Neutron and X-ray Optics
()
About this ebook
Covering a wide range of topics related to neutron and x-ray optics, this book explores the aspects of neutron and x-ray optics and their associated background and applications in a manner accessible to both lower-level students while retaining the detail necessary to advanced students and researchers. It is a self-contained book with detailed mathematical derivations, background, and physical concepts presented in a linear fashion. A wide variety of sources were consulted and condensed to provide detailed derivations and coverage of the topics of neutron and x-ray optics as well as the background material needed to understand the physical and mathematical reasoning directly related or indirectly related to the theory and practice of neutron and x-ray optics. The book is written in a clear and detailed manner, making it easy to follow for a range of readers from undergraduate and graduate science, engineering, and medicine. It will prove beneficial as a standalone reference or as a complement to textbooks.
- Supplies a historical context of covered topics.
- Detailed presentation makes information easy to understand for researchers within or outside the field.
- Incorporates reviews of all relevant literature in one convenient resource.
Related to Neutron and X-ray Optics
Related ebooks
An Introduction to Electrooptic Devices: Selected Reprints and Introductory Text By Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsTheory of Dielectric Optical Waveguides Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsNanomagnetism: Fundamentals and Applications Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsA User's Guide to Ellipsometry Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsOptical Characterization of Semiconductors: Infrared, Raman, and Photoluminescence Spectroscopy Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsCharacterization of Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nanostructures Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsHandbook on Plasma Instabilities Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsIntroduction to Electron and Ion Optics Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsElectrons In Metals And Alloys Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsFundamental Principles of Modern Theoretical Physics: International Series of Monographs in Natural Philosophy Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsBonds and Bands in Semiconductors Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsIntroduction to Light Trapping in Solar Cell and Photo-detector Devices Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsNanomagnetism and Spintronics Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsNonlinear Optics Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsHolographic Imaging Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsSemiconductors Probed by Ultrafast Laser Spectroscopy Pt I Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsIntroduction to the Properties of Crystal Surfaces: International Series on Materials Science and Technology Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsUnderstanding Light Microscopy Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsGuiding, Diffraction, and Confinement of Optical Radiation Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsNonlinear Optics: Fundamentals, Materials and Devices Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsOptical Diagnostics for Thin Film Processing Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsInternational Trends in Optics Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsThin Film Micro-Optics: New Frontiers of Spatio-Temporal Beam Shaping Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsLight Robotics - Structure-mediated Nanobiophotonics Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsSemiconductor Heterojunctions Rating: 1 out of 5 stars1/5Spectroscopy, Diffraction and Tomography in Art and Heritage Science Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsNMR for Liquid Fossil Fuels Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsSelf-Assembly of Nano- and Micro-structured Materials Using Colloidal Engineering Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsHigh Tc Superconductors: Electronic Structure Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratings
Physics For You
How to Diagnose and Fix Everything Electronic, Second Edition Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5What If?: Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Vibration and Frequency: How to Get What You Want in Life Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Physics I For Dummies Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Basic Physics: A Self-Teaching Guide Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Physics Essentials For Dummies Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Quantum Physics: A Beginners Guide to How Quantum Physics Affects Everything around Us Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5The Theory of Relativity: And Other Essays Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Quantum Physics for Beginners Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5The Reality Revolution: The Mind-Blowing Movement to Hack Your Reality Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Step By Step Mixing: How to Create Great Mixes Using Only 5 Plug-ins Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Moving Through Parallel Worlds To Achieve Your Dreams Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5The God Effect: Quantum Entanglement, Science's Strangest Phenomenon Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Welcome to the Universe: An Astrophysical Tour Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Feynman Lectures Simplified 1A: Basics of Physics & Newton's Laws Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Unlocking Spanish with Paul Noble Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5What the Bleep Do We Know!?™: Discovering the Endless Possibilities for Altering Your Everyday Reality Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Introducing Quantum Theory: A Graphic Guide Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5How to Teach Quantum Physics to Your Dog Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5The Layman's Guide To Quantum Reality Rating: 0 out of 5 stars0 ratingsBeyond Weird: Why Everything You Thought You Knew about Quantum Physics Is Different Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5String Theory For Dummies Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5The End of Everything: (Astrophysically Speaking) Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Flatland Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5
Reviews for Neutron and X-ray Optics
0 ratings0 reviews
Book preview
Neutron and X-ray Optics - Jay Theodore Cremer Jr.
Neutron and X-ray Optics
Jay Theodore Cremer, Jr.
Adelphi Technology, Redwood City, CA, USA
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
1. Introduction
1.1 Refractive Index for Neutrons and X-rays
1.2 CRLs—Thin-Lens Approximation: Focal Length, Ray Path Lengths, and Attenuation
1.3 CRL Arrays
1.4 Integration on the Complex Plane—Cauchy–Riemann Theorem, Cauchy Integration, and Residues
1.5 Derivation of the Complex Refractive Index of Material Medium (e.g., Lenses) Based on the Rayleigh Scatter of X-rays and Gammas
1.6 Refractive of Gammas via Rayleigh and Delbrück Scatter
1.7 Historical Introduction to Gamma Lenses—The Dirac Equation and the Delbrück Effect
References
2. Neutron Refractive Index in Materials and Fields
2.1 Calculation of General Refractive Decrement for Material or Magnetic Media
2.2 Comparison of the Electron, Neutron, X-ray, and Light Refractive Index
2.3 Neutron Decrement for Composite Materials, and Neutron Refraction Due to Decrement Gradient
2.4 Neutron Decrement and Refractive Index in a Gravitational Field
2.5 Neutron Spin and Magnetic Dipole Moment Vectors in Applied Magnetic Fields
2.6 Potential Energy, Force, and Decrement for Neutrons in Applied Magnetic Fields
2.7 The Bloch Equation and Neutron Precession in an Applied Magnetic Field
2.8 Temperature Effect on Neutron Spin and Magnetic Dipole Moment Orientation in an Applied Magnetic Field
2.9 The Bloch Equation and the Lorentz Force Equation
2.10 Average Spin Polarization of a Neutron in an Applied Magnetic Field
2.11 Equation of Motion of the Expected Value of the Neutron Spin Vector in an Applied Magnetic Field
2.12 Expected Values of Quantum Mechanical Quantities Follow Classical Trajectories
2.13 Average Spin Polarization of a Beam of Neutrons in an Applied Magnetic Field
2.14 Adiabatic and Nonadiabatic Polarization Rotation About Magnetic Field Lines That Change Direction
2.15 Magnetic Resonance
2.16 Ferromagnetic Materials—Domains, Magnetization, Permeability, Susceptibility
2.17 Law of Refraction of Magnetic Field Lines
2.18 Ferromagnetic Materials with Applied Magnetic Fields and the Hysteresis Loop
2.19 Calculation of the Magnetization Vector from Unpaired Atomic Electron Magnetic Dipole Moments
2.20 Calculation of the Tangential Component of the Magnetization Vector from Magnetic Field Boundary Conditions
2.21 Calculation of the Neutron Potential Energy and Magnetic Scatter Length from the Tangential Component of the Magnetization Vector
2.22 Refractive Decrement and Index for a Neutron in a Ferromagnetic Material
References
3. Magnetic Neutron Scatter from Magnetic Materials
3.1 Partial Differential Cross Section for Neutron Scatter in Magnetic Materials
3.2 The Transition Matrix Element for Neutron Magnetic Scatter
3.3 Boltzmann Thermal Distribution of Initial Scatter System States
3.4 Magnetic Fields of Unpaired Atomic Electrons in Magnetic Materials
3.5 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy due to the Total Electron Magnetic Dipole Moment
3.6 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Due to the Electron Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment
3.7 Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Due to the Electron Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment
3.8 Evaluation of the Matrix Element for the Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy
3.9 Electron Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator for Unpaired Atomic Electrons
3.10 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator and Magnetization Vector—the Spin Component
3.11 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator and Magnetization Vector—the Orbital Component
3.12 Magnetic Dipole Moment Operator Relation with Magnetization Vector
3.13 Evaluation of the Neutron Magnetic Potential Energy Operator
3.14 Evaluation of Transition Matrix Element with Neutron Spin Eigenstates
3.15 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section Expressed by a Magnetization Vector
3.16 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section Expressed by Electron Spin Density
3.17 Magnetization Determined from Measuring Bragg Peak Intensity
References
4. LS Coupling Basis for Magnetic Neutron Scatter
4.1 Summation and Coupling of Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum
4.2 Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum in Two- and Three-Electron Atoms
4.3 Spin and Orbital Angular Momentum for an N-Electron Atom
4.4 LS Coupling and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
4.5 Eigenfunctions and the Schrödinger Equation for a Two-Electron Atom
4.6 Antisymmetric and Symmetric Eigenfunctions Describe an Identical Electron Pair
4.7 Two-Electron Atom—Symmetric Spatial and Antisymmetric Spin Components
4.8 Two-Electron Atom—Antisymmetric Spatial and Symmetric Spin Components
4.9 N-Electron System Described by an Antisymmetric Total Eigenfunction
4.10 The Physical Basis of LS Coupling of Electron Spin and Orbital Motion
4.11 Derivation of Thomas Precession Factor for LS Coupling
4.12 An Alternative Derivation of the Thomas Precession Factor
4.13 Quenching of an Electron Orbital Momentum in a Crystal
4.14 Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials
References
5. LS-Coupled, Localized Electron, Magnetic Scatter of Neutrons
5.1 Heitler–London Model for Neutron Scatter by Magnetic Materials
5.2 Evaluation of the Unpaired, Atomic Electron, Magnetic Dipole Moment Transition Matrix Element
5.3 The Magnetic Form Factor
5.4 Partial and Differential Cross Section Expressions for a Quenched Magnetic Crystal
5.5 Evaluation of Partial and Differential Cross Section Expressions for a Quenched Magnetic Crystal—Separation of Unpaired, Atomic Electron Spatial and Spin Components
5.6 Evaluation of the Thermal Average of Initial State, Unpaired, Atomic Electron Positions
5.7 Partial Differential Cross Section for the LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin
5.8 Partial Differential Cross Section for an LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Current
5.9 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for an LS-Coupled, Heitler–London Model in a Quenched Crystal with Unpaired, Localized Atomic Electron Spin and Orbital Current
5.10 Expression of Partial Differential Cross Section by Intermediate Correlation Function
References
6. Magnetic Scatter of Neutrons in Paramagnetic Materials
6.1 General Expression for Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Paramagnetic Material in an Applied Magnetic Field
6.2 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Paramagnetic Material in an Applied Magnetic Field Expressed by the Total Spin Quantum Number for a Paramagnetic Atom
6.3 Coherent, Differential Cross Section for Elastic Neutron Scatter in Paramagnetic Material—With an Applied Magnetic Field at Low and High Temperatures
6.4 Coherent, Differential Cross Section for Elastic Neutron Scatter in Paramagnetic Material—No Applied Magnetic Field
6.5 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Scatter of Neutron Spin States from Localized Electrons in Paramagnetic Materials—No Applied Magnetic Field
References
7. Neutron Scatter in Ferromagnetic, Antiferromagnetic, and Helical Magnetic Materials
7.1 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic Neutron Scatter in Ferromagnetic Materials—Localized Unpaired Electrons
7.2 Antiferromagnetic Materials—Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Neutron Scatter from Localized Unpaired Electrons
7.3 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic and Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in a Bravais-Lattice Ferromagnetic Crystal—Localized Unpaired Electrons
7.4 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Magnetic and Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in a Non-Bravais-Lattice Ferromagnetic Crystal—Localized Unpaired Electrons
7.5 Production and Measurement of Polarized Neutrons by Ferromagnetic Materials
7.6 General Expression for the Coherent Differential Cross Section for Nuclear and Magnetic Elastic Scatter of Neutron Spin States in Ferromagnetic Materials—Localized or Delocalized Unpaired Electrons
7.7 Polarized Neutrons by Grazing Incidence Reflection via Nuclear Scatter of Neutron Spin States in Ferromagnetic Materials
7.8 Coherent, Elastic Differential Cross Section for Scatter of Neutron Spin States from Magnetic Materials with Helical-Oriented, Localized, Unpaired Electron Spins
References
8. Coherent, Inelastic, Magnetic Neutron Scatter, Spin Waves, and Magnons
8.1 Electron Spin, Magnetic Dipole Moment, and Precession in Applied Magnetic Field
8.2 No Magnetic Field—Unpaired Electron Spins Tend to Align in the Same Direction
8.3 Heisenberg Model of Unpaired Electron Spin in Magnetic Materials
8.4 Physical Basis of Exchange Integral in the Heisenberg Model
8.5 Expression of the Heisenberg Hamiltonian by Spin Operators
8.6 Ferromagnetic Materials—Spin Waves, Dispersion Relation, and Magnons
8.7 Antiferromagnetic Materials—Spin Wave Dispersion Relation
8.8 Exchange and Anisotropy Energy and Domain Formation in Magnetic Materials
8.9 Hamiltonian Eigenequation for 1-D Ferromagnetic Spin Lattice
8.10 Spin and Spin Deviation Operators, Creation and Annihilation Operators, Holstein–Primakoff Transformations, and Linear Approximation of Heisenberg Hamiltonian
8.11 Application of the Bloch Theorem to Express Creation and Annihilation Operators
8.12 The Heisenberg Hamiltonian Expressed as a Sum of Harmonic Oscillators
8.13 Coherent, Inelastic Partial Differential Cross Section for One-Magnon Absorption or Emission for Neutron Scatter in a Ferromagnetic Crystal
8.14 Coherent Inelastic Neutron Scatter—One-Magnon Exchange in Ferromagnetic Material
8.15 Integral Expression for Temperature Dependence of Spin and Magnetization in a Ferromagnetic Crystal Based on the Planck Distribution
8.16 Evaluation of Low-Temperature Spin and Magnetization of the Integral Expression for a Cubic Ferromagnetic Crystal— Dependence
8.17 Magnon Population Low-Temperature Dependence in a Ferromagnetic Cubic Crystal
References
9. Coherent, Elastic Scatter of Neutrons by Atomic Electric Field
9.1 Spin–Orbit Electric Field Scatter of Neutrons
9.2 Foldy Electric Field Scatter of Neutrons
9.3 Scatter of Neutrons by Nuclear and Electric Field Interactions in a Non-Bravais Lattice Crystal
References
10. Diffractive X-ray and Neutron Optics
10.1 Derivation of Helmholtz–Kirchhoff Integral Theorem
10.2 Derivation of the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation
10.3 The Obliquity Factor in the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation
10.4 The Paraxial Approximation Applied to the Kirchhoff–Fresnel Diffraction Equation
10.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Rectangular Aperture
10.6 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-ray or Neutron Line Source by a Parallel Single Slit
10.7 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-ray or Neutron Line Source by a Parallel Slit Pair
10.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction of an X-ray or a Neutron Line Source from N Parallel Slits
10.9 Fraunhofer Diffraction from Gratings Is Archetype for Coherent, Elastic Scatter of X-ray or Neutrons from Material Lattices
10.10 Abbe Theory of Imaging Applied to X-rays or Neutrons
10.11 Fraunhofer Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Circular Aperture
10.12 Huygens–Fresnel Approach: The Kirchhoff Equation for a Compound Refractive Lens with X-rays or Neutrons
10.13 Compound Refractive Fresnel Lens for X-rays and Neutrons
10.14 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Circular Aperture
10.15 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Rectangular Aperture
10.16 Fresnel Diffraction of X-rays or Neutrons from a Knife Edge
10.17 Fresnel Zone Plates (FZP) for X-rays or Neutrons
10.18 X-ray or Neutron Achromat Fabricated from FZPs and CRLs
10.19 The Helmholtz Differential Equation for X-rays and Neutrons
10.20 Derivation of the Helmholtz Paraxial Equation for a Gaussian, Spherical X-ray Laser Beam
10.21 Solution of the Helmholtz Paraxial Equation for a Gaussian, Spherical X-ray Laser Beam
References
11. Kirchhoff Equation Solution for CRL, Pinhole, and Phase Contrast Imaging
11.1 Kirchhoff Equation with a 1-D Biconcave, Parabolic, or Spherical CRL and Thin-Sample Approximation for X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.2 Derivation of Kirchhoff Equation with a 2-D Biconcave Parabolic or Spherical CRL for X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity—Thick Sample
11.3 Biconcave, Parabolic CRL—Image Amplitude Distribution for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.4 Point Spread Function (PSF) of the Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.5 PSF of a Pinhole for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.6 The Modulation Transfer Function
11.7 The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) with a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.8 Field of View (FOV) with a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.9 Image Intensity Distribution of a Biconcave, Parabolic CRL for Coherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.10 Biconcave, Parabolic CRL Image Intensity Distribution for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity—Coherent Amplitude Cross Terms Set to Zero
11.11 Without CRL—Phase Contrast Imaging for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
11.12 Special Case of a Merged Object Plane and Source Plane
11.13 Stationary Phase Approach Applied to an Image Amplitude Integral of a Spherical, Biconcave CRL for Incoherent X-rays or Neutrons with Gravity
References
12. Electromagnetic Fields of Moving Charges, Electric and Magnetic Dipoles
12.1 Maxwell’s Equations and the Lienard–Wiechert Potentials
12.2 The Lorentz Gauge and the Helmholtz Theorem
12.3 Calculation of Scalar and Vector Potentials of an Oscillating Electric Dipole
12.4 Calculation of a Magnetic Field of an Oscillating Electric Dipole via the Vector Potential
12.5 Calculation of the Electric Field Emitted from an Oscillating Electric Dipole
12.6 Conversion of Electric and Magnetic Fields from MKS Units to CGS Units
12.7 Near- and Far-Zone Electric Fields and Power Emission from an Oscillating Electric Dipole
12.8 Frequency and Wave-Number Domain Expressions for Electric and Magnetic Fields Emission and Power from the Oscillating Electric Dipole
12.9 Binomial Expansion of the Vector Potential of a Moving Charge Includes Contributions from Electric and Magnetic Dipole and Electric Quadrupole Moments
12.10 Transformation of the Fields and Vector Potential of the Electric Dipole to the Magnetic Dipole
12.11 Electric and Magnetic Fields and Power Emission from an Oscillating Magnetic Dipole
12.12 Derivation of the Electric Field of a Charge in Arbitrary Motion from Lienard–Wiechert Potentials
12.13 Derivation of the Magnetic Field of a Charged Particle in Arbitrary Motion from Lienard–Wiechert Potentials
12.14 Poynting Vector and Electromagnetic Energy Radiated from an Arbitrary Accelerated Charge per Solid Angle per Frequency Interval
12.15 Calculation of the Electron Trajectory in Synchrotron Ring Insertion Devices
12.16 Simplified Velocity-Dependent Expression for the per Solid Angle Frequency Spectrum Emitted by Accelerated Charged Particles
12.17 Bremsstrahlung and Electromagnetic Wave Polarization
12.18 Net Neutron Magnetic Dipole Moment Produced in an Ultracold Neutron Population with Applied Magnetic Field, and Possibilities for Population Inversion
12.19 Energy Radiated per Solid Angle for a Moving Magnetic Dipole Moment of Neutrons and Charged Particles
12.20 Relation of a Magnetization Vector of a Moving Charge with a Polarization Vector of a Stationary Charge
References
13. Special Relativity, Electrodynamics, Least Action, and Hamiltonians
13.1 Special Relativity—Minkowski Space and Invariant Space–Time Distance
13.2 Special Relativity—Length Contraction
13.3 Special Relativity—Time Dilation
13.4 Special Relativity—Lorentz Transformation of Space–Time Position
13.5 Special Relativity—Lorentz Transformation with Position and Velocity Four-Vectors
13.6 Special Relativity—Four-Vector and Lorentz Transformation Representation in Minkowski Space
13.7 Special Relativity—Velocity, Mass, Momentum, and Energy
13.8 Radiated Power from an Accelerated Charge Moving at Nonrelativistic Velocity via the Nonrelativistic Larmor Formula and Lorentz Transformation at an Instant of Time
13.9 Special Relativity—Electromagnetic Four-Vectors
13.10 Special Relativity—Electromagnetic Fields and Potentials as Four-Vectors
13.11 Special Relativity—The Electromagnetic Field Tensor
13.12 The Maxwell Stress Tensor
13.13 Force Density and the Maxwell Stress Tensor
13.14 The Principle of Least Action and the Lagrangian Yields Euler–Lagrange Equations
13.15 Derivation of the Hamiltonian from the Lagrangian
13.16 Derivation of the Lagrangian for Relativistic Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic Field
13.17 Euler–Lagrange Equation for Langrangian Density for Real Scalar Fields
References
14. The Klein–Gordon and Dirac Equations
14.1 Relativistic Correct Schrödinger Wave Equation—the Klein–Gordon Equation
14.2 The Dirac Wave Equation for Spin 1/2 Particles—Overview
14.3 Derivation of the Dirac Equation that Predicts Correct LS Coupling Term for Unpaired Atomic Electrons in Magnetic Neutron Scatter
14.4 Solution of the Dirac Equation for a Free Particle
14.5 A Useful Vector Property with the Pauli Spin Matrix
14.6 Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction—The Basis of LS Coupling
14.7 Second Term of the Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction that Includes an LS Coupling Term
14.8 Third Term of the Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction
14.9 Magnetic Field of a Proton Current in an Electron Rest Frame Expressed by the Proton Magnetic Dipole Moment Vector and Electron Orbit Radius
14.10 Evaluated Dirac Equation for Bound Electron–Proton Interaction that Predicts LS Coupling and Hyperfine Interactions
14.11 Equation of Motion for Electron Spin, Orbital, and Total Angular Momentum Vectors
14.12 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for the Hydrogen Atom—Step 1: Evaluation of in the Dirac Hamiltonian
14.13 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for the Hydrogen Atom—Step 2: Evaluation of in a Dirac Hamiltonian Term
14.14 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for a Hydrogen Atom—Step 3: Introduction of the Squared Angular Momentum Operator in a Dirac Hamiltonian
14.15 Derivation of the Dirac Equation for a Hydrogen Atom—Step 4: Obtain a Pair of Coupled First-Order Differential Equations from the Developed Dirac Hamiltonian
14.16 Asymptotic Solution—A Coupled, Dirac Eigenequation Pair for the Hydrogen Atom
14.17 Regular Solution of the Coupled, Dirac Eigenequation Pair and Electron Energy Formula for the Hydrogen Atom
14.18 Quantum Number Relationships in the Dirac Electron Energy Formula for a Hydrogen Atom
14.19 The Nuclear Electric Quadrupole Potential
References
15. Neutron and X-ray Optics in General Relativity and Cosmology
15.1 Special and General Relativity—History and Relation to Neutron and X-ray Optics
15.2 Equivalence Principle, Manifolds, Parallel Vector Translation, and Covariant Derivatives
15.3 Surfaces and Gauss’s Remarkable Theorem, Gaussian Curvature, and Metric Coefficients
15.4 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems
15.5 Metric Tensor and Invariant Distance in Coordinate System Transformations
15.6 Metric Tensor and Invariant Area and Volume in Coordinate System Transformations
15.7 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems and the Jacobian Determinant
15.8 Metric Coefficients, Jacobian Determinant, and Cartesian-to-Curvilinear Coordinate System Transformation
15.9 Variation of Physical Quantity by Displacement—Scalar and Vector Fields
15.10 Invariance, Summation Convention, and Contravariant Vectors
15.11 Natural Basis Vectors are Tangent to Surfaces in a Contravariant Vector Space
15.12 Geometric View of Contravariant Representation of a Vector
15.13 Geometric View of Covariant (Dual) Representation of a Vector
15.14 Covariant Vectors Transformation Is Similar to the Gradient of a Scalar Function
15.15 Dual Basis Vectors are Normal to Surfaces in the Covariant Vector Space
15.16 Covariant and Contravariant Tensors, Pseudo and Polar Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors
15.17 Natural and Dual Basis Vectors are Reciprocals
15.18 Natural and Dual Basis Vectors and the Metric Tensor
15.19 Differentials in Curvilinear Coordinates, Curved Surfaces, and Parallel Transport
15.20 Absolute and Covariant Derivatives of Vectors with Contravariant Representation
15.21 Absolute and Covariant Derivatives of Vectors and Tensors with Covariant Representation
15.22 Geodesic Curves and Connection Coefficients Expressed by a Metric Tensor
15.23 Gradient of a Vector in Curvilinear Coordinates
15.24 Cylindrical Coordinate System—Covariant and Contravariant Metric Coefficients and Connection Coefficients
15.25 Spherical Coordinate System—Covariant and Contravariant Metric Coefficients and Connection Coefficients
15.26 Newton’s Laws and Maxwell’s Equations in General Relativity
15.27 The Curvature, Ricci, and Einstein Tensors and the Curvature or Ricci Scalar
15.28 The Stress Tensor, Universe Fluid Model, and the Equation of Continuity and Motion
15.29 Einstein Field Equations
15.30 Hilbert Derived Einstein Field Equations from the Principle of Least Action
15.31 Gravity Waves Derived from Linearized Einstein Field Equations for the Weak Gravity Condition
15.32 Schwarzschild Solution to Einstein Field Equations and Experimental Predictions
15.33 The Friedmann Equation and Cosmological Issues
References
16. Radiation Imaging Systems and Performance
16.1 Liouville’s Theorem, the Vlasov Equation, and the Continuity Equation
16.2 Fraction of Source Intensity Intercepted and Focused by Lens
16.3 Depth of Field of a Lens
16.4 Radiation Dose Rate and Radiation Shielding
16.5 Imaging System Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
16.6 Rose Model, Contrast, Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE), and Noise Power Spectrum (NPS)
16.7 Derivation of DQE from NPS, Contrast, Gain, and MTF
16.8 Criteria for Sample Feature Imaging
16.9 Imaging System Performance—Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC), Positive and Negative Likelihood, and Positive and Negative Predictive Value Curves
16.10 Reliable Detection of a Signal in the Presence of Background and Noise
References
17. Neutron and Charged Particle Magnetic Optics
17.1 Charged Particle Motion in Axial Symmetric Magnetic Field—Busch’s Theorem
17.2 Paraxial Ray Equation and Focusing of Charged Particles by an Axial Symmetric Magnetic Field
17.3 Paraxial Ray Equation for Azimuthally Symmetric Magnetic and Electric Fields and Busch’s Theorem Derived from the Least-Action Principle
17.4 Multipole Magnetic Fields and Lenses for Charged Particles
17.5 FODO Quadrupole Magnetic Lens Pair for Charged Particles
17.6 Neutron Trajectory in Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Gradient Focusing of Neutrons
17.7 Neutron Compound Cylindrical Magnetic Lens
17.8 Calculation of Magnetic Fields of Planar Magnets by Paired Magnetic Charge Sheets
17.9 1-D Magnetic Gravitational Trap for Ultracold Neutrons
17.10 Electron Trajectory in Wigglers and Undulator X-ray Sources
17.11 Derivation of Emitted X-ray Wavelength, Bandwidth, and Cone Angle for the Undulator
17.12 X-ray Power and Differential Power Emission per Solid Angle from an Undulator
References
Copyright
Elsevier
32 Jamestown Road London NW1 7BY
225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA
First edition 2013
Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangement with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-407164-3
For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com
This book has been manufactured using Print On Demand technology. Each copy is produced to order and is limited to black ink. The online version of this book will show color figures where appropriate.
1
Introduction
This Insights book is a continuation of the Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics
volumes (AIEP) 172, 173, and 175 of the work on neutron and X-ray microscopy and optics by this author. This material is intended for a wide international readership of varying backgrounds, specialties, and educations, in which English may be a second language. The Insights book attempts to provide rapid assimilation of the presented topics that include neutron and X-ray scatter, refraction, diffraction, and reflection and their potential application.
AIEP volume 172 (Cremer, 2012b) first introduces experiments with thermal neutron and X-ray geometric, refractive, reflective, and diffractive optics, as well as neutron and X-ray microscopy, phase contrast, and thermal and fast neutron radiographic imaging. What follows is a presentation of compound refractive lenses (CRLs) and prisms followed by the monochromatic and geometric aberrations of geometric X-ray and neutron optics. This Insights volume will cover the diffractive neutron and X-ray optics and, using the Huygens–Fresnel approach, the Kirchhoff equation solutions for compound refractive X-ray and neutron lenses, which include the geometric, diffractive, monochromatic, and chromatic aberrations.
Next, the X-ray complex scatter factor and refractive index are derived, and presented are the scatter cross sections for X-rays, including X-ray attenuation processes. In addition, X-ray reflection and transmission at interfaces are included. Next, this volume derives the Schrödinger wave equation for neutron plane waves, neutron phase and group velocity, neutron reflection and transmission at interfaces, and neutron reflectometry, as well as X-ray and neutron interferometry, perfect crystals, and the Fizeau effect. Finally, the general refractive index for neutrons and X-rays in materials is derived, and useful formulas and the comparison of the scatter and attenuation process of neutrons and X-rays, multilayer mirrors, capillary optics, and Kumakhov lenses for neutrons and X-rays are presented, and then there is a discussion of bright-field, dark-field, and phase contrast microscopy for neutrons and X-rays.
AIEP volume 173 (Cremer, 2012c) starts with coverage on sources, scattering, detection, and radiographic imaging of fast neutrons, as well as the use of fast neutrons in nuclear resonant detection of isotopes. Next comes a detailed presentation of thermal neutron scatter, which includes neutron complex scatter lengths and scatter amplitudes, and refractive index in materials, and then onto a review of the relevant quantum mechanics, such as the Heisenberg, Schrödinger, and interaction pictures, creation and annihilation operators of the harmonic oscillator, and the derivation of the Breit–Wigner equation and Fermi’s Golden Rule. The Eikonal equation for neutron optics is presented, and the general solution of the Schrödinger wave equation for plane wave neutron scatter from nuclei is derived in detail and includes derivation of the complex scatter amplitudes, neutron scatter lengths, phase shift angles, and the optical theorem.
Next, is derived the total, differential, and partial differential cross sections for coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic neutron scatter in materials. Then, the crystal and its unit cell, and the regular and reciprocal lattices for Bravais and non-Bravais lattice crystals, the Ewald sphere, the Wigner–Seitz cell and the first Brillouin zone, and the Bragg and Laue diffraction conditions are presented prior to coverage of neutron diffraction from crystals. The partial differential, differential, and total cross sections, are derived for coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic neutron scatter in Bravais and non-Bravais crystals with 1-D and 3-D, which is based on the kinematic model. These crystal neutron scatter cross sections are first derived without thermal effects and then derived with the inclusion of thermal effects via the Debye–Waller factor.
The coherent and incoherent inelastic scatter and phonon–neutron scatter are also covered. The 1-D and 3-D thermal vibration modes in crystals are covered, and the cubic crystal lattice is examined in particular, which also includes Hooke’s law and the derivation of the cubic crystal stress tensor and elastic waves. Neutron residual stress analysis is discussed, along with the topics of coupled Ewald equations, extinction, and broadening of diffraction peaks in perfect crystals. Next, the dynamic model of neutron and X-ray scatter in perfect crystals is presented. The average nuclear potential and the time-independent Schrödinger equation and the solution for dynamic neutron scatter in a perfect crystal, which includes anomalous absorption, primary extinction, and Pendellösung interference, are detailed.
Next, the neutron transport equation for neutron scatter in mosaic crystals in terms of the neutron scatter and absorption cross section per unit volume is derived and then solved to yield the generalized Darwin equation. Single Bragg reflection applied to the generalized Darwin equations yields the ordinary Darwin equations, which are solved for the one-beam (off-Bragg) and two-beam (Bragg) cases for a planar mosaic crystal. Finally, the partial differential, differential, and total cross sections for kinematic neutron scatter from averaged nuclear potential in crystals are derived.
AIEP volume 175, chapter 1, starts with the coverage of the correlation, scatter, and intermediate functions of small-angle neutron scatter. Small-angle X-ray and neutron scatter from general samples are covered, followed by the Rayleigh–Gans theories, Babinets’ principle, and the differential cross section of X-ray or neutron small-angle scattering from a solute–solvent sample. The resolution of the scatter vector for a small-angle neutron scatter (SANS) instrument for X-rays or neutrons is derived. Next, we present the neutron scatter length density, particle structure factor, and scatter amplitudes and intensity. Also covered are random variables, correlation, and independence, followed by derivation of the macroscopic differential cross section for neutron scatter, which involves convolution and cross-correlation. Next, the coherent and incoherent, elastic and inelastic components of the pair correlation function, intermediate function, and scatter function, the relationships between these functions, and the measured neutron small-angle scatter intensities from neutron scattering sample are discussed.
AIEP volume 175, chapter 1 then covers the Guinier, Intermediate, and Porod regimes of the sample-averaged intermediate function, the method of contrast variation, and Porod’s law. Coherent neutron scatter measurements are shown to yield the solute particle size and shape in the Guinier regime, and incoherent neutron scatter measurements are shown to yield the incoherent scatter function, which give particle diffusion information. Also derived is the principle of detailed balance and covered are the static approximation, the particle number density operator and pair correlation function, and the moments of the neutron scatter function. The neutron coherent differential cross section in crystals is shown to be expressed by particle density operators, and neutron elastic scatter is shown to be only in the forward direction for liquids and gases by the coherent intermediate and scatter functions.
In the second chapter of AIEP volume 175, are derived the partial differential cross sections for neutron scatter from a nucleus, which accounts for the neutron spin and the nuclear spin. Covered first are the preliminary background topics of angular momentum vectors, spin vectors, and vector operators, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and commutation of operators, the neutron spin operator, and the neutron spin lowering and raising operators. Next are derived, the partial differential cross section for nuclear scatter of the neutron spin-up and spin-down states, and derived are polarized neutron scatter and the partial differential cross section, which includes both the neutron spin state and nuclear spin state, via the combined neutron spin operator and nuclear spin operators. Next, the neutron nuclear scatter length, which accounts for the neutron spin states, is covered. Thermal averaging is then taken into account, and the total partial differential cross section for neutron spin state scatter is derived, as well as the neutron spin state scatter lengths for an ensemble of nuclear spins and isotopes. Finally, derived are the partial differential, differential, and total cross sections for neutron coherent and incoherent scatter from an ensemble of atoms of varying nuclear spins and isotopes, which accounts for neutron spin states.
The Insights book augments, supplements, and continues coverage of the neutron and X-ray topics in AIEP volumes 172, 173, and 175, and extends this coverage to relevant topics from a variety of branches of physics. The Insights book also presents magnetic neutron scatter, neutron refractive index in materials and fields, electric field neutron scatter, and neutron magnetic optics, X-ray optics and gamma optics, and neutron and X-ray refractive lenses and microscopy. Also included in this book is a detailed discussion of associated material, which includes (1) neutron spin echo, tomography, and holography; (2) diffractive X-ray and neutron optics; (3) Kirchoff equation solutions for X-ray and neutron refractive lenses; (4) the Klein Gordon and Dirac equations applied to magnetic neutron scatter; (5) electrodynamics with particular coverage of Lienard–Wiechert potentials and electric and magnetic fields from moving and accelerated charges, magnetic dipole moments, and dipole interaction; (6) Hamiltonians and least action; (7) special relativity transformation of electric and magnetic fields between moving inertial frames; (8) a general relativity primer for X-ray and neutron optics applied to astronomy; (9) novel X-ray sources, such as transition, channel and parametric sources for X-ray optics; (10) neutron and charged particle beam focusing and imaging optics; and (11) radiation imaging systems and performance.
This Insights book and the AIEP volumes 172, 173, and 175 use MKS units, unless specified otherwise. The extensive mathematical physics that is presented in this book may require in many cases a computer to solve, simulate, model, or calculate. For scientific programming and numerical computation in the FORTRAN computer language, see Press et al. (1989), and for the rhea C computer language, see Press et al. (1992). For a general survey of scientific programming and numerical computation, see Burden and Faires (1997) and Gerard and Wheatley (1994).
This first chapter covers the basics of refractive material lenses for X-rays, neutrons, and gammas, and covers parabolic and spherical, biconcave and biconvex CRL. In particular, the focal lengths, limiting aperture diameters due to absorption, and parabolic focusing are derived for CRLs for neutrons, X-rays, and gammas. Also presented is a 3-D array of CRLs, which allow imaging and magnification of extended objects, which is based on the 3-D microlens arrays which are used for visible light in fax machines and photocopiers. The complex refractive index and scatter cross section for X-rays are derived using the electromagnetic wave equation and the atomic electron oscillator equation. Maxwell’s equations are presented and are used to derive the electromagnetic wave equation and the energy balance equation for the electromagnetic wave. A review of integration on the complex plane, which is specific to deriving the complex refractive index for photons, is presented.
In Chapter 1, the optical theorem, also known as the shadow theorem, is derived. The optical theorem allows one to calculate the total cross section for scatter and absorption of an X-ray or neutron wave from the scatter factor or scatter amplitude. Also, the Kramers–Kronig relation is derived. The optical theorem allows one to calculate the real refractive part of the complex refractive index from the imaginary attenuation component. The attenuation component of the complex refractive index is more readily measured than the attenuating component. For example, the very tiny total cross section for attenuation of neutrinos in theory would allow the calculation of the very tiny refractive part of the complex refractive index of neutrinos as a function of neutrino energy.
Chapter 1 closes with the application of the optical theorem and the Kramers–Kronig relations in gamma ray refractive optics (gamma CRLs). The complex refractive index for gammas, which is based on the Delbrück effect of photon–photon scatter, is specifically gamma scatter by the nuclear electric field. Finally, we present the first experimental results of the refractive deflection of gammas with a prism, which use an intense Compton backscatter gamma source.
This section closes with images taken with (1) neutron CRL, (2) X-ray CRL, (3) X-ray Fresnel zone plates, (4) thermal neutron radiography, (5) fast neutron radiography, (6) neutron phase contrast imaging, and (7) X-ray phase contrast imaging. The experiments and details regarding these images can be found in Chapter 1 of AIEP volume 172. Figure 1.1 shows refractive imaging of very cold, cold, and thermal neutrons with a CRL, which acts as the objective lens in a simple neutron microscope set up for obtaining magnified images (Mag ×). Refractive imaging of cold neutrons in Figure 1.1 can be found in Eskildsen et al. (1998), Choi et al. (2000), Beguiristain et al. (2002), Cremer et al. (2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2010), and Park et al. (2006). Refractive imaging with very cold neutrons in Lal et al. (2007) and thermal neutrons in Cremer et al. (2007, 2007a) are covered in section 2 of chapter 1 of Cremer (2012b).
Figure 1.1 A collection of neutron CRLs, microscopes, and their magnified images.
Figure 1.2 shows examples of refractive imaging with X-ray CRLs as well as photos of the various individual X-ray lenses stacked to form a CRL. The refractive imaging of X-rays in Figure 1.2 can be found in Snigirev et al. (1996, 1997, 2009), Lengeler et al. (1999, 2001), Schroer et al. (2000, 2002, 2003), Piestrup et al. (2005), Gary et al. (2007), and section 3 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b).
Figure 1.2 A collection of X-ray CRLs, microscopes, and their magnified images.
Figure 1.3 shows the use of a CRL to magnify a phase contrast image, produced by a synchrotron X-ray source (Schroer et al., 2000), the alligator CRL (Pereira et al., 2001), and the vinyl LP CRL (Cederström et al., 2000). Also see section 3 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b).
Figure 1.3 The use of CRL in phase contrast imaging of X-rays and the alligator (vinyl LP) CRL.
Examples of diffractive imaging of X-rays are shown in Figure 1.4. Also see section 7 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). In Figure 1.4 (left panel), the differential phase contrast (DPC) imaging with a grating are shown. Conventional transmission X-ray image (left fish) and DPC image (right fish) were obtained by Pfeiffer et al. (2006). In Figure 1.4 (right panel), the X-ray microscopy with Fresnel zone plates by the XM-1 bright-field, soft X-ray microscope at Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is shown. The blood cell images are from C. Magowan, W. Meyer-Llse, and J. Brown of LBNL; see http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/zoneplate and http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/BL612/bioimaging.html.
Figure 1.4 Examples of diffractive imaging of X-rays with gratings and Fresnel zone plates.
In Figure 1.5, examples of phase contrast images with X-rays are shown. The X-ray phase contrast diagram and fish images in Figure 1.5 (left panel) are from the CSIROpedia Web site of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in Australia (http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/display/CSIROpedia/X-ray+phase-contrast+imaging). For X-ray phase contrast imaging, see Wilkins et al. (1996), Wilkins (1996), Gureyev and Wilkins (1998a,1998b), Gureyev et al. (2008), and section 7 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). The wasp and spider images in Figure 1.5 (right panel) are from the Web site of Excillum AB of Kista, Sweden (http://www.excillum.com/contact.html).
Figure 1.5 Examples of phase contrast imaging with X-rays.
In Figure 1.6, examples of cold and thermal neutron phase contrast imaging are shown. Also see section 4 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). In Figure 1.6 (left panel), the diagram and images are taken from a 2000 NIST Research Highlights article reporting on first-phase contrast imaging experiments with cold neutrons by Allman et al. (2000). In Figure 1.6 (right panel), the phase contrast images are contrasted with contact images Kardjilov (2003). The neutron wave is refracted by the edge portion of the sample toward the detector in directions that are at a small angle relative to the incident direction of the wave front before sample incidence. Refraction of neutrons by the strong refractive gradient of the edge feature causes an amplitude shadow of the edge feature at the detector. The interference of the amplitudes of the edge-refracted wave front and the transmitted wave front on either side of the edge feature leads to amplitude modulation and a modulated intensity at the detector, that is, a phase contrast image of the edge feature.
Figure 1.6 Examples of cold and thermal neutron, phase contrast imaging.
In Figure 1.7, examples of thermal neutron radiography are shown. The images in Figure 1.7 (left panel) are from the McClellan Nuclear Radiation Center (MNRC) at the University of California at Davis (UC Davis; http://mnrc.ucdavis.edu). They show the comparison between a neutron contact radiograph (contrasts hydrogen-based fluid) and X-ray contact radiograph (contrasts high-Z materials) of a lighter. The lower left photo shows the MNRC TRIGA reactor core with a blue glow from the Cherenkov radiation sonic boom or bow wave
of charged particles, which exceed the phase velocity of light. Thermal neutron radiography can find missing glue in aircraft parts and stopped-up cooling channels in the aircraft turbine blade. In Figure 1.7 (right panel), contact thermal neutron radiography images of a rat paw, sea horse, and mouse are shown; they were taken at Bay 4 of the MNRC by Cremer et al. (2007), which is presented in section 4 of chapter 1 in Cremer (2012b). The thermal neutrons from the reactor have a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution centered about 1.2 Å, where a sapphire crystal filters out gammas from the reactor and helps moderate the thermal neutrons to the room-temperature wavelength of 1.8 Å. The thermal neutrons in the reactor water are above room temperature, and the incident flux of 10⁵ n/cm²/s at the radiographic sample, with L/D=270 collimation (distance L/ source_size D), are slightly warmer with distribution center wavelength 1.2 Å. Hydrogen has an 80.26 barn scatter cross section, and a 0.33 barn absorption cross section; hence, the thermal neutrons are strongly attenuated by scatter from hydrogen in the mouse.
Figure 1.7 Examples of thermal neutron radiography.
Fast neutron imaging examples are shown in Figure 1.8; see section 5 in chapter 1 of Cremer (2012b). Disdier et al. (2003, 2004) used fast neutron imaging with liquid scintillator–filled capillary arrays to image the shape of imploding DT capsules in inertial confinement fusion experiments at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics at Rochester University with the Omega laser. Using the neutron source at the Ohio University Accelerator Laboratory (OUAL) in Athens, OH, Hall (2001) and Hall et al. (2001) obtained 10 MeV neutron radiographic and tomographic images of various phantoms, and Eberhardt et al. (2005) at CSIRO developed a combined gamma and fast neutron interrogation system for inspecting air cargo at the Brisbane airport in Australia. Dangendorf et al. (2002) exploited the fast neutron energy bands of higher and lower cross sections to obtain difference images of carbon rods. Lintech and Adelphi Technology have developed fast and thermal neutron imaging cameras see Popov et al. (2011) and Cremer et al. (2009, 2012). The phoswich detector developed by the Applied Physics Institute of Western Kentucky University by Barzilov et al. (2009) can discriminate, detect, and count the gamma, thermal, and fast neutron components from a radiation source, via pulse shape discrimination, and a plastic and lithium glass scintillator, optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube.
Figure 1.8 Examples of fast neutron imaging and radiography.
1.1 Refractive Index for Neutrons and X-rays
For derivation of the general refractive index for X-rays, gammas, and neutrons, see section 1 of Chapter 6 of AIEP volume 172, of a material for gammas (or neutrons) is
(1.1)
, where
(1.2)
, where
(1.3)
and
(1.4)
from the adjoining vacuum, is then
(1.5)
is the number of wavelengths per unit distance in the direction of ray propagation, where
(1.6)
, where
(1.7)
, where
(1.8)
Given n=1−δ), where
(1.9)
(1.10)
is the speed of the phase of the wave. Hence, the wave phase velocity can be less than or greater than the vacuum speed of light.
by
(1.11)
. Substitution of Eq. (1.7) into Eq. (1.11) gives
(1.12)
For propagation in the zbecomes
(1.13)
With substitution of for a neutron] wave inside the material medium becomes
(1.14)
One plugs into of Eq. (1.4) and uses the binomial approximation, via
(1.15)
of Eq. (1.14) becomes
(1.16)
The argument of the attenuation exponential of , where
(1.17)
From section 3 of Chapter 6 in AIEP volume 172, (both elastic and inelastic), where
(1.18)
Using of Eq. (1.16) becomes
(1.19)
, where
(1.20)
, where
(1.21)
From section 2 of Chapter 6 of AIEP volume 172, is
(1.22)
.
Recall from Eq. (1.462) of section 22 in Chapter 2 of AIEP volume 173, Cremer (2012c), that the complex scatter length b [fm] has units of length and is given by
(1.23)
Recall from of the incident neutron plane waves, where
(1.24)
is then
(1.25)
. individual thin unit lenses, which share a common optical axis and are used to form a compound refractive X-ray lens.
Figure 1.9 of the transmitted intensity along the center lens (optical) axis (Piestrup et al., 2001).
, which is the radius of curvature at the vertex of the paraboloid lens surface, where
(1.26)
Incident plane waves of X-rays, gammas, visible light, or neutrons are focused by the CRLs to a focal point on the optical axis. The closely spaced series of N of the CRL, where
(1.27)
lenses makes the focusing, collecting, and imaging of objects practical with X-rays, neutrons, or gammas, which have very small refractive decrements. See Figs. 1.9 and 1.10.
Figure 1.10 and require biconvex lenses to focus.
, where
(1.28)
, where
(1.29)
, where
(1.30)
of the neutron de Broglie plane wave:
(1.31)
of the equivalent neutron de Broglie plane wave, where
(1.32)
stands for millielectron volts. Recall that in , where
(1.33)
, or
(1.34)
relative to the target nucleus, or
(1.35)
, or
(1.36)
, where
(1.37)
, where
(1.38)
By the de Broglie relation of Eq. (1.28), the neutron velocity is inversely proportional to its wavelength:
(1.39)
.
of the ith isotope nuclei that comprise the lens material is then
(1.40)
Since the neutron or X-ray cross sections can vary widely for the same material, depending on the material structure and atom density nonuniformity, one should measure the candidate lens material scatter and absorption on a small-angle scatter beam line for neutrons or X-rays. For details of neutron attenuation cross sections for neutron monochromators and filters, see Freund (1983).
neutrons. The linear attenuation for a single element isotope is
(1.41)
, where
(1.42)
From , or
(1.43)
. Hence,
(1.44)
In at 293 K, respectively. Note that 1 barn=10−24 cm² and 1 fm=10−15 m.
Table 1.1
Listed are Neutron Bound Scattering Lengths and Absorption Cross Sections for Some Specimen- and CRL-Relevant Elements in Their Natural States
at room-temperature wavelength λ=1.8 Å. Neutron lenses, which are comprised of these elements, provide relatively strong refraction with minimal attenuation.
isotopes, such that each ifor a mixture is
(1.45)
for a mixture is
(1.46)
. Thus, these tabulated numbers in Table 1.1 are the weighted averages of all the natural occurring elements’ constituent stable isotopes.
In because of (1) the increase of dimensionless δ with increasing λwith increasing λ. Most materials have a positive decrement δ>0 with a refractive index n=1−δ<1 and thus require spherical or parabolic biconcave lenses for focusing and imaging. The exceptions are titanium, vanadium, and manganese, which have a negative decrement δ<0, with a refractive index n=1−δ, where beryllium, carbon, and aluminum are also good lens materials for X-rays.
Figure 1.11 .
1.2 CRLs—Thin-Lens Approximation: Focal Length, Ray Path Lengths, and Attenuation
. For the case of a biconcave lens, see the schematic in Figure 1.12, and for the case of a biconvex lens, see the schematic in Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.12 is the physical radius of the lens.