Batters and Breadings in Food Processing

U.S.A.

Preface to the Second Edition

It has been 21 years since the American Association of Cereal Chemists published the first edition of Batters and Breadings in Food Processing. Since that time, the fresh and frozen coated foods market has expanded greatly. This has created a challenge to formulate and develop batter-based coatings and breadings for a variety of new products. The technology has evolved into a science. Establishing batter and breading formulations for potential consumers requires research. The market for new products must be defined, and the various consumer preferences and needs must be identified. Newly important demographics of American consumers, such as elderly, Hispanic, and Asian populations and single-parent families, present a great challenge as well as a great opportunity to the industry. Requirements of the consumers can be met when planned and consistent strategies are followed.

In this second edition, we examine the current market for coated products; ingredients for those products, such as corn, wheat, rice, fats and oils, and flavorings and seasonings, as well as their functionality; the rheology of coating systems; and the selection of processing equipment. Several original authors from the first edition of the book revised and expanded their chapters. New authors have contributed chapters on heat and mass transfer in foods during deep-fat frying, nutritional aspects of coated foods, and food allergens. The list of process and product patents has been updated. We believe this book presents the latest technical and scientific information on the subject, and we hope that it will serve as a valuable text, reference, and guideline.

We extend appreciation to all the authors who have shared their knowledge and expertise and have devoted their time in contributing to this book.

Karel Kulp, Robert Loewe, Klaus Lorenz and Janette Gelroth

Preface to the First Edition

The consumer market for fresh and frozen coated foods has been rapidly expanding in recent years. The ability to formulate and apply batter-based coatings and breadings to a wide variety of products continues to be a challenge to workers in this area. As it has evolved from an art into a science, this technology has been a fertile ground for new research.

This volume is an overview of the industry as seen from a number of perspectives. Industrial and academic representatives examine the current and projected markets for coated foods, the functionality of ingredients, the role of seasonings, the preparation of food substrates for coating, the rheology of coating systems, the use of supplemental breadings, the selection and maintenance of processing equipment, the effects of microwave reconstitution, and the current state of the art in a listing of process and product patents.

Few volumes have appeared that specifically address these topics. Thus, a complete survey of knowledge in this area of food science has been lacking. We hope that this book will serve as an effective reference for both the food technologist and the end-use processor, as each responds to the needs of this growing industry.

We are grateful to the chapter contributors for the time and effort they expended to complete this book. Special thanks are reserved for Beverly Martin and Lisa Sisley of the American Institute of Baking for manuscript preparation and editorial assistance.

Karel Kulp and Robert Loewe

Chapter 1

Batters and Breadings—Past, Present, and Future Markets

Robert Loewe,     Lockport, Illinois, U.S.A.

As in most areas of the food-processing industry, the scope of batter and breading technologies covers several mutually dependent concerns. These fall into the generally accepted divisions of research, process development, and marketing.

Initially, creativity and the knowledge possessed by the product developmental technologist are essential for the introduction of new concepts and the refinement of current ones. Commercialization, or scale-up, then follows, establishing the feasibility of the approaches under actual production conditions. Although neither area could be successful without the other, one factor tying them even more closely together is the marketing emphasis. This can be defined as the efforts to sell current products and identify the needs for new ones. Indeed, this segment of the industry closes the gap between the product development and manufacturing areas to ideally achieve rapid, efficient responses to the needs and desires of the consumer.

Definition of the Coated-Foods Market

The market for coated foods is actually the market for various frozen battered and breaded flesh and vegetable protein products intended for both retail and foodservice distribution. This particular category is so broad that a single chapter could be directed to each frozen substrate. Therefore, the market for coatings, particularly batters and breadings, is emphasized here. From this, an overall rationale for the marketing, development, manufacture, distribution, and consumption of coated foods is explored.

Note that the sequence above has been purposely arranged to begin with the marketing segment. Here, the target market position is of primary importance. This position must be carefully thought out before product development work can begin. Both the marketing and the product development disciplines must have a thorough understanding of the food substrate involved, along with the position of each respective product in the market plans. Whether it be fish, red meat, poultry, shrimp, or vegetable, each product has a unique purpose in the marketplace.

Attempting to define the market for coatings to any degree of reliability or confidence can be difficult. The protocols for the collection of data have never been thoroughly developed or standardized. By necessity, data must be compiled from various sources that compete in a food industry of enormous size. For our discussion here, the market for coated foods is defined as that for all coated protein consumed, whether flesh or vegetable.

Past Trends for Coated Foods

The first edition of this book detailed trends in coated foods for the period 1978–1988, based on figures reported by the industry (Anonymous 1988, 1989). In that period, consumption of batters and breadings over all food categories exhibited a relatively steady increase of 16%, approaching a total of million pounds in 1988. Use of batters and breadings on precooked fish declined over the period but was probably replaced by the application of breading and batter on the premises of multiunit chain restaurants. Production of coated seafood held fairly steady, although the amount of coated shrimp produced rose and fell with marketplace prices of shrimp. Coated chicken showed a significant increase in coating usage in the time covered, but chicken and turkey dinners as well as red meats exhibited essentially no changes. In the vegetable category, onions showed, by far, the highest production, which was quite variable year by year. The very erratic pattern tends to indicate the impact of a large foodservice chain either placing or removing the item from its menu—or, because of the simplicity of an onion ring coating system, electing to do the breading and/or battering on-site at its multiple locations.

Present Marketing of Coated Foods

The trends that have evolved for batter and breading on various food categories are related to the lifestyle of the consumer. Indeed, it is this lifestyle that continues to drive the marketing effort for all products, including coated foods.

The food marketing issues can be classified as: 1) who the consumer is, 2) what the consumer does, and 3) adaptation of the food to who the consumer is and what the consumer does.

The effect of lifestyle changes in America on the consumption of food products is illustrated in Table 1.1. This shows the basic factors involved in the purchase and consumption system in 1950 and at the present time, as applied to retail and foodservice operations.

TABLE 1.1

Base Factors in the Purchase and Consumption System

In 1950, basically only two choices had to be considered in order to consume food. Over the past half-century, these have expanded into at least five choices, which have evolved further into some specific trends. These were not created by a marketer but rather were forced onto the industry by the consumer because of lifestyle changes.

Note that the consumer actually prepares the product to be eaten in only one of these choices. Indeed, meal preparation in the home is the only choice that is declining in popularity and has consistently declined over the past 50-plus years. The remaining alternatives have one thing in common—that the food is not prepared in the home. Because of these numerous purchasing factors, the development of coated foods has required a host of technologies to respond to the different end-use needs.

Although it is possible to develop a single coating system that could be marketed for each end-use need, such a system is not very probable. Covering all of the variables generated by the various combinations would be difficult. Consequently, the adaptation of foods for these various end uses must be specifically defined before the coating system can be developed.

After one recognizes all of the various ways that individuals can meet their food needs, it is helpful to attempt to understand the decision process that consumers employ when they purchase the food that they eat. Four reasons for purchasing particular foods are

• Lifestyle adaptation—relevance to the consumer’s way of life;

• Occasion/usage—frequency of consumption as related to convenience, savings, and satisfaction;

• Health/nutritional needs—perceived or actual considerations such as heart condition, weight, high blood pressure; and

• Demographic appeal—effects of age, economic status, and location.

These highlight the motivations that have driven the consumer to select or reject various foods. They are based on what might be called the involved approach, allowing for personal creativity, and the convenience approach, emphasizing time savings and ease in preparation. The involved approach stresses the selection of ingredients, meal components, and preparation techniques to present an attractive, satisfying cooked product. Here, the attributes of flavor and appearance are important goals regardless of the time required to achieve them. By contrast, the convenience approach is purposely noninvolved, concerned primarily with quick and easy meal preparation. Here, time constraints override all others, even if the quality of the finished meal is compromised.

Coated Foods in the Marketplace

Of equal importance to consumer requirements are the economics and market position of coated foods. These can be derived from a theoretical hierarchy of food consumption, a pyramidal relationship depicted in Figure 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Pyramidal relationship of foods in the hierarchy of food consumption. (Personal communication from Robert Noble, Noble Associates, Springfield, MO, 1986; used with permission)

Food products normally enter the marketplace targeted for the taste/

convenience areas on the hierarchy. Unless major marketing funds are available to maintain a position in this very competitive arena, products tend to move either up or down, depending on the market potential that exists for a particular product.

Attributes at the top of the hierarchy are marginally significant in terms of the numbers of consumers that subscribe to them at present. Increases in disposable income will place more consumers in earnings brackets where these products are affordable and of increasing importance. Products that satisfy these higher-order needs will continue to have an important place in this hierarchy.

Taste (very desirable, desirable, or acceptable) is a basic attribute of any food product. This attribute, natural or manufactured, must be combined with other benefits to successfully solicit trial and ensure repeat purchase. By itself, taste cannot compete, because too many acceptable trade-offs exist. Consumer trends appear to be directing themselves to the extremes of the hierarchy (i.e., gourmet/premium purchasing and quantity/lower-cost purchasing). This would give creditability to the new upscale retail and foodservice establishments that have become important, as well as to such revived concepts in volume purchasing as wholesale club stores.

A marketing approach must include a blending of different types of products that fit within the various levels of the hierarchy. This allows tremendous latitude in product development as well as in marketing strategy.

The Future for Coated Foods

An important consideration in the marketing and development of food products is, and will continue to be, taste. There is no better way to enhance flavors and differentiate foods than with coatings. A number of these are fully described in this book. Whether they be batters, breadings, marinades, or spices, the differentiation must arise from taste.

Successful expansion of the industry will depend upon an accurate assessment of consumer needs and the ability to readily adapt to them. The changing demographics of the American consumer, constant evolution of lifestyles, and even world events now present the greatest challenges and opportunities that the industry has ever had to face.

It is clear that the restructuring and realignments within the food industry since the first edition of this volume appeared have multiplied and directly impacted the coated-foods segment. The October 2009 issue of Quick Frozen Foods International, containing its Annual Global Frozen Foods Almanac of Statistics, reported that production and income for breaded fish and shrimp were relatively static from 2007 to 2008. By contrast, processed poultry in general showed a more consistent positive growth in production and income over this same period (Anonymous 2009a).

CONCERNS TO BE ADDRESSED

How will processors of these historically value-added breaded and battered products exploit and successfully compete within such an environment? It will be necessary for product development efforts to address a host of demographic, political, dietary, and economic concerns; some are presented below.

Ethnic Influences

Hispanic and Muslim populations continue to emerge as powerful guiding forces behind product development research. As of 2004, Hispanic consumers were primarily Mexican immigrants (65%), with the remainder from Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, and the Dominican Republic. Countries such as Germany, Great Britain, and The Netherlands are specifically modifying certain foods to pass Muslim halal requirements for manufacture and ingredient content.

Emerging Eurasian Markets and Processors

Eastern European countries, including the former Soviet Union, are enhancing their food-production capabilities to become more visible and influential trading partners within their borders and across Europe. Of course, such marketing actively seeks out eager consumers, many of whom can be found in Asia. China is becoming a favored destination for expansion of both production and sales facilities (Anonymous 2009b).

Dietary Constraints

The increased emphasis on (and some might say obsession with) healthy eating has not and will not abate. One objective has been to remove trans fats from product formulas and replace them with ingredients having more beneficial lipid and fatty acid profiles. Reduced-sodium foods have become another product of choice to address specific medical issues or promote an overall healthy lifestyle.

Organic Foods

Although debate continues over appropriate definitions—be they casual ones or legally enforceable regulations—organic foods have become favored by many consumers. The Organic Consumers Association, headquartered in Finland, MN, has reported that 12 cents out of every grocery store dollar is spent on food labeled organic (Wisnow 2006). Jeff Johnson, a nutritionist with Kashi Company, a California-based health food company, has declared their goal to be … to combine wholesome ingredients and a complete balance of fiber, protein, and healthy fats to leave you feeling full and fulfilled (Anonymous 2006a). The growth of this food segment is reflected by increased presences in private-label brands and on big-box megastore shelves (Davis 2009). Consumers tend to fall within the 18- to 34-year-old age group—the single/married/family-based segment—a demographic attractive to marketers.

Environmental Concerns

As seafood has historically been a preferred substrate for batter and breading applications, the ongoing discussions about the effects of overfishing, toxicities, and aquaculture upon a wholesome and sustainable food supply must be recognized. Processors who operate such sustainable fisheries can have their product given the MSC label, showing approval by the Marine Stewardship Council. The literature continues to highlight the controversy over the benefits of seafood farming versus open-sea harvesting (Anonymous 2007a). In the developing countries, aquaculture of fish, shrimp, and squid is being increasingly promoted (Anonymous 2009c). Regularly scheduled meetings of advocacy groups for controlled seafood farming are becoming the norm (Anonymous 2007a).

The Communications Revolution

Processors and marketers now have the technological means to link with potential consumers who were unavailable (or unheard-of) just a few years ago. Accessibilities to e-mails, websites, and the Internet are no longer options but expected ways of doing business.

Unstable World Affairs

International political turmoil and domestic employment instability continue their impact upon disposable income for workers in general and those within the food industry in particular.

STRATEGIES

And so, where does that leave product-development scientists? They have their work cut out for them because they must respond to these many issues and influences. Creative innovation, although potentially impacted—and sometimes compromised—by economic constraints (e.g., corporate budgetary concerns, price and value projections, returns on investment, and profit requirements) stands out as the strategy of choice for such a response. Some examples from the literature reflect this direction.

Cheese

In Canada, a wheat crumb-topped covering on paneer cheese/jalapeno pepper sections was developed and directed toward Indian and Middle Eastern markets (Anonymous 2006b).

Mushrooms

Technologists in The Netherlands are breading mushrooms—unfried or prefried—either plain or with supplemental garlic and Cajun seasonings. A specialty line of sliced portabella mushrooms features focaccia, four-cheese, roasted garlic, and Herbes de Provence seasonings (Anonymous 2006c).

Seafood

In Belgium, a layered coating system has been developed that includes a seasoned sauce between the substrate and breading (Anonymous 2007b). Value-added products are assuming a greater role in India; breaded shrimp and calamari are now available (Saulnier 2006), and breaded calamari is on U.S. menus as well (Anonymous 2008a). Surimi is yet another substrate for creative coating applications, such as breaded crab claws (Anonymous 2006d).

Nontraditional Items

Creativity is the key to success. One company, more known for its potato-based foods, now features breaded onion rings, white cheddar curds, and zucchini sticks under its Tantalizer brand (Saulnier 2007). A Netherlands-based processor is coating onion rings, cheese (Camembert) bites, and apple wedges (Anonymous 2008b). Breadings are even finding their way onto artisanal Belgian croquettes formed from seasoned mashed potatoes. Banana, pineapple, and sweet apple fritters are being enrobed in a proprietary crispy flour, followed by frying and freezing (Anonymous 2008c).

The technologies for coating, producing, and marketing such a wide array of potential food substrates will and must continue to grow and evolve. Genetic engineering has had some role in altering both nutritional and organoleptic properties. However, this has fostered its own share of controversy.

The U.S. economy has become more deeply engulfed in the world economic order, and the ramifications of that, which are being felt today, are a reduction in the industrial base and an increase in the service industries within the nation. This can be expected to not only sustain, but also to magnify, shifts in the lifestyle of many American families.

These changes must be recognized in order for the coated foods industry to grow and prosper as we move ahead in the twenty-first century. Foresight is needed, as well as a willingness to adapt technology to take advantage of the opportunities that lie ahead.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgement is given to the E.W. Williams Publications Company and its staff for their assistance. Thanks also to Richard J. Hurni for his valuable contribution to this chapter in the previous edition.

References

Anonymous. Total poundage of breading used on frozen products for alternate years 1963–1987. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 1988; 30(Oct.):A14.

Anonymous, Total poundage of breading used on frozen products for alternate years 1964–1988. Quick Frozen Foods Int., 1989;31(Oct.):A14

Anonymous. Health food business Kashi debuts frozen entrée line. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):73.

Anonymous. Indian frozen food products. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):14.

Anonymous. Seven frozen SIAL D’Or award winners highlight record-breaking exhibition. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):50–59.

Anonymous. India’s leading surimi producer gets bigger and thinks fresh. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):12–14.

Anonymous. Salmon still in international swim; farmed and wild being reconciled. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2007; 49(Oct.):48–51.

Anonymous. New fish and seafood products. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2007; 49(Oct.):8.

Anonymous. New fish and seafood products. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2008; 50(Oct.):6.

Anonymous. Lamb Weston expands Novo Mundo line with introduction of three new appetizers. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2008; 50(Oct.):16.

Anonymous. Tomorrow’s marketing ideas today: The focus of SIAL ’08 Paris exhibition. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2008; 50(Oct.):80–87.

Anonymous. North American frozen food sales holding up despite the recession. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2009; 51(Oct.):126–129.

Anonymous. Agrarfrost arrives in China with quality products and local sales team. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2009; 51(Oct.):H–6.

Anonymous. Thai shrimpers seek better prices; tilapia farms getting new support. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2009; 51(Oct.):31–33.

Davis, M. Organic frozen food in the USA market: Big opportunities as well as challenges. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2009; 51(Oct.):132–137.

Saulnier, J. M. Value added products take lead in Indian seafood brand-building. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):9–11.

Saulnier, J. M. The view from eagle: Potato passion is always in fashion. Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2007; 49(Oct.):32–41.

Wisow, S. J. The plain truth. Frozen vegetables and fruits are good: So why aren’t more of them being eaten? Quick Frozen Foods Int.. 2006; 48(Oct.):66.

Additional references are available in the 1990–2009 volumes of Quick Frozen Foods International and its Annual Global Frozen Foods Almanac of Statistics feature in October. It is published by Quick Frozen Foods Int. Fort Lee, NJ (www.qffintl.com).

Chapter 2

Ingredient Selection for Batter and Breading Systems

Robert Loewe,     Lockport, Illinois, U.S.A.

An Evolving Industry

Science is slowly replacing intuition as batter mix manufacturers respond to the challenge of the market for coated foods. Indeed, research continues to reveal that we still know much less than we would like about the basic physicochemical mechanisms governing ingredient functionality in such products.

It is true, for example, that many volumes have been written about the proper selection and evaluation of wheat-based flours for bread, cakes, cookies, and the like. However, communicating with a wheat grower or flour miller about the flour qualities necessary for a shrimp batter may prove a difficult task. Comparable hurdles apply to quantifying and predicting the effects of other critical ingredients.

Definitions of quality requirements have been developed by those in the industry in response to specific needs. This technology is expanding to become a potentially rich market for the processors of both ingredients and end products.

Batter Classification

Let us establish two general definitions for batter-coated foods. Such terminology may vary somewhat, depending on the particular emphasis of those in the industry. However, these definitions do highlight the general concepts.

INTERFACE/ADHESION BATTER

This coating is typically used with a supplemental breading or bread crumb. The added breading is chosen for the granulation, color, flavor, and crispness desired in the finished coated food. The batter coating serves primarily as an adhesive layer between the food surface and the breading. Chemical leavening is not normally used.

Acceptability of the finished product is determined by the uniformity and thickness of the coating. The interface/adhesion batter achieves this by means of viscosity development. Logically, a more viscous batter yields a higher pickup of breading than does a thin, more watery suspension. This type of batter usually contains a high percentage of wheat and/or corn starch, which can be chemically or thermally modified to improve adhesive properties.

For large-scale processing, such batters are supplied as dry mixes of wheat flours, corn flours, starches, and browning/coloring agents. Water is added at the production line to create the batter. The amount of added water typically weighs about the same as the dry batter mix, but it may vary as viscosity requirements dictate. Less water provides a thicker, more viscous batter, while more water thins the batter to reduce its viscosity. The amount of water required may also need adjustment if the water and batter mix are cold. Cold systems (40–50°F [0–10°C]) often require less dry mix than warmer systems.

PUFF/TEMPURA BATTER

Both wheat and corn flours play an important role in this system. Chemically leavened, the batter itself can serve as the outside coating of the food and thus requires visual and structural qualities more complex than those of the interface/adhesion batter.

These coatings find use in foodservice and retail markets. In typical foodservice practice, the batter is provided as a dry mix to which water is added at the unit restaurant level. At the retail level, coated foods are prepared in bulk, packaged frozen, and heated in the home.

Of particular concern on the production line is the harmful effect of shearing during mixing and agitation within the batter applicator. The gases produced by the leavening agents have a short life span; therefore, this batter must be applied to the product quickly before the leavening action dissipates. The resulting tempura-batter-coated products have a continuous outside shell with pockets of air trapped beneath (R. Swackhamer and T. Gerold, unpublished communication).

Precooking and Freezing of Coated Products

The development of optimum coating formulas is dependent upon the stresses to be encountered during subsequent processing. The requirements for freezing during prolonged storage and the final reconstitution by heating predominate here.

After application of a coating, the food may be either partially or completely cooked by frying or oven heating before being frozen. In some cases, however, cooking at this stage may be excluded entirely. Freezing is then achieved by one of two methods:

• Higher temperature and longer time—minimum ambient temperature:

–50°F (–45.6°C).

• Lower temperature and shorter time—minimum ambient temperature range: –100 to –200°F (–73.3 to –128.9°C).

Conveyorized mechanical freezers are used in the first method. Here, if the product has been previously cooked, its internal temperature may drop to no lower than 50°F (10°C). Subsequent freezing is completed, although slowly, during warehouse storage. This gradual temperature drop may promote moisture and fat migration between the coating and the substrate. Structural changes can also occur within the coating matrix itself, as observed in studies performed on actual customer batter formulas.

In the second method, use of liquefied gases (such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide) brings about cryogenic freezing. Even here, however, freezing may be incomplete, especially in larger food portions. The rapid temperature drop at the coating surface can result in cracking and fracturing, and moisture may condense during the time between freezing and packaging. Either of these events can affect coating quality.

Temperatures of conventional warehouse freezers are set at 0°F (–17.8°C), with fluctuations that can typically range as high as 10 degrees F (5.5 degrees C) on either side of that figure. Customer requirements routinely call for stability for as long as six months at this temperature. Resistance to freeze-thaw cycling may be specified as well; customer requirements can call for product quality to be maintained after up to four such cycles. Thus, awareness of both initial freezing conditions and long-term storage stability is critical in the development of effective coating systems.

Research is continuing on modifications of these characteristics to improve overall functionality (Matsunaga et al 2003).

Reconstitution of Coated Products

FRYING

The optimum means for reconstituting (heating) coated foods is through deep-fat frying at temperatures ranging from 350 to 400°F (176.7–204.4°C). Rapid heat transfer quickly sets the coating structure, allowing little time for excess moisture infiltration. Indeed, it has been observed that moisture is removed through exchange with oil during such heating. This procedure is the method of choice in foodservice practice for both interface/adhesion and puff/tempura coatings.

OVEN HEATING

Primarily used in the home, this method yields a moderately acceptable product in terms of crispness, color, and flavor. Although the heating rate is slower than that of deep-fat frying, the elevated chamber temperature of the oven causes some evaporative drying of the coating, resulting in the perception of crispness. Use of forced air in convection-type ovens aids further in this.

Development of ovenable coatings may require the addition of oil and/or browning agents (i.e., dextrose or milk powder) to the dry coating mix to more closely duplicate a fried appearance and flavor.

MICROWAVE HEATING

Research into coating systems suitable for microwave reconstitution has shown this goal to be elusive, if the quality of current retail frozen foods is any indication.

The main hurdle to success has been the basic heating principle of microwave transmission, one not readily adaptable to current coated foods. Microwave oscillations cause molecular vibrations and resultant frictional heating within the food. Moisture and oil are conducted outward; however, the evaporative drying typical of processing in conventional ovens does not occur. The result is a soggy coating with minimal crispness. It appears that microwave reconstitution will require a unique technology for effective product development of coated foods.

Chapter 12 further details the dynamics of microwave reconstitution.

Commonly Coated Substrates

Various food substrates have been successfully adapted to batter and breading coating applications to functional and economic advantage. For example, substrates can be modified with the addition of inexpensive coating materials. The resulting products are often unique, with enhanced sensory properties, making them more appealing to increased numbers of consumers. Even some lesser-appealing substrates can be improved in appearance and flavor by the addition of coatings.

A sample of the spectrum of commonly coated products is given in Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1

Commonly Coated Products a

aSource: R. Swackhamer and T. Gerold, unpublished communication.

Critical Coating Characteristics

Consumers praise or condemn a battered or breaded food based on several general factors.

APPEARANCE

With the exception of flavor and mouthfeel, this takes into account all the separate qualities that dictate overall acceptance. These could be summarized as:

• Tenderness

• Toughness

• Thickness

• Texture

• Translucency

These properties are largely affected by the amount and uniformity of the coating adhering to the food substrate. For example, Suderman (1983) observed that thicker coatings made from a mixture of waxy rice flour and corn flour are very smooth and lack texture. This is due in part to the formation of a heavily gelatinized starch film. By contrast, a thinner, less viscous coating from these same ingredients allows air bubbles to appear on the surface and results in a more appealing texture.

COLOR

Cooked color is closely tied to coating appearance. It results from the absorption of frying oil, the density (based on the coating thickness), and the chemical browning reactions of reducing sugars and proteins. Color can be controlled by the cooking method and medium, condition of the frying oil, ingredient composition, and selection of a supplemental breading.

All other factors being equal, frying yields a greater degree of browning than conventional oven baking; achieving adequate browning is extremely difficult in microwave ovens. Heating time and temperature are directly related to color development. Fried coated foods are also affected by the type and age of the frying oil.

Ingredient composition and supplemental breadings can contribute to perceived color through chemical means (e.g., level of protein, sugar, and enzymes) or physical means (e.g., granulation, absorptive capacity).

CRISPNESS

Although it may be a difficult sensory impression to quantify, crispness is certainly one, if not the most, critical coating characteristic. A lack of crispness may be defined either as a chewy toughness or a mushy softness. The coating should ideally exhibit a structure that sufficiently resists the initial bite but then disappears with a quick meltaway in the mouth. A coating that does not readily break down during subsequent mastication will be rated chewy, heavy, undesirable, and perhaps even lacking in freshness.

Indeed, crispness is a difficult attribute to maintain in a batter/breading system during the extended storage times desired by retail processors, which is complicated further by unavoidable freeze-thaw cycling.

ADHESION

During frozen storage and transportation, it is especially important for both the breading and the batter coatings to maintain uniform adhesion to the food substrate under the stresses involved. Lost bread crumbs or dislodged pieces of the frozen batter coating become waste at the bottom of the package. This is not only uneconomical but yields a visually unappealing product with a patchy, uneven coating. Such a product might not be repurchased by the consumer.

During reconstitution in the oven or fryer, the coating should not develop voids or pockets along the interface. Such coating separation, known as shelling, should be avoided because it indicates a less-than-desirable product.

Typical deep-fat frying can cause poor adhesion due to shrinkage of the substrate away from the cooked, coagulated coating. Precooking of the food substrate by steaming, simmering, or boiling has been shown to improve its adhesive properties for coating