is very high. In the high-speed single-shaft generators, it is necessary that its high-frequency output be changed to 50 Hz [4].

Regardless of the high investment costs, microturbines have the advantages of small size, light weight, good efficiency in heat and power cogeneration, low emissions, use of waste fuels, less repair, and good performance at low gas pressures.

Further discussion related to this technology will be given in other chapters.

1.5.1.3 Fuel Cells

In fuel cells, the chemical energy is directly converted into electrical energy. Hydrogen gas, due to its high reactivity, abundance, and lack of environmental pollution, is used as an ideal fuel in fuel cells. Because of the many advantages of fuel cells, this technology is used in many applications, such as transportation, military, portable electronic devices, and especially DG of electricity. The most important of these benefits include:

1. Having high efficiency compared to devices that are using the conventional chemical fuels such as oil and gasoline

2. Environmentally friendly; because water is the by-product generated in the fuel cell

3. No noise pollution; because there are no moving parts in a fuel cell, this device is very quiet

4. Easy setup

Of course, in addition to the abovementioned benefits, fuel cells use expensive equipment that limits the use of this technology. More details about this technology will be presented in subsequent chapters.

1.5.2 Technologies Based on Renewable Energy

The majority of DG is based on renewable energy. Wind turbines, small hydro plants, and solar cells are placed in this category.

1.5.2.1 Wind Turbines

Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. Wind energy rotates the blades that are placed around the rotor. The rotor is connected to a central shaft, which rotates the generator and consequently electricity is produced. Wind turbines are mounted on tall towers to get the most possible energy.

The height of the towers is 30–40 m above the Earth's surface. In addition, the use of small-scale wind turbines is being considered to provide electricity in homes. More details about this technology will be presented in subsequent chapters.

1.5.2.2 Solar Cells

The solid-state solar cell is an electrical component that directly converts sunlight energy into electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect. Small cells are used to provide the required power for smaller devices such as electronic calculators. Solar panels are made from a merger of the cells that have many applications in the electrical industry. It has already been suggested as one of the most important DGs. It will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.

1.5.2.3 Small Hydro Plants

Small hydro plants are used in places where there is the flow of the water or other fluids such as sewage outlet or salty water to the proper height. For example, in place of existing dams, pipelines and canals can be made using this technology. The shafts of these types of power plants (depending on the physical conditions) may be installed vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. These plants have a production capacity up to 5 MW [5].

1.5.3 Energy Storage-Based Technologies

Some DGs use energy storage systems. The most important and best available technology is energy storage batteries that have been made in various types. Following is a short reference for some energy storage technologies.

1.5.3.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage System

This system is actually a coil that is used in the manufacture of superconducting materials. It is possible to reduce the resistance of the coil to zero by reducing the temperature of the material. So, if the current is injected into the winding and then the winding is short circuited, the energy can be stored in the magnetic field coil.

1.5.3.2 Large Capacitor Banks

Supercapacitors such as batteries store an electric charge. The batteries store the electric charge through a chemical reaction between metal electrodes and a liquid electrolyte. The storage and operations of superconductors are relatively slow because the release of the energy for the chemical reaction needs more time. The high energy stored in batteries is released over a relatively long time. On the other hand, supercapacitors store electrical charges as ions on the surface of the electrodes. In these types of capacitors, the pores on the surface of the electrodes increase the contact surface of the electrolyte. More energy is stored in the capacitors; therefore, capacitors are discharged more quickly than batteries.

1.5.3.3 Storage Systems for Compressed Air

Compressed air storage systems are underground caves that are very large natural reservoirs. In times of low consumption (low load), air is blown into the caves by a pump. This compressed air can be released at the peak hours after colliding with turbines to generate the electricity.

1.5.3.4 Hydraulic Pump Storage Power Plant

The hydraulic pump is a method to store and produce electricity to supply peak times. In times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water to the water tank at higher altitude. When electricity demand is high, the high-altitude water from the water tank is discharged into the low-altitude water tank through a turbine generator. In this respect, the hydraulic pump storage power plant is similar to compressed air storage systems.

1.6 Advantages of DG

In the previous sections the advantages of the DG were briefly explained. In this section, we examine in detail the benefits of the DG.

1.6.1 Functions as a Backup Network Capacity

The first advantage is that DG could be used as capacity support of the network. DGs can reduce power transmission lines by supplying the load where consumers are located because part of the capacity lines will be free. So, from the perspective of the network, the consumer load is reduced.

1.6.2 Emergency Capacity Support

In an emergency, when part of the network is blacked out, using DG in the place of consumption can reduce part of the network's load. So, using these resources can reduce the number of power outages.

1.6.3 Quick Start Up

After a blackout, the network needs to be black started. At this stage, DG can be used to supply a certain part of the network to reduce the total load of the network. On the other hand, these resources can also be used to start up the power plant.

1.6.4 Combined Electricity and Heat Production

After starting up the power plants and ensuring their stable performance, the grid is connected and the consumers are added to the network step by step. So, the network start up will be easier after blackouts in the entire network by creating small islands supplied by using DGs. Another significant advantage of DG is the use of heat generated by these resources that can be achieved in some of them. In this case, according to Eq. (1.1), the system efficiency increases.

   (1.1)

where Pe is the power produced, Pthermal is the heat power, and Pin is the input power.

1.6.5 Peak Shaving

A typical daily load curve is shown in Fig. 1.2. As can be seen in this figure, the total amount of installed power capacity (dotted line) in the network should be such that the load to be supplied at peak time has a suitable safety margin. In peak condition, electricity generation involves higher costs; therefore, low-cost resources should be used to meet the peak load. Power generation using DGs at peak times, in addition to being economically effective, can reduce the capacity of the transmission lines and transformers. Reducing the current in the main network equipment will reduce their temperature and consequently will increase the life of the equipment.

Fig. 1.2 Typical daily load curve.

1.6.6 High Reliability

Whereas high reliability is required for power sensitive loads in a distribution network, using two independent power supplies seems to be essential. With the installation of DG sources in the vicinity of such sensitive loads, they can immediately start up to supply the sensitive loads.

1.6.7 Spinning Reserve

As previously mentioned, DGs have an important role in supplying peak load. The power should be quickly injected into the network to use these resources at peak times. To achieve this purpose, the generator should be synchronized with the network to immediately supply the load. It should be noted that the concept of spinning reserve is not restricted only for rotating generators. For example, fuel cell systems at any moment of the day are capable of producing power to quickly inject the required power into the network.

1.6.8 Nonspinning Reserve

DG sources can be used in emergency conditions to supply the loads due to the quick start up. In this case, unlike the spinning reserve, the generator is turned off and is not connected to the network. The spinning reserve is usually not used to provide peak load.

1.6.9 Load Balance

Because, in distribution networks, the phases are unbalanced, by using single-phase DG sources connected to the distribution network, the phases can be balanced. This is done by adjusting the amount of injected current into the network.

1.6.10 Voltage and Reactive Power Control

The main purpose of the use of DG is active power generation. But in some of these resources, there is also the possibility of reactive power generation. For example, in wind power plants, which are connected to the network via induction generators, the production of reactive power is impossible. But in fuel cells, which are connected to the grid via inverters, simultaneously controlling active and reactive powers is possible. Therefore, the reactive power and voltage profile can be controlled to reduce network losses.

1.6.11 Delaying Investment in the Transmission System

The rated capacity of the transformers and transmission lines is determined according to the load forecasting system and planning studies. With load growth, the construction of the new lines and transformers are needed. If the load is supplied by DG, the construction of the lines and transformers will be delayed.

1.6.12 Fast Installation and Operation

In areas where the growth rate of the load is high, the installation of thermal power plants that need a lot of time is not practical. The use of DG sources that will be constructed in a few months is the perfect solution for this problem.

1.6.13 Less Environmental Pollution Than Centralized Production

In large power plants, all kinds of greenhouse gases are produced. But in DG systems, even those that consume fuel, polluting emissions are very low. This advantage makes it easy to use DG sources in residential areas.

1.7 Disadvantages of DG

DG sources in addition to all the abovementioned advantages create several problems in the network. Some of the most important ones are mentioned in the following sections.

1.7.1 Difficult to Control

The first issue is the difficulty of controlling DG sources, especially in islanding mode, because in this case DG sources in addition to active power generation also have the task of controlling the frequency and voltage. To address this issue, the use of quick and advanced controllers will be necessary.

1.7.2 Disturbing Protective Equipment Settings

Because the distribution network protection settings are made before connecting DG, these resources affect the relay settings. In this case the amount and direction of the current are changed. So all relays, especially the over current relays, need to be adjusted.

1.7.3 Increasing the Short-Circuit Current

In short-circuit condition, after the connection of DG resources to the network, in addition to the upstream injection of the short-circuit current, DG also contributes to the error. So, usually a short-circuit current is increased. This is clear in the Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Short-circuit current increase in the presence of DG.

1.7.4 Difficult to Synchronize With the Network

As stated, the DGs can have the ability to supply load independently. For example, diesel generators without a network connection can deliver three-phase power to the consumer. If the generator needs to be connected to the network, automatic synchronization must be done. Otherwise, it is possible that in connection time, the equipment could be damaged.

1.7.5 Choosing a Location for DG Installation

Choosing a suitable location for the installation of the DG sources can increase both the losses and overvoltages in the system. So the location of the DG installation is essential.

1.7.6 Difficult Operation in Urban Areas

The use of some DG technologies in urban areas is not justified because of the amount of space that they occupy. For example, the large blades of wind turbines in the megawatt range need a lot of space, which limits their use in urban areas. Solar cells have no economic justification because they occupy a lot of space in metropolitan areas where land prices are high. However, solar cells can be installed on the roofs of parking garages and buildings.

1.7.7 Increased Cost of Dispatching

The SCADA system should be implemented at the distribution level to provide the remote control of DGs, which ultimately increases the cost of the network.

1.8 Comparison Among the DG Technologies

In this section, we compare several of the most common types of DG technologies. Table 1.2 shows a general comparison among DGs. As this table shows, technologies such as gas turbines, microturbines, and fuel cells have two types of efficiency, because these technologies, according to fuel consumption, can be used as CHP. That is, these technologies can use the exhaust heat for heating and also achieve high efficiency.

Table 1.2

General comparison among DGs

Table 1.2 also indicates that the cost of installing solar cells per kilowatt is more than the cost of other sources. In this table, the cost of the installation and operation and maintenance (O & M) of these technologies are also mentioned. It should be noted that the information listed in this table is provided on a certain date for the technologies. As time passes and the technology advances we should see falling prices.

Table 1.3 compares the ability of different DG technologies. As can be seen in this table, technologies that consume fuel have a dispatching capability and do not need an energy storage system. In contrast, renewable technologies such as solar cells and wind turbines do not consume fuel, but due to their variable nature, they need an energy storage system. This group of technologies are known as green energy sources due to lack of fuel consumption. The disadvantage of renewable technologies is that they can not be used in peak shaving, reliability improvement, power quality improvement, and CHP applications.

Table 1.3

A comparison among the capabilities of DGs

1.9 Connection of DG to the Grid

DG sources can be connected to the network directly, by synchronous generators and induction generators, and indirectly, by using power electronic converters.

1.9.1 Direct Connection to the Network via Synchronous Generator

In direct connection to the network via synchronous generator, the synchronous generator is coupled to the output shaft of the DG and the output of a synchronous generator is connected directly to the electrical network. In this type of connection, synchronization with the electrical network and controlling the excitation of the generator create difficulties. According to the direct connection of the generator to the grid, generators act as a voltage source and when a short circuit occurs in the network, all the power produced will be transferred from the DG to the network. The abovementioned problem warns us about the need of protecting the generator in short-circuit conditions. In the event of network interruptions, DG has an ability to supply a part of the electrical energy of the network, which is an advantage of this type of connection. Another important advantage of the direct connection of the synchronous generator to the network is the ability to produce the reactive power.

1.9.2 Direct Connection to the Network via Induction Generator

This type of connection is often used for wind turbines and now is outdated with the emergence of new technologies. The control system of the direct connection of the induction generator is simpler than the control system of the synchronous generator because, in direct connection of the induction generator, the exciter of the field does not exist. In addition the induction generator connection is easier compared to the synchronous generator connection to the network, which is another advantage of this type of connection because of the lack of phase rotation and voltage amplitudes. To connect the induction generator to the network, only an increase in the speed of the induction generator's rotor higher than the synchronous speed is needed before connecting the induction generator to the network. In direct connection of the induction generator to the network once the network is cut off, the induction generator will be disconnected; an issue that is not true for the synchronous generator. Because of the inherent ability of the synchronous generator once the network is cut off the synchronous generator can continue to operate independently. Induction generators compared to synchronous generators not only produce reactive power but also consume reactive power. So at every point where the induction generators are connected to the network the voltage will be destroyed. The disadvantages of this type of generator include the possibility of working in motor mode, in the case where the rotor speed is less than synchronous speed, which causes current to be drawn from the network. At the start up of the induction generator, this current causes great shock to the network. It is noted that with the emergence of the doubly fed induction generator, all the problems have been solved and generators can directly connect to the network.

1.9.3 Indirect Connection to the Grid via Power Electronic Converters

In this type of connection, a DG source cannot be directly connected to the network. A DG source is connected to the network by using a converter. A group of DGs such as fuel cells and photovoltaic cells produce the direct electric energy. Therefore, this type of resource is not allowed to be directly connected to the network. This type of DG source can be connected to the network resources using the converter. An alternative is to increase the level of the voltage by using a DC-DC converter and then to connect it to the network via a DC-AC converter. But the most important thing is the DG sources such as gas microturbines that produce high-frequency electrical energy. To connect these types of DGs to the grid, an AC power with 50 Hz frequency is required. Therefore, the high-frequency power is converted to a 50 Hz AC power via an AC-AC converter (cycloconverter or matrix converter). In the second case, high-frequency AC power (in the range of kilohertz) can be initially converted into DC power and then it is converted into 50 Hz AC power. The costs of this technique are rising, but due to increasing the total control variables the output of the system has higher quality.

References

[1] http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/speeches.

[2] Capstone Turbine Corporation. Available from: http://www.microturbine.com/. Accessed 7 November 2016.

[3] The Energy Solutions Center (ESC) Distributed Generation Consortium. Available from: http://www.understandingchp.com/appguide/Chapters/Chap0/0-7_Microturbines.htm. Accessed 7 November 2016.

[4] R.H. Staunton, B. Ozpinec, Microturbine Power Conversion Technology Review, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2003.

[5] IEEE guide for control of small hydroelectric power plants, IEEE Std 0171–0922.

Further Reading

[1] A.M. Borbely, J.F. Kreider, Distributed Generation, The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium, CRC Press, 2001.

[2] A.F. Zobaa, R.C. Bansal, Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology, World Scientific, 2011.

Chapter 2

The Basic Principles of Wind Farms

Ahmed Rashad*,‡; Salah Kamel†; Francisco Jurado‡    * Qena Rural Electrification Sector, Qena, Egypt

† Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt

‡ University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain

Abstract

With the depletion of traditional energy sources, renewable energy sources come to the top of the electric energy research list. This chapter presents the basic concepts of different wind turbines, power in the wind, maximum wind turbine efficiency, wind turbine generator types, speed and pitch controls, wind power distribution, and types of induction generators; the squirrel cage induction generator, doubly fed induction generator, and synchronous generator wind turbine. Also the historical development of wind power is presented in this chapter. Different numerical examples are used to explain and clarify the concepts of wind energy systems. The MATLAB/SIMULINK program is used in some examples to simulate the performance of different types of wind turbine induction generators.

Keywords

Wind energy generation system; Pitch controls; Tip speed ratio; Squirrel cage induction generators; Doubly fed induction generator; Synchronous generator wind turbine

Abbreviations

→ space vector

A swept area

Cp power coefficient

DFIG doubly fed induction generator

d-q direct and quadratic components

FRT fault ride through

GCR grid code requirements

Gr gear box ratio

GSC grid side converter

GWEC global wind energy council

IEA International Energy Association

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

im magnetization current

ir rotor current

is stator current

J moment of inertia

ke kinetic energy

L blade length

Lm magnetizing inductance

Lr self-inductance rotor

Ls self-inductance of stator coils

LVRT low voltage ride through

m air mass

MPPT maximum power point tracking of wind energy

P number of pair pole

p d/dt

Pag gap power

PCC pion of common connection

Pm mechanical power

PMSG permanent magnet synchronous generator

Prcul copper losses of generator rotor

Pscul copper losses in stator

r rotor radius

Rr winding resistant of rotor

Rs winding resistant of stator

RSC rotor side converter

S slip speed of induction generator

SCIG squirrel cage induction generator

SGWT synchronous generator wind turbine

ß the angle between the blade axis and the wind direction is called pitch angle

STATCOM static synchronous compensator

Te electrical torque

Tm mechanical torque

TSR tip speed ratio

v wind speed

v0 average wind speed at h0, where v0 is usually measured at h0=10 m

vh wind speed at the height h

Vol volume of the mass of air

WEGS wind energy generation system

WRIG wound rotor induction generator

WRSG wound rotor synchronous generator

x distance crossed by the air from the first point of the hub to the point where the air leaves the turbine blade

Xm magnetization leakage reactance

Xr rotor leakage reactance

Xs stator leakage reactance

α friction coefficient or Hellman exponent

η wind turbine efficiency

ρ air density

φ flux linkage

φr rotor flux linkage

φs stator flux linkage

ωg generator speed

ωr rotor speed of induction generator

ωT speed of turbine rotor

2.1 Historical Background

Humanity realized the importance of wind and felt its power from the first appearance of civilization. Mankind uses the power of wind in different forms such as propelling ships and grinding grain but the utilization of wind energy did not stop at these limits. With the appearance of electricity in human life and due to an increase of human adoption of electricity, which already depends on traditional fuel, this led to an increase in fuel prices and at the same time an increase in pollution level. From this point, the concept of green energy was born as a mandatory solution for the problem of pollution and the rise in fuel prices.

Wind was the first option for this purpose. The main idea is converting the kinetic energy stored in the wind to a rotating motion and then into electricity. The first try was in the 19th century by developing 12 kW from DC windmill generators. Till 1980, generating electricity from wind was used for home application such as recharging batteries. By 1980 the progress of wind energy technology increased. This progress includes many faces such as improving efficiency, reduction of cost, increase of wind turbine capacity, and even deals with the problems that may face interconnecting wind farms to the grid [1].

Global wind statistics developed by the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) can give a good indication to the increase in wind energy generation system (WEGS). Fig. 2.1 shows that the cumulative installed wind capacity has increased from 6.1 GW in 1996 to 423.4 GW in 2015. This rapid increase in wind capacity in the last 20 years indicates the amazing progress in wind energy system