Current Research in Egyptology 2007: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference

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Contents

Symposium Papers Not Included in This Volume

Introduction (Kenneth Griffin)

Divine Determinatives in the Papyrus of Ani

(Rachel Aronin)

The Application of Archaeobotany and Pharmacognosy to Reassess the Translation of šnj-tA and DArt in the Medical Papyri

(Jacqueline Cambell and Rosalie David)

An Absolute Chronology for the First Dynasty of Egypt

(Jenefer Cockitt)

Wells and Cisterns in Pharaonic Egypt: The Development of a Technology as a Process of Adaption to Environmental Situations and Consumers’ Demands

(Henning Franzmeier)

The ‘Central Halls’ in the Ptolemaic Temples: Locations, Nominations and Functions

(Amr Gaber)

An Analysis of the Use of Beads and Amulets as a Mortuary Item in Protodynastic Graves at the Upper Egyptian Site of Badari

(Vicky Gashe)

Observations Regarding the Symbolism of the Blue and Cap Crowns as Used in Iconographic Motifs of the Ramesside Period

(Steven Gregory)

Rock Art in Egypt’s Eastern Desert: Observations on Current Research

(Francis Lankester)

The First Decan

(Rosalind Park)

Monuments in Context: Experiences of the Colossal in Ancient Egypt

(Campbell Price)

Book of the Dead Chapters 149 & 150 and Their Coffin Text Origins

(Peter Robinson)

Preliminary Study of an Unusual Graeco-Roman Magical Gem (MNA E540) in the National Museum of Archaeology in Lisbon, Portugal

(Paula Veiga)

Did Ramesses III Settle the Sea Peoples in Canaan? Searching for Reality Behind Papyrus Harris I

(Pawel Wolinski)

Symposium Papers Not Included in This Volume (alphabetical by author)

Some Remarks of the Scenes Featuring Amon in New Kingdom Temple in Lower Nubia

Ibrahim Abdel-Baset

Fayoum University, Egypt

Late New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period Pottery in Canaan

Shirly Ben-Dor Evian

Tel Aviv University

Military Encampments in Ancient Egypt

Dan Boatright

University of Liverpool

Constructing a Coptic Document at Jeme: Organisation and Industry

Jennifer Cromwell

University of Liverpool

Are You Sitting Comfortably? Purges and Proctology in Ancient Egypt

Jacky Finch

The University of Manchester

An Analysis of the Entities Present on the Columns within the Temple of Ramesses II at Abydos

Kenneth Griffin

Swansea University

The ‘Transgression’ Word-field in the Stela of Baki

Eve Guerry

Macquarie University, Australia

Conceptions of Wealth in Late Period Theban Burials: A Case Study of Theban Tomb 33

Meg Gundlach

Swansea University

The Style and Iconography of Pottery Offering Trays

Jayne Holly

Swansea University

Crime and Punishment in Dynastic Egypt

Sarah Jackman

Swansea University

Rock Art Palimpsests: Patination as an Indication of the Relative Ages of Petroglyphs

Tony Judd

University of Liverpool

Great Overlords and the War of Reunification in the First Intermediate Period

Steven J. Larkman

Mount Royal College, Canada

Research on the Animal Dictionary in Ancient Egypt

Sara Mastropaolo

Ecole Pratique des Haute Etudes – Sorbonne, Paris

Database of Coptic Monasteries in Egypt

Howard Middleton-Jones

Independent Scholar

Towards a Prosopography for Twenty-fifth Dynasty Thebes: Problems and Methods

Christopher Naunton

Swansea University and Egypt Exploration Society

Astarte, Egypt and the Art of Riding Side-saddle

Pauline Norris

University of Birmingham

An East Way to Build a Pyramid?

Robert M. Porter

Independent Scholar

Kinship Structure and Descent Group Models and the Incipient Predynastic Ancient Egyptian State in Upper Egypt

Gavin Radis-Smith

British Institute at Ankara, London

Defensive Arrangements in Coptic Architecture

Dr. Nelly S. Ramzy

Alexandria University, Egypt

Political Propaganda in Ancient Egypt: A Question of Time and Place

Stephen Renton

Macquarie University, Australia

The Male Self Image: Reflections of Masculinity and Male Sexuality in Eighteenth Dynasty Funerary Art

Kim Ridealgh

Swansea University

Natron – It’s Uses in Egyptian Medicine

Melanie Sapsford

Cranfield University

Initial Analyses of Organic Remains from Ancient Egyptian Contexts, using Scientific, Analytical Methods

Judith H. Seath

University of Manchester

From Nwn to Ma’at and Back: The ‘Butterfly Effect’ and the Egyptian Pattern of Perfection

Renata Tatomir

The Sergiu Al-George Institute of Oriental Studies, Romania

Grammatical Terminology in Egyptology – Fact or Fiction?

Alexandra Velten

University of Mainz, Germany

Introduction

In 2000 the annual Current Research in Egyptology (CRE) symposium was organised by graduate students from the University of Oxford to provide Egyptology students at graduate level the opportunity to present their research to fellow students. In the same year, Swansea University (formerly part of the University of Wales) opened its doors to the first students of Egyptology. In the subsequent years the growth of Egyptology at Swansea has been astounding, with new Single Honours, Masters and research degree programmes being introduced. During the same period, the status of the CRE symposium has also reached a new level internationally and is recognised as important in facilitating students’ progression to the next level of education. CRE VIII brought together a total of 40 students from 10 different countries, each presenting their new and on-going research in Egyptology. The range of topics included art and architecture, archaeology, literature and language, history and society as well as scientific analysis spanning the entire epoch of Egyptian history from the Predynastic to the Coptic era. The papers presented in the following volume represent a diverse range of topics and multidisciplinary approaches.

Two of the papers presented in this volume concentrate on religious texts in ancient Egypt. Aronin, while examining the New Kingdom Papyrus of Ani, discusses why certain gods receive determinatives in the text while others are absent. The author notes that Fischer’s rule, which was formulated to discuss determinatives in the Old Kingdom, is not really applicable to this New Kingdom text. Furthermore, it is also noted that a small number of deities, including Horus, Hathor and Thoth, who all receive fewer determinatives than any of the other gods in the papyrus. Robinson focuses on Chapters 149 and 150 of the Book of the Dead, which contain both textual and pictorial references to the fourteen ‘mounds’ or regions of the Netherworld. Although these chapters commonly appear in funerary papyri and tomb reliefs from the New Kingdom onwards, textual references to the mounds first appear in a number of separate spells within the Coffin Texts from a number of places within the Nile Valley. The author investigates the relationships of the fourteen mounds, both with each other, and with other related textual elements within the Coffin Texts. Furthermore, the author attempts to elucidate any regional origins of the individual mound references, their relationships with each other, and other afterlife or ritual landscapes.

Additional features of ancient Egyptian religion are addressed by three further papers. Gaber examines the location of the Central Hall in the Egyptian temples of the Ptolemaic Period. The author examines the various denominations used to refer to this hall whilst also discussing any accompanying texts which might provide details as to the function of such edifices. It is demonstrated that, in the examples discussed, the Central Hall is always located between the Sanctuary and the Hall of Offerings. Based on his findings, Gaber concludes that the hall was connected to two groups of gods; the ‘Ennead’ and the ‘co-templar’ deities. The paper by Price focuses on the re-interpretation of colossal statuary as places of popular cult worship. These statues, while originally being built as part of the larger temple design, later came to be utilised by the populace as gathering places for both political and religious purposes. The author addresses these changes and their probable causes, interpreting both their religion and their social contexts as a whole. Price concludes that the evidence surveyed indicates that it would have been possible to experience the colossal in a number of ways, but that orchestrated events probably involved a number of elite participants who are likely to have been few in number. Religion in Late Antiquity was explored by Veiga, who examined a unique magical gem from the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, Lisbon. The author presents a description of the gem, including a commentary of the transcription and an analysis of the deities present on the object. This gem, believed to date to the second half of the Third Century to the early Fourth Century, demonstrates the difficulties faced by scholars due to the corruption and idiosycrancies of the language during this period.

Three of the papers deal loosely with the origins of Egyptian history. Lankester examines the rock art of Egypt’s Eastern Desert, dating mainly to the Predynastic Period. Fifteen wadis, containing over two hundred and twenty sites, are examined with the author dividing the depictions into animals, anthropomorphs and boats. It is noted that there are heavier concentrations of petroglyphs in the southern wadis and lighter ones in the central wadis. Lankester stresses the need to place them within context, and to explain the meaning of the petroglyphs and the reasons they were created. Park analyses the depiction of a bird carved on a potsherd at Hierakonpolis over 5000 years ago. The author explores the possibility that the bird represents some sort of celestial record and is associated with the rising of the star Arcturus. Park draws upon additional astronomical texts in ancient Egypt, most notably the Dendera Zodiac, in order to support her theory. Gashe analyses the use of beads and amulets found in the Early Dynastic Period cemeteries at Badari to determine how they were used in a mortuary context. The author notes that the greatest period of bead use does not correspond with the periods of use of the cemeteries, but rather follows an independent pattern. Furthermore, it was not possible to deduce from the records whether the beads and amulets making up jewellery in the graves had been worn in life or whether they were specifically manufactured as funerary jewellery. In conclusion, Gashe states that certain styles were more common at certain locations, but there was no trend strong enough to warrant the suggestion that a certain item was ‘funerary’ rather than an item used in daily life.

Ancient and modern technologies were explored by three scholars, with Franzmeier examining the use of wells and cisterns in ancient Egypt. The author divides well technology into three main phases, demonstrating that while the earliest wells date to the Sixth Millennium BC, it was not until after the Amarna Period that fundamental changes were introduced into well construction. Franzmeier also provides a detailed description on these technological advances over time, noting that they were brought about by consumer demands as well the environmental changes at the time. At the other end of the spectrum, modern technology was utilised by Cockitt in an attempt to determine an absolute chronology of the First Dynasty. While the succession of kings of the period has long been established, the length of each pharaoh’s reign has remained unknown. The author examines a total of 68 individual ¹⁴C readings of the period, which were then calibrated using the ‘OxCal calibration program’ to determine the reign length of each pharaoh. The paper makes it abundantly clear, that while ¹⁴C is often disregarded by Egyptologists, its usefulness should not be overlooked. Campbell uses the sciences of archaeobotany and pharmacognosy processes to determine the translation of šnj-tA and DArt within the medical papyri. The author discusses both the literary analysis as well as the botanical evidence of the various candidates found within Egypt. It is proposed that DArt is to be identified with the plant carob while šnj-tA with the fruit colocynth. The paper demonstrates that Bio-sciences are useful tools in the attestation of plant identity when coupled with other textual and archaeological evidence.

A historical approach was undertaken by Wolinski who posed the question: did Ramesses III settle the Sea Peoples in Canaan? While the author notes that the Papyrus Harris I claims that Ramesses ‘settled them in strongholds’ he stresses that Egyptologists should not take this statement literally. Instead, it should be put into context with the Egyptian military and political policy in Canaan during the Twelfth Century. Wolinski concludes the view that the Sea Peoples were settled somewhere in Egypt and then transferred to Canaan must be rejected as we cannot trace the presence of the Sea Peoples in archaeological material from the Nile Valley and Delta. It is therefore better to suppose that they settled in coastal Canaan right from the beginning.

An art historical approach is undertaken as the iconography of the blue and the cap crowns is explored by Gregory in an attempt to ascertain their function. These two crowns seem to be closely connected with one another and often appear to the viewer as interchangeable. The author examines the depictions of the twA pt motif during the Ramesside Period which reveals that in some instances the blue crown is replaced by the cap crown over time. Gregory concludes that blue and cap crowns may be seen as complementary in nature.

The papers presented in this volume offer a small, yet wide ranging, synopsis of the various themes currently being conducted by graduate and postgraduate students of Egyptology throughout the world. Topics dating from the Prehistory of Egypt through to Late Antiquity are covered, while language, religion, art and architecture are now being joined by the use of modern technologies to expand our knowledge of ancient Egyptian civilisation.

CRE VIII would not have been a success without the help and support of a great number of people, beginning with our acceptance as hosts in April 2006 and culminating in this publication almost two years later. On behalf of the Swansea CRE organising committee, Jayne Holly, Kim Ridealgh and myself, I would like to thank Judith Charles and Peter Belcher of Conference Services in Swansea for arranging the symposium hall as well as seminar rooms for bookstalls and the lunch area. Our special thanks go to Debbie Williams for providing the buffet on the Thursday evening, as well as refreshments over the three days. To Abu Suphian, owner of Miah’s Indian restaurant for putting on a sumptuous evening dinner, and to Alison Dugmore for providing the belly dancing entertainment during the evening. To the booksellers, in particular Bob Partridge of Ancient Egypt magazine for providing all delegates with a free magazine issue, Anton Powell of Classical Press of Wales and Gerald Brisch from Archaeopress. We are indebted enormously to the Egypt Centre for offering their endless support including advice on conference organising, printing and photocopying resources and for hosting the evening reception, which provided the delegates with the opportunity to visit the galleries. We would like to express our gratitude to all those who chaired the sessions, particularly Thomas Schneider and Carolyn Graves-Brown for their helpful comments and encouragement to the speakers. To the Department of Classics, Ancient History and Egyptology for all their encouragement and support, as well as the academic referees who offered their comments on the papers submitted. We would also like to thank all the delegates who attended the symposium, especially those who contributed their papers to the audience. Special thanks also go to Val Lamb, Eleanor Hooker and Clare Litt of Oxbow Books for their valuable help with the publication of this volume.

Finally, my personal thanks go to my colleagues Jayne Holly and Kim Ridealgh for their help and support in making the symposium a success, and to Meg Gundlach for her help in the publication of these proceedings.

Kenneth Griffin

March 2008

Illustration credits

Front cover illustration: Relief from the south wall of the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak depicting Ramesses II censing the barque of Amun, which is being carried by the Souls of Pe and Nekhen (photograph by Kenneth Griffin). The editors and the individual authors would like to express their gratitude to all the institutions and scholars who granted permission to use the images published in this volume. The individual authors are alone liable for the use of specific images, the editors and Oxbow Books are not responsible for the obtainment of copyright permission.

Divine Determinatives in the Papyrus of Ani

Rachel Aronin

The main purpose of this study is to examine one recension of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in order to see what information it can provide on the connection between images of deities and the associated writings of their names. Particular attention must be devoted to the hieroglyphic determinatives found after divine names. Determinatives are soundless ideograms appearing at the ends of words to clarify the sense of the word in a particular context. ‘Divine determinatives’, appearing at the ends of gods’ names, may provide us with much information about the ancient Egyptians’ ideas about the nature and characteristics of divinity. To learn more about how these classifying hieroglyphs were used, a thorough investigation was undertaken of the Papyrus of Ani, the Book of the Dead belonging to a Nineteenth Dynasty official, which contains approximately 65 spells from the body of mortuary literature known in Egyptian as the ‘rw nw prt m hrw’ (‘Chapters of Going Forth by Day’).

Introduction

The Book of the Dead is itself the product of over a millennium of literary evolution, having its origins in the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts of the late Old and Early Middle Kingdoms, and in turn giving rise to various later compositions, which are often grouped together under the term ‘Books of the Afterlife’. Several of these later texts, which include the Amduat, Spell of Twelve Gates (which is also found in the Book of the Dead as Chapter 168), and the Books of Breathing, Gates, Caverns, Day, Night, and Earth, are treated in Hornung (1997). It is not my intention in this introduction to trace the development of each spell through the literature (a very useful chart of correlations between parts of the Book of the Dead and their predecessors in the Coffin and Pyramid Texts can be found in Allen 1974, 225–241). Rather I shall give a brief summary of the antecedents of the Papyrus of Ani with the goal of providing some chronological and religious framework for this composition.

The Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts, the earliest extent funerary collection from Egypt, are composed of between 714 and 759 spells or ‘utterances’ (although some of these are duplicates; see Allen 2005, 3–4, for the difficulties presented by the conventional numbering system). These spells provided the deceased with the knowledge necessary to ascend to the divine celestial realm. During the First Intermediate Period there is some overlap between the Pyramid Texts and the subsequent Coffin Texts, which seem to derive from the earlier spells but may actually have developed alongside them, and which are far more extensive, both in terms of number of spells and in geographical distribution (for examples of ‘divine determinatives’ in the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts see Beaux 2004, 44–51).

The Coffin Texts provide a crucial stage of development in Egyptian mortuary literature. Several new themes appear which go on to gain even greater prominence in the Book of the Dead. The god Osiris increases in importance as ruler of the underworld, whereas in the Pyramid Texts the emphasis is placed heavily on the sun god Re and the celestial realms. The latter will remain important, and these two gods will become the main foci of the New Kingdom Books of the Afterlife. The most dramatic, and for the purposes of this study noteworthy, difference between the Pyramid and Coffin Texts lies in the illustrations of the latter. While the Pyramid Texts were simply incised on the walls with no accompanying pictures, the Coffin Texts begin to display the vignettes which will eventually become more important than the texts they were originally meant to illustrate.

Sometime later, perhaps during the Second Intermediate Period (Parkinson et al. 1992, 48), the number of spells was dramatically reduced to just under 200, and the forms of the texts had already shifted to their corresponding Book of the Dead versions. By the Seventeenth Dynasty many of these spells had completed this shift, and copies of the composition circulated throughout the whole country, although Thebes was a major centre of usage (Parkinson et al. 1992, 48). The Book of the Dead was most often found written on papyri which were placed in the tombs of the deceased, although individual spells also appear quite commonly on the walls of private and even royal tombs, temples, mummy wrappings, and smaller objects like shabti-statuettes, heart scarabs, and other amulets. Allen (1960, 3) studied 70 objects bearing texts from the Book of the Dead in the collection of the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago, examining 7 papyri, 3 coffins, 1 shroud, 1 statuette, 3 stelae, and 55 shabtis. He formulated some basic questions in his perusal of these artifacts, which may also be applied to the Papyrus of Ani: was it made to order or from stock? Did texts or vignettes take precedence? Did the scribe copy or write from dictation?

By the Nineteenth Dynasty, the Book of the Dead had become de rigueur in equipping the deceased for the afterlife. Even the pharaohs themselves began to have its vignettes, especially the scene of the Weighing of the Heart, portrayed on the walls of