The Horse and The Bull in Prehistory and in History

The horse and the bull are among the most represented animals in the arts
and in the myths of many cultures and civilizations from Prehistory to the
present day, in diverse examples of rock art, ceramics, sculpture, mosaics, coins,
architecture and painting, besides other cases. Tey even appear with divine
characteristics in some cultures, such as the case of Ox Apis, in ancient Egypt,
and the horses of Apollo in Classical Greece, among many other examples.
Currently they are animals associated with cultural activities that move crowds
and generate considerable income.
The present publication comes in the sequence of the 1st International
Congress – The horse and the bull in Prehistory and in History, which took
place between 15 and May 19, 2013, in the towns of Golegã and Chamusca,
organized by Centro Português de Geo-História e Pré-História, with the col-
laboration of the City Councils of the mentioned towns and the Centre of
Prehistory of the Polytechnic Institute of Tomar.
Thirty-one of the fifty-two communications presented at the event are
published here, distributed by the following sections: Evolution and Palae-
ontology of perissodactyla and artiodactyla; The horse in Prehistory and Pro-
tohistory; The bull in Prehistory and Protohistory; The horse and the bull in
Preclassic and Classical Civilizations; The horse in the Middle Ages and in the
Modern Age; The horse and the bull in the Contemporary Age; Mythology
and Symbolism of the horse and the bull.
The selected languages for the publication of the articles were Portuguese,
Spanish and English, covering various themes, from palaeontology, archaeol-
ogy, archaeozoology, history, rock art, Egyptian art, contemporary art, museum
studies, literature, symbolism and mythologies of diverse periods. We tried to
develop the research associated with these issues in a multidisciplinary way,
which resulted in a deepening of the knowledge about them.