Passive and Low Energy Alternatives I: The First International PLEA Conference, Bermuda, September 13-15, 1982

USA

CHAPTER 1

BIOCLIMATOLOGY/DESIGN METHODS AND TOOLS

Outline

Chapter 1: SOLAR ZONE MAPPING

Chapter 2: CLIMATIC DATA AND ITS USE IN DESIGN

Chapter 3: TESTING OF A UNIVERSAL DESIGN MATRIX FOR NATURAL ENERGY IMPLMENTATION IN LOW-INCOME HOUSING FOR THREE MEXICAN REGIONS

Chapter 4: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION INDICATORS FOR NATURAL ENERGY INTEGRATION IN LOW-INCOME HOUSING FOR THREE MEXICAN REGIONS

SOLAR ZONE MAPPING

Daniel A. Montgomery,     Department of Landscape Architecture, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802

ABSTRACT

Current solar mapping techniques involve laborious sectional analyses and/or applications of complex geometry. At the regional scale, such as a watershed, the documentation of solar availability has been handicapped by the lack of existing techniques. What is needed for comprehensive or large scale solar zone mapping is a format against which to compare related development issues, such as access and construction suitability.The process of this study uses the simulation of sunlight at critical times on a landform model. Model building procedures are carefully documented, and techniques for solar simulation are shown with high contrast photography. The relatively easy, accurate and comprehensive identification of solar zones on a landform model is the recommended method for large scale and/or complex solar mapping and comparative analyses.

KEYWORDS

Solar access

solar mapping

model building

solar simulation

overlay analysis

INTRODUCTION

Architectural and landform models are a well accepted means for the presentation of development proposals. These building and/or contour models are currently underutilized for study or assessment purposes, particularly solar analyses.

Solar assessment, such as shadow analysis, typically involves laborious sectional studies or geometric calculations. With a complex building and/or site, solar assessment might not be undertaken because the task appears to be overwhelming. At the regional scale such as a watershed, the documentation of solar availability has been handicapped by the lack of existing evaluation techniques. Building and/or landform study models are relatively easy to build compared to the voluminous sectional studies or geometric calculations needed in other solar assessment techniques. Study models are sufficiently accurate for solar zone evaluation, and provide an important format by which to compare related development issues such as access and construction suitability.

Researchers at the Pennsylvania State University have demonstrated the application of a landform model to solar zone mapping at a regional scale. The product is a photographed contour model with simulated sunlight for critical overheated and underheated periods. A watershed of more than twenty miles in length has been assessed on a model about six feet long. This was accomplished at a standard U.S. Geologic Survey scale which is generally consistent with existing documentation such as roads, utilities, soils, vegetation and land uses. Slide photographs of conventional development opportunities or constraints can be projected onto the model with solar zones indicated. This technique allows the use of various scale documents such as aerial photos and geological maps, which can be photographed and projected onto the model, manipulating the projection equipment to adjust for scale discrepancies. The composite of potential or limited areas can be drawn directly on the model. Alternately, a projected photo of the model can serve as the basis for a series of transparent drawings of the same scale used in a traditional overlay analysis. In either case, the landform model serves as an efficient tool for comprehensive analysis and effective communication.

1 TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL MAKING

Since conventional mapping of northern and southern slopes is too crude a tool for proper solar analysis of passive and low energy, the dynamic movement of the sun is best evaluated with a physical model. The procedure in model building includes determining the model scale and selecting the appropriate materials; layout, cutting and assembling of contours; and finishing techniques. The following pictorial explanation demonstrates the recommended procedures for each step.

1.1 Select Site and Area Maps

Landform model should include adjacent areas that may affect results. Secure an appropriately scaled contour map, such as from the U.S. Geological Survey. Large areas may require splicing together more than one topographical map. Depending on the desired size of the model and the area to be studied, the topographical maps may need to be enlarged or reduced by a commercial photographer.

1.2 Select Materials

Select a thickness of mounting board which, combined with contour map prints (one for each contour interval to be modelled) and adhesive, will result in an accurate vertical scale; use of a micrometer is recommended for measurement. Any change in the map scale must have a corresponding change in elevation of the contour thickness. Select a proper adhesive (e.g., mounting tissue, glue or cement), and determine the adhesive thickness in combination with board thicknesses such as:

Choose a rigid model base, such as plywood.

1.3 Mount Contours on Board

Adhere contour map prints to the mounting board with minimal shrink, warp or air bubbles. Dry mounting tissue and a hot press are suggested.

1.4 Mark and Cut Contours

Highlighting selected contour intervals will aid cutting of the prints mounted on board. A hand-held knife, as manufactured by X-Acto or cutting machine manufactured by Cutawl, is suggested. Begin cutting at the lowest elevation, and complete cutting before gluing so that corrections, if necessary, can be made.

1.5 Assemble Cut-out Contours

Apply a uniform and thin layer of adhesive to the surfaces to be bonded. Dry mounting tissue may be used for a strong bond without excessive build-up of adhesive; a fast-setting plastic base cement is also recommended; a small roller can be used to press the layers together without warpage.

1.6 Carefully Align Contours

Place each contour exactly as it appears on the original map. With dry mounting tissue, a hot iron is suggested to set contours in place. With contact cement, special care must be taken to properly align each contour before securing to another.

1.7 Finish Contour Edges

Sand rough-cut contour edges to prevent unrealistic shadows, and minimize the terraced effect of contour models. Excess dry mount tissue may also need trimming. A table saw is recommended for trimming the base perimeter.

1.8 Paint the Model

After the model is in its final form and thoroughly dry, a paint sealer and several thin coats of nonglare white paint are recommended. Care should be taken not to create thickness or to warp the contours from excessive use of paint.

2 PHOTOGRAPHY

Simulation of solar conditions on a landform model was conducted using studio lighting at the Pennsylvania State University. Shaded areas for activities during overheated periods, and sunny areas for solar assisted development in the winter are easily identified on the model.

2.1 Instrumentation

The sun’s position and angles at selected times of day which are critical for solar access during yearly periods of known underheating or overheating were determined and measured by a SOLUX instrument. This alignment would also be accomplished with a heliodon. The SOLUX was positioned on the floor, at model level.

2.2 Camera and Film

The camera was kept stationary, at a distance of about ten feet from the landform model. The instrument used was a SINAR 4×5 view camera, and the film was tri-x-pan medium.

2.3 Lighting

The lighting was selected to simulate, as closely as possible, the parallel rays of the sun. Spotlights were used which produce a more concentrated and higher contrast light, instead of floodlights which would cast a more diffuse light over the landform model. Adjustments of the lights varied not only by height from the floor, but also in distance from the model. Changes in height of the light source simulated the varying angles of the sun’s rays for both time of day and time of year. Distance of the lighting from the model was adjusted for control of the intensity of illumination.

June 22, 9 a.m. AVOID DEVELOPMENT IN SUNNY AREAS. Southern slopes within this 240 square mile site are to be minimally developed for summer use.

June 22, 3 p.m. DEVELOP IN THE SHADED AREAS. Northern slopes and southeastern portions shaded by ridges are ideal for development during overheated periods.

2.4 Photos

A total of twenty-one photographs were taken to show the variations of the shadowing on the landform model as the sun changed its orientation. Critical months of the heating and cooling seasons were simulated and photographed for the hours of 9 a.m., noon, and 3 p.m.

3 APPLICATION OF SOLAR SIMULATIONS

This solar simulation model can aid the communication and clarify priorities of individuals and groups involved in the planning of regional development. The areas where passive solar gain or blockage extends the period of human comfort in development zones can be mapped and measured, for example in acres. Quantified program elements, such as housing density, can be identified and located.

The following presentation techniques are offered. Photographs of solar simulations on the landform model can be reproduced in slide form. The simultaneous projection of the solar zone slide, such as sunny areas during underheated periods, and another slide, such as a composite of other physical or social determinants, allows for an accurate and convenient overlay analysis of development potential. Alternately, solar zones indicated by the simulations can be marked directly on the study model, and the slides of other determinants (which are usually mapped two dimensionally) can then be projected onto the three dimensional model; in this manner the landform model serves as the integrator of component analyses, by the accumulative marking of determinants on the model or by simultaneous slide projections in an overlay manner. From the solar zone photo a transparency could also be developed by a commercial photocopier, and this could be utilized with comparably scaled inventories, as in a traditional overlay analysis (McHarg, 1971).

Dec. 22, 9 a.m. AVOID DEVELOPMENT IN SHADED AREAS. Northern slopes, especially northwestern windswept areas, are to be minimally developed for winter time activities.

Dec. 22, 3 p.m. DEVELOP IN THE SUNNY AREAS. Southern slopes, particularly wind buffered southeastern areas, are most suitable for development during underheated periods.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of a landform model and simulated sunlight 1) avoids cumbersome calculations of slope gradient and length of shadows or numerous cross-sectional drawings, and 2) provides an appropriate accuracy not found with conventional north and south slope analyses. The method of contour model building, photographing the model with simulated sunlight at critical times, and projecting the resultant sun and shade areas in an overlay analysis with other inventories is comprehensive and manageable. Use of the model allows three-dimensional study and display of areas which are sunny in late fall, winter and early spring, and are suitable for development. Use of the study model with an accompanying slide presentation conveys the rationale for zones suitable for passive solar development. Researchers have found that this passive solar mapping technique is both convenient and effective.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was made possible by a grant from the Laboratory for Environmental Design and Planning at the Pennsylvania State University. Howard Lawrence was co-investigator and Silvi Pruitt contributed as a research assistant. Photographic work was completed by Still Photo Services at the Pennsylvania State University. Jill Rohrbaugh was the principal model builder.

REFERENCES

Knowles, R.Energy and Form. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1974.

Mazria, E.The Passive Solar Energy Book. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1979.

McHarg, I.Design With Nature. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Natural History Press, 1971.

CLIMATIC DATA AND ITS USE IN DESIGN

S.V. Szokolay,     Architectural Science Unit, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Q. 4067, Australia

ABSTRACT

Climatic data has been compiled in a standardised format for some fifty locations in Australia. The paper discusses the use of this data at various stages of design, from a general qualitative indication to hourly thermal response simulation.

1 INTRODUCTION

It is axiomatic that climate is (or should be) a major determinant in house design. Most architects would however consider climate - if at all - only in qualitative terms. Many would suggest that any quantitative analysis should be left to expert consultants. My argument is that architects - if the profession as a whole wants to survive - must be the experts on building energy matters in general and on climatic design in particular.

The AIA, in cooperation with House Beautiful, did carry out a major data collection and climate analysis project for the USA, in 1950, but how many architects would be using this information today? In Australia we didn’t have such a detailed study. It was a major task for any designer to dig up the relevant data, - often used as an excuse for not doing it. We decided to compile such data, but only data which is immediately useful. So, the work was governed by our perception of how architects would use such data. We think that climatic data will be used at least at five different levels during the design process with increasing complexity:

1. in qualitative terms, for an initial appreciation

2. for a pre-design analysis

3. for assessing a sketch design in terms of annual heating or cooling requirement (this may be repeated several times with modified designs)

4. possibly in lieu of (3), using a simple simulation program to predict the thermal response of the proposed building for both winter and summer, examining many alternatives

5. full scale thermal simulation (e.g. DOE 2, CALCON or BLAST).

The last one would require main-frame computers and the amount of data warrants the use of weather tapes, - so it is outside the scope of our project. There may be two side-issues: the sizing of necessary heating or cooling plant, which can also be carried out using the given data. Before reviewing these uses, the data sheets themselves must be described.

2 THE DATA SHEETS

These consist of three main parts:

- tabulated data of sunshine hours, cloud cover, irradiation, humidity, wind, temperatures and degree-hours.

- graphic representation of the main parameters, including wind roses

- hourly values of temperature and radiation for a typical winter and typical summer day.

Most of this is straightforward, but the way we calculated the degree-hour numbers requires some discussion.

Tb, the degree-day number is zero.) This number can then be summed for any given period, e.g. a month or a year. The number multiplied by 24 gives the degree-hour number.

In older English literature the base temperature is 60°F and after metrication this has been converted into 15.5°C, or rounded to 16°C. In American literature 65°F (18.3°C) is generally used. In Australia a base temperature of 18°C seems to be generally accepted.

The IHVE Guide (1970) suggests the use of a variable base, and this idea is further developed by Walsh and Spencer (1980). For the purposes of these data sheets 18°C has been adopted as the base temperature and it is given in units of Kelvin-hours (K.h). A method of adjustment to other base temperatures is given in section 7.

difference can lead to serious errors. For example, the daily temperatures may vary between 23° and 13°C, giving a mean of 18°C. For Tc = 18, 18 − 18 = 0, therefore the degree-day (or degree-hour) number would be taken as zero, whereas for about half of the day the temperature is below 18°C. If the calculation is based on monthly mean temperatures, the result will be grossly in error. The only reliable and practicable method is a statistical analysis of temperature distributions.

Brealey (1972) points out that the temperature distribution for a particular hour of a day over a certain month (of many years’ data) is strongly skewed. It has, however, been assumed for a long time that the distribution of daily mean temperatures for a given month of many years is approximately normal. Thom (1952) applied the technique of Geary and Pearson (1938) for testing the normality of this distribution and quite conclusively proved that the hypothesis was correct.

In Australia the Bureau of Meteorology publishes the 14th and 86th percentile values of daily minimum and maximum temperatures, as well as the mean minima and maxima for each month (Climatic Averages, Australia). From this, the standard deviation of each can be found as:

The standard deviation of the overall temperature distribution can be found from:

and it depends on the correlation coefficient (r) between daily minima and maxima. Walsh and Spencer (1980) concluded after an extensive study, that the mean value: r = 0.4, gives an acceptable accuracy for all Australian locations.

and is expressed as a multiple of the standard deviation:

(see Fig.1), the probability density function will be

Fig.1

The tail area (Q) under the curve can be found by integral calculus, but Abramowitz and Stegun (1968) give a polynomial approximation:

and the error will be less than 10-5

This tail area would give the proportion of time above the base temperature, whereas we need the proportion below, which will be

= 18°C

As > 18°C and dT is negative. In this case we will use the absolute value of ‘x’ and the above calculation will give the tail area which, in this case, is the proportion of time below the base temperature: Φ = Q.

Fig.2

This fraction of the unit area can then be converted into Kelvin-hours as

Note: if x is negative and less than −2, the tail area would be very small and will be neglected.

3 COOLING DEGREE-HOURS

The concept of cooling degree-days is rather similar to the heating degree-days, but here the definition would be cumulative temperature excess above an agreed reference level or base temperature.

The base temperatures used by various authors for cooling degree-days widely differ. US DOE publications (e.g. project summaries) give degree-hour maps using 85°F (29.4°C) base temperature. At the other extreme Steadman (1978) refers to normal practice of taking 65°F (18.3°C) as the base for both heating and cooling degree-days. He proposes to adopt 18°C for heating and 20°C for cooling degree-days.

Walsh and Miller (1981) also refer to using the same base temperature for heating and cooling degree-days, but admit that the use of the latter is not nearly as well established as that of the former. Auliciems and Kalma (1981) recognise that in an overheated situation the warm air load is only one part of the total load, solar radiation would substantially increase this load. They calculate a sol-air temperature degree-hour number, using 25°C as the base temperature. Their assumptions for this calculation are however not stated.

When a building is cooled, i.e. Ti < To, the heat gain will consist of three major components:

1. conduction gain: Qc = qc [To - Ti] where qc = Σ[A·U]

2. ventilation gain: Qv = qv [To - Ti] where qv = 0.33·N·V

3. solar gain

- on windows: Qs = A·G·θ

is the sol-air excess temperature (in degree K)

θ is the solar gain factor for the window system.

The first two are proportionate to air temperature, therefore the integrated cooling requirement will be proportionate to the cooling degree-hours calculated from air temperatures. As the sol-air temperature is the air temperature + the sol-air excess temperature, the latter (the solar radiation effect) will have to be treated separately. This solar load will be a net extra load, regardless of a base temperature. Consequently, for the purposes of the air temperature degree-hours it is reasonable to select a base temperature equal to a warm-comfort temperature, which for the warm climates of Australia can safely be taken as 26°C.

For the treatment of solar radiation, several simplifying assumptions must be made:

1. that all windows will be fully shaded - in an overheated situation this would probably be so in all reasonable houses

2. that a well-designed house would have a north-south orientation, with an aspect ratio of about 1.4 (i.e. the length of the north and south walls being 1.4 times the length of the east and west walls)

3. that solar irradiation on the north and south walls will be negligible, as the sun’s path is so near the zenith that even ordinary eaves (0.4-0.5m) would fully shade these walls.

4. that the roof can be taken as a horizontal surface, as opposing slopes would compensate for each other.

So the surfaces which must be accounted for are the east and west walls and the roof. Some reasonable average values of absorptance and film conductance must be assumed for these surfaces:

The data gives monthly values of irradiation on a horizontal surface. Is there a simple relationship between the irradiation on an east (or west) facing vertical wall and that on the horizontal surface? Appendix 1 shows how this ratio was found to be

Hv/H = 0.62

on average, for northern Australian locations. If a slightly greater accuracy is required, it can be taken as a function of the latitude:

Hv/H = 0.46 + 0.01|LAT|

If the floor area of the house is given (A) and the length of the east and west walls is ‘b’ then from

Taking the height as 2.4m, the area of east plus west walls will be

In the sol-air excess temperature expression, if the integrated irradiation value (H, Wh/m²) is used in lieu of irradiance (G, W/m²), the result will be not in degrees but degree-hours.

If the horizontal irradiation is H, on the basis of the above study, the east and west walls will receive 0.62H. The value of H will be taken for the overheated period, i.e. for all months when the cooling degree-hour number is positive. From this a solar-excess degree-hour value is calculated as the weighted average of roof and east-west wall sol-air excess degree hours:

Taking an average house floor area as 120 m²

the denominator is m², thus the result will be in Kh (i.e. Kelvin-hours).

For each month the average horizontal irradiation multiplied by the number of days in the month and the above constant (0.01484) will give the number of solar excess degree-hours. For use of these values, see Section 11.

4 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT

At the earliest stage in design all that is wanted is a qualitative appreciation of the climate. This is best facilitated by graphic representation. Start with reading the qualitative comments on the data sheet. After this, an initial assessment can be obtained from the climate graph shown. The pattern of this graph should give an indication of the nature of the climate, even without looking at the numbers. This pattern of the graph can be compared with

a) graphs of the four basic climate types shown below (Fig.3)

Fig.3 Graphs of the four basic climate types

b) a graph of a familiar location.

In each case the difference or similarities can be noted.

If, according to (a) above, the graph is similar to one of the basic types, this may immediately suggest the type of design solution, along the lines of Fig.4. Where wind may be important, either as a relief from overheating or as winter wind which needs to be excluded, the am and pm wind roses readily indicate its directional distribution.

Fig.4 Design principles for the four climate types

If the climate does not fit neatly into any of the four basic categories, some of the single-figure indices (all near the right-hand side of the data sheet) may assist in an initial appreciation:

1. the annual mean temperature (framed on the data sheet) gives a broad indication of the thermal problem

2. the annual mean range of temperatures indicates the seasonal variability

3. the average diurnal range indicates the extent of night-to-day variations. If this is less than about 8K, mass will not be desirable, but the greater this value, the more beneficial a massive construction will be

4. the annual averages of am and pm humidities show whether humidity is a problem

5. the maximum wind gust speed would have structural implications, useful to keep in mind before starting a