Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C: Electromagnetism: in Relativity & in Dense Matter
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C: Electromagnetism: in Relativity & in Dense Matter
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C: Electromagnetism: in Relativity & in Dense Matter
    Ebook304 pages3 hours

    Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C: Electromagnetism: in Relativity & in Dense Matter

    By Robert Piccioni

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    Feynman Simplified: 2C covers one quarter of Volume 2 of The Feynman Lectures on Physics. The topics we explore include:

    • Relativistic Maxwell’s Equations
    • Lorentz Transform for Potentials & Fields
    • Field Energy, Momentum & Mass
    • Relativistic Particles in Fields
    • Crystals
    • Refraction & Reflection in Dense Matter
    • Waveguides

    And if you are looking for information about a specific topic, peruse our free downloadable index to the entire Feynman Simplified series found on my website "Guide to the Cosmos . com"

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherRobert Piccioni
    Release dateApr 29, 2017
    ISBN9781370827763
    Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C: Electromagnetism: in Relativity & in Dense Matter
    Author

    Robert Piccioni

    Dr Robert Piccioni is a physicist, public speaker, educator and expert on cosmology and Einstein's theories. His "Everyone's Guide Series" e-books makes the frontiers of science accessible to all. With short books focused on specific topics, readers can easily mix and match, satisfying their individual interests. Each self-contained book tells its own story. The Series may be read in any order or combination. Robert has a B.S. in Physics from Caltech, a Ph.D. in High Energy Physics from Stanford University, was a faculty member at Harvard University and did research at the Stanford Linear Accelerator in Palo Alto, Calif. He has studied with and done research with numerous Nobel Laureates. At Caltech, one of his professors was Richard Feynman, one of the most famous physicists of the 20th century, and a good family friend. Dr. Piccioni has introduced cutting-edge science to numerous non-scientific audiences, including school children and civic groups. He was guest lecturer on a National Geographic/Lindblad cruise, and has given invited talks at Harvard, Caltech, UCLA, and Stanford University.

    Read more from Robert Piccioni

    Related to Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C

    Related ebooks

    Physics For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      A Brief History of the Grand Unified Theory of Physics

      Mar 16, 2017

      Particle physicists had two nightmares before the Higgs particle was discovered in 2012. The first was that the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) particle accelerator would see precisely nothing. For if it did, it would likely be the last large accelerator

      18 min read

    • Article

      Physics Has Demoted Mass

      Nov 9, 2017

      You’re sitting here, reading this article. Maybe it’s a hard copy, or an e-book on a tablet computer or e-reader. It doesn’t matter. Whatever you’re reading it on, we can be reasonably sure it’s made of some kind of stuff: paper, card, plastic, perha

      10 min read

    • Article

      Is Quantum Physics Linked To Consciousness?

      Jan 16, 2021

      WHILE most of us have only heard about quantum physics by watching the Big Bang Theory, a week doing nuclear physics in matric led to a fascination for quantum physics – and whether it plays a role in the workings of the brain – for UKZN PhD student

      3 min read

    • Article

      Quantum Mechanics 101

      Dec 5, 2019

      Quantum Mechanics 101
      7 min read

    • Article

      First Experiments with TRANSISTORS

      Oct 1, 2019

      In the field of semi-conductors, we deal with materials such as silicon and germanium, and when these solids are employed in electronic circuits, it is generally stated that we are working with the electron flow within, or through, a solid. This enab

      8 min read

    • Article

      S Parameters Made Easy

      Dec 1, 2022

      S Parameters Made Easy
      4 min read

    • Article

      Learning Curve

      Dec 1, 2021

      Learning Curve
      3 min read

    • Article

      Antennas

      Dec 1, 2021

      Antennas
      13 min read

    • Article

      Math’s Notes

      May 1, 2020

      Math’s Notes
      3 min read

    • Article

      A Simple Dual-Band Upgrade for Your 40-Meter Dipole

      Dec 1, 2020

      During this lull in the solar cycle, 40 meters has been the best band for both local and DX contacts. Now that the sunspots are coming, other bands will soon be packed with signals as well. If you have a 40-meter dipole that’s been your workhorse thr

      4 min read

    • Article

      Learning Curve

      Aug 1, 2020

      CQ is in the middle of celebrating its 75th year of serving the Amateur Radio Service. Within those 75 years, technology and ham radio experienced tremendous change. Arguably, one of the biggest changes involved the transition from vacuum tube techno

      4 min read

    • Article

      Multiband Quads

      Nov 1, 2021

      Multiband Quads
      18 min read

    • Article

      Measurements

      Sep 10, 2019

      Measurements
      4 min read

    • Article

      Math’s Notes

      Mar 1, 2020

      While researching materials for this column, I came across information indicating how transistors gradually replaced vacuum tubes in electronic gear, but how similar (and different) they are from each other as well as some hybrid attempts. As you all

      6 min read

    • Article

      Antenna Misconceptions

      Jan 1, 2023

      Antenna Misconceptions
      4 min read

    • Article

      Learning Curve

      Sep 1, 2021

      Learning Curve
      5 min read

    • Article

      Learning Curve

      Dec 1, 2020

      Learning Curve
      4 min read

    • Article

      THE Dipper

      Nov 1, 2020

      Clayton Bane, W6WB‘s, March, 1947, article, “… About Grid-Dip Oscillators,” was followed two months later by “The Dipper “(reproduced below) by Wilfred “Bill“ Scherer, W2AEF. The article offered a variation on the GDO circuit presented by W6WB, helpi

      12 min read

    • Article

      EMP & Lightning Surge Protection for HF Radios

      Jan 1, 2022

      When many of us hear EMP, or electromagnetic pulse, we think of one effect of a high-altitude nuclear explosion. But there is a much more common, and therefore more hazardous, source of EMP … nearby lightning. NS5K walks us through best practices for

      9 min read

    • Article

      CQ Crossword Puzzle

      Jun 1, 2023

      CQ Crossword Puzzle
      2 min read

    • Article

      Math’s Notes

      Jun 1, 2020

      Math’s Notes
      4 min read

    • Article

      Measurements

      Mar 8, 2022

      I used DRA Labs’ MLSSA system, an Earthworks microphone preamplifier, and a calibrated DPA 4006 microphone to measure the Vivid Audio Kaya S12’s farfield behavior, and an Earthworks QTC-40 mike for its nearfield responses. I left the vestigial grille

      3 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Feynman Lectures Simplified 2C - Robert Piccioni

      Feynman Simplified

      2C: Electromagnetism:

      in Relativity &

      in Dense Matter

      Everyone’s Guide

      to the

      Feynman Lectures on Physics

      by

      Robert L. Piccioni, Ph.D.

      Second Edition

      Copyright © 2016

      by

      Robert L. Piccioni

      Published by

      Real Science Publishing

      3949 Freshwind Circle

      Westlake Village, CA 91361, USA

      Edited by Joan Piccioni

      V161018

      All rights reserved, including the right of

      reproduction in whole or in part, in any form.

      Visit our web site

      www.guidetothecosmos.com

      Everyone’s Guide to the

      Feynman Lectures on Physics

      Feynman Simplified gives mere mortals access to the fabled Feynman Lectures on Physics.

      This Book

      Feynman Simplified: 2B covers one quarter of Volume 2 of The Feynman Lectures on Physics. The topics we explore include:

      Relativistic Maxwell’s Equations

      Lorentz Transform for Potentials & Fields

      Field Energy, Momentum & Mass

      Relativistic Particles in Fields

      Crystals

      Refraction & Reflection in Dense Matter

      Waveguides

      To learn more about the Feynman Simplified series, to receive updates, and send us your comments, click here. 

      To further Simplify your adventure, learn about my Math for Physicists that explains the math to master Feynman physics.

      Looking for information about a specific topic? Peruse our free downloadable index to the entire Feynman Simplified series.

      If you enjoy this book, please do me the great favor of rating it on Amazon.

      Table of Contents

      Chapter 25: Waveguides

      Chapter 26: Relativistic Electrodynamics

      Chapter 27: Transformation of Fields

      Chapter 28: Energy & Momentum of Fields

      Chapter 29: Electromagnetic Mass

      Chapter 30: Particles in Fields

      Chapter 31: Crystals

      Chapter 32: Refraction in Dense Matter

      Chapter 33: Reflection & Transmission

      Chapter 34: Clever Tricks

      Chapter 35: Review of Part 2C

      Chapter 25

      Waveguides

      In Feynman Simplified 2B, Section §23.1,  we examined the behavior of simple circuit elements as a function of frequency. We discovered that the character of those elements often changes dramatically as frequency increases. In V2p24-1, Feynman says:

      Another interesting technical problem is the connection of one object to another, so that electromagnetic energy can be transmitted between them. In low-frequency circuits the connection is made with wires, but this method doesn’t work very well at high frequencies because the circuits would radiate energy into all the space around them, and it is hard to control where the energy will go. The fields spread out around the wires; the currents and voltages are not guided very well by the wires. In this chapter we want to look into the ways that objects can be interconnected at high frequencies.

      In this chapter, we examine the theory of transmission lines: the guiding of electromagnetic waves in confined spaces toward desired destinations.

      §25.1 Wires & Cables

      For low frequency AC, such as 50 or 60 Hz, simple wires are adequate across distances up to hundreds of miles or kilometers. At 60 Hz, electromagnetic wavelengths in conductors may be 2000 miles (assuming wave velocity is about 2/3 of the speed of light). This means the quarter-wavelength at which radiation peaks is about 500 miles. At 50 Hz, the quarter-wavelength is about 1000 km.

      For kilohertz frequencies, such as local telephone wiring, twisted-pairs are employed to reduce crosstalk. Figure 25-1 shows four twisted-pairs that can carry four separate telephone conversations. 

      Figure 25-1 Four Twisted-Pairs

      Twisting reduces signal pick-up in one pair due to fields radiated by adjacent pairs, and makes it more difficult for one party to hear another party's conversation.

      Frequencies in the megahertz range are often transmitted through coaxial cables ("coax"). The simplest coax consists of two coaxial, thin hollow cylinders. Typically, the signal or power is transmitted through the central tube, while the outer tube is a ground shield connected to a zero-volt potential. Figure 25-2 shows an inner conductor with radius r, and an outer conductor with radius R.

      Figure 25-2 Coaxial Cable

      One of the great advantages of coax is that its electromagnetic fields are completely contained in the space between the conductors (ideally). This means coaxial cables do not interfere with one another, even if many are bundled tightly together. They are also unaffected by external electrical devices or fields.

      In Feynman Simplified 2B, Section §22.10, we found that the impedance Z of a transmission line with inductance L0 and capacitance C0 per unit length is:

      Z = √ (L0 / C0)

      Let’s now analyze transmission through a coaxial cable from a different prospective.

      Figure 25-3 shows a a cross section of a gray coax.

      Figure 25-3 Signal In Coax

      Here, the outer conductor is at zero volts, while a signal propagates through the inner conductor that is represented by a solid black line. At a distance x from the start of the coax, let the signal voltage and current be V(x) and J(x), respectively. A small distance further down the cable, at position x*, the signal has voltage V(x*) and current J(x*).

      For a time-varying current, the coax has inductive impedance L0 per unit length, causing a voltage drop given by:

      ΔV = V(x*) – V(x) = – L0 (x* – x) ∂J/∂t

      ΔV / Δx = – L0 ∂J/∂t

      In the limit that Δx goes to zero (x* goes to x), we obtain a differential equation:

      ∂V/∂x = – L0 ∂J/∂t

      We obtain a second differential equation by considering the time-varying voltage. The coax has capacitance C0 per unit length, so in a small length Δx=(x*–x) the stored charge q is:

      q = C0 Δx V

      The net current flowing into Δx must equal the change in charge within Δx. This means:

      J(x) – J(x*) = ∂q/∂t = C0 Δx ∂V/∂t

      In the limit that Δx goes to zero, this means:

      – ∂J/∂x = C0 ∂V/∂t

      Feynman says these are the two basic differential equations for any transmission line, adding:

      We could modify them to include the effects of resistance in the conductors or of leakage of charge through the insulation between the conductors, but for our present discussion we will just stay with the simple example.

      We now combine these equations using a familiar trick: differentiate the first equation with respect to x and the second with respect to t, so that both contain the term ∂²J/∂t∂x.

      ∂²V/∂x² / L0 = – ∂²J/∂t∂x

      C0 ∂²V/∂t² = – ∂²J/∂t∂x

      ∂²V/∂x² – L0 C0 ∂²V/∂t² = 0

      The same trick, done the other way, yields two equations containing ∂²V/∂t∂x.

      L0 ∂²J/∂t² = – ∂²V/∂x∂t

      ∂²J/∂x² / C0 = – ∂²V/∂x∂t

      ∂²J/∂x² – C0 L0 ∂²J/∂t² = 0

      We see that both V and J satisfy the 1-D wave equation:

      ∂²ψ/∂x² – ∂²ψ/∂t² / v² = 0

      With v = 1/√(L0 C0), all solutions are of the form:

      ψ = f(x – t/v) + g(x + t/v)

      Here, f is a wave moving toward +x with a voltage and a current that we will call V+ and J+, and g is a wave moving toward –x with V– and J–.

      Let’s now calculate the key parameters of a coaxial cable: L0, C0, Z0, and v.

      Recall that in Feynman Simplified 2B, Section §18.9, we calculated the inductance of a solenoid by calculating its field energy. Let's use the same approach here, and calculate the field energy of a coax.

      The magnetic field energy is given by:

      U = ∫  B • B dV ε0 c² / 2

      The B field at a distance ρ from a wire carrying current J is:

      B = J / 2πε0 c² ρ

      In cylindrical coordinates, the volume integral over dV is:

      dV = ρ dx dβ dρ

      Here, x is the distance along the wire, ρ is the distance from the wire, and β is the azimuthal angle. The extra ρ arises because the distance moved by an incremental change in azimuthal angle is ρdβ. The integral over dβ equals 2π, and the integral over dx equals X, the length of the cable. (I would prefer length to be L, but we are already using L for inductance.) The integral over ρ spans the region between the two cylindrical conductors, from ρ=r to ρ=R. There is no magnetic field outside the coax, because there is no net current flow through a cross sectional surface that includes both conductors.

      The magnetic energy is then:

      U = ∫  2π X ρ dρ J² (ε0c² / 2) / (2πε0 c² ρ)²

      U = { X J² / 4πε0 c² } { ∫  dρ / ρ }

      U = ln(R / r) X J² / 4πε0 c²

      From Feynman Simplified 2B, Section §18.9, the magnetic field energy of an inductance L with current J is:

      U = L J² / 2

      Equating the last two equations yields L0, the inductance per unit length.

      L J² / 2 = ln(R / r) X J² / 4πε0 c²

      L0 = L / X = ln(R / r) / 2πε0 c²

      Now on to the capacitance. In Feynman Simplified 2A, Section §12.2, we calculated the stored charge of a coaxial capacitor at voltage V (the analog of heat flow between two concentric pipes). In our current notation, the equation is:

      Q = 2πε0 V X / ln(R / r)

      C0 = Q / V X = 2πε0 / ln(R / r)

      This is the capacitance when the gap between conductors is empty (ideally, it would be vacuum). We therefore have the wave velocity v and impedance Z:

      1 / v² = L0 C0

      1 / v² = {ln(R/r) / 2πε0c² } {(2πε0) / ln(R/r)}

      1 / v² = {1 / c² }

      v = ± c

      Z² = L0 / C0

      Z² = {ln(R/r) / 2πε0c² } / {2πε0 / ln(R/r)}

      Z² = ln(R/r)² / (2πε0)² c²

      Z = ln(R/r) / 2πε0 c

      Feynman says the constant 1/(2πε0c) has the units of resistance and a value of 60 ohms. The ratio R/r is never >> 1, and Z varies only logarithmically with that ratio. The result is that almost all coaxial cables have impedances between 50 ohms and a few hundred ohms.

      Real coax has a dielectric between the inner and outer conductors that changes the above results.

      §25.2 Rectangular Waveguides

      In V2p24-4, Feynman says:

      "The next thing we want to talk about seems, at first sight, to be a striking phenomenon: if the central conductor is removed from the coaxial line, it can still carry electromagnetic power. In other words, at high enough frequencies a hollow tube will work just as well as one with wires. It is related to the mysterious way in which a resonant circuit of a [capacitor] and inductance gets replaced by nothing but a can at high frequencies.

      "Although it may seem to be a remarkable thing when one has been thinking in terms of a transmission line as a distributed inductance and capacity, we all know that electromagnetic waves can travel along inside a hollow metal pipe. If the pipe is straight, we can see through it! So certainly electromagnetic waves go through a pipe."

      Sometimes a simple observation is worth a thousand equations.

      Let’s find out what kind of waves can go through a pipe. In this mode, the pipe is called a waveguide. While the basic principles are the same for pipes of all shapes, let’s analyze a rectangular pipe, since that is the simplest waveguide.

      We define a pipe that starts at z=0 and runs along the z-axis toward z=∞, with width X and height Y, as shown in the upper two images of Figure 25-4.

      Figure 25-4 Rectangular Waveguide

      Assume an unspecified wave source at z<0. We know that the E and B fields of light waves are orthogonal to one another and to the direction of propagation. So, let’s first look for solutions in which E is entirely in the y-direction, as shown in the middle image of Figure 25-4.

      The lower image shows the magnitude of Ey versus position x across the pipe. Ey must be zero at both edges of the pipe, at x=0 and x=X, because the electric field along the surface of an ideal conductor must be zero. If not, charges in the conductor would move, immediately nullifying that field.

      We found a similar situation in Feynman Simplified 2B, Section §23.2, where the solution was a Bessel function. But that was in cylindrical geometry. Here, in rectangular geometry, the solution is a sinusoid of the form:

      Eysin(kx x)

      This automatically ensures Ey=0 at the pipe wall at x=0. To also ensure Ey=0 at the pipe wall at x=X, we must require sin(kxX)=0, which means:

      kx X = n π, for any integer n > 0

      For the z-dependence, let’s try a typical wave solution:

      exp{iωt – ikz z}

      Putting these pieces together, we get:

      E = Ey sin(kx x) exp{iωt – ikz z}

      Figure 25-5 shows the E and B fields in the waveguide.

      Figure 25-5 Fields In Waveguide

      Here, E peaks at the left and right ends of the image, and is most negative in between.

      Inserting the expression for E into the 3-D wave equation yields:

      0 = ∂²Ey/∂x² + ∂²Ey/∂y² + ∂²Ey/∂z² – ∂²Ey/∂t² /c²

      0 = – kx² Ey – kz² Ey – (–ω² / c²) Ey

      kx² + kz² = ω² / c²

      Since we already constrained kx, this establishes a relationship between kz and ω.

      kz = ± √ { (ω / c)² – (n π / X)² }

      The ± sign determines the wave direction: + for waves moving toward +z, and – for waves moving toward –z.

      From this equation, we obtain the phase velocity (see Feynman Simplified 1D, Section §43.5):

      vph = ω / kz

      The guide wavelength λwg, the wavelength inside the waveguide, is:

      λwg = 2π / kz = 2π vph / ω

      Comparing λwg to λ0 = 2π c / ω (the wavelength in empty space) yields:

      λwg = 2π / √ { (ω / c)² – (n π / X)² }

      λwg = 1 / √ {(ω / 2π c)² – (n / 2X)² }

      λwg = 1 / √ {(1 / λ0)² – (n / 2X)² }

      λwg = λ0 / √ {1 – (n λ0 / 2X)² }

      For very high frequencies, when ω>>c/X, the waveguide wavelength approaches the free space wavelength. For visible light in typical waveguides, λwg and λ0 are virtually equal.

      §25.3 Cutoff Frequency

      Now consider low frequency waves traveling through our pipe. Let’s focus on the lowest transverse mode, the least oscillation in the x-direction, which corresponds to n=1. As the frequency decreases, the wavelength increases at a faster than usual rate. In empty space, λ is inversely proportional to ω. But in a waveguide, we can rewrite the equation for λwg as (with Ω=πc/X):

      λwg = 2πc / √ { ω² – Ω² }

      λwg = 2πc / √ { (ω – Ω) (ω + Ω) }

      When ω is close to Ω, λwg becomes inversely proportional to 1/√(ω–Ω). This means λwg approaches infinity much more quickly than in empty space: at ω=Ω rather than at ω=0. Ω=πc/X is the cutoff frequency of a waveguide of width X for E orthogonal to the width.

      Consider the wave number kz for frequencies below the cutoff (for n=1). Let’s rewrite our prior equation for kz:

      kz = ± (1/c) √ {ω² – Ω²}

      kz =

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1