Women and Health
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About this ebook
Women and Health is a comprehensive reference that addresses health issues affecting women of all ages — from adolescence through maturity. It goes far beyond other books on this topic, which concentrate only on reproductive health, and has a truly international perspective. It covers key issues ranging from osteoporosis to breast cancer and other cancers, domestic violence, sexually transmitted diseases, occupational hazards, eating disorders, heart disease and other chronic illnesses, substance abuse, and societal and behavioral influences on health.
In this second edition of Women and Health, chapters thoughtfully explore the current state of women’s health and health care, including the influences of sex and gender on the occurrence of a wide variety of diseases and conditions. All chapters have been extensively updated and emphasize the epidemiology of the condition — the etiology, occurrence, primary and secondary prevention (screening), risk factors, surveillance, changing trends over time, and critical analysis of the diagnostic and treatment options and controversies. Treatment sections in each chapter have been expanded to create a stronger dialogue between epidemiologists and women's health practitioners.
- Saves researchers and clinicians time in quickly accessing the very latest details on a broad range of women’s health issues, as opposed to searching through thousands of journal articles
- Provides a common language for epidemiologists, public health practitioners, and women’s health specialists to discuss the behavioral, cultural, and biological determinants of women’s health
- Researchers and medical specialists will learn how the gender-specific risks and features of one organ system’s diseases affect the health of other organ systems
- For example: Hormone replacement therapy used to treat imbalance within the endocrine system is also being used to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease; Drugs developed for type 2 diabetes are now being used in chemoprevention
- Orients the non-gerontologist about the importance of considering the entire life cycle of women within research designs and treatment plans
- Professors teaching courses in women’s health will use slides and additional materials to structure lectures/courses; students will use slides as a unique resource to study for exams
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Women and Health - Marlene B. Goldman
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Front-matter
Copyright
Dedication
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
List of Contributors
Introduction
20th Century Achievements
21st Century Challenges
In Closing
Part I: Women, Health, and Medicine
Section 1: Introduction to Women’s Health
Chapter 1. Women’s Health in the 21st Century
Why Women’s Health?
The Second Edition
An Overview of the Health of Women
Future Directions in the Study of Women’s Health
References
Chapter 2. The Mutability of Women’s Health with Age: The Sometimes Rapid, and Often Enduring, Health Consequences of Injustice
Sex, Gender and Survival
Age, Health and Weathering
Stress Physiology and Aging
Global Application of Weathering
References
Chapter 3. Current Approaches to Women’s Health Care
Women’s Health through a Health Services Lens
Changes in the Paradigm of Women’s Health
Women’s Interactions with the Health Care System
New Models for Women’s Health Services and Research
Future Considerations and Challenges
Women Become Active Stakeholders in their Care
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 4. The Impact of Health Coverage on Women’s Access to Care in the US
Introduction
Health Coverage for Women Today
Insurance Regulations Affecting Services of Importance to Women
How Coverage Affects Use of Health Care Services
Costs and Other Barriers to Care
Coverage Concerns for Older Women
Health Reform and Women’s Coverage
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5. Complementary, Alternative, and Integrative Medicine and Women’s Health
Introduction/Background
CAM Modalities in Women
Clinical Conditions Difficult to Manage Solely with Conventional Medicine
Epidemiologic Issues, Including Research Methodology and Public Health Impact
Summary and Conclusions/Future Directions
References
Chapter 6. Research on the Health of Sexual Minority Women
Importance of Studying the Health of Sexual Minority Women
Who are Sexual Minority Women?
History of Research on the Health of Sexual Minority Women
Specific Health Concerns for Sexual Minority Women
Barriers and Facilitators to Health Care Access
Future of Research on Sexual Minority Health
References
Section 2: Research Methods in Women’s Health
Chapter 7. Understanding Research Designs
Introduction
Terminology
The Randomized Trial Design
The Cohort Design
The Case-Control Design
The Cross-Sectional Design
Case Reports and Case Series
The Ecological Design
Sources of Error in Epidemiologic Studies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8. Progress in Women’s Health Research
Introduction
Gender Disparity in Health Research
Intervention Studies
Observational Studies
Remedying the Disparity: Advocacy, Seminal Studies, NIH Response
Women’s Health Movement
Seminal Studies Restricted to Women
Office of Research on Women’s Health
Inclusion of Women in Clinical Trials
Increase in Number of Women Researchers
Lessons Learned and Future Challenges
Research Agenda
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9. Life Course Approach to Research in Women’s Health
Introduction
Life Course Epidemiology
Life Course Theory and Models
Life Course Influences on Health
Life Course Reproductive Characteristics and Health
Life Course Methodology and Study Design
Prevention and Policy
References
Chapter 10. Principles of Genetics and Genomics
Introduction
Understanding the Human Genome
The Genetic Contribution to Disease
Other ‘Omics’ Initiatives
Clinical and Public Health Implications
Acknowledgments
References
Part II: Sexual and Reproductive Health
Section 3: Introduction: Sexual and Reproductive Health
Section 3. Introduction: Sexual and Reproductive Health
Chapter 11. Puberty and Adolescent Pregnancy
Hormonal Regulation of Growth at Adolescence
Biological Maturation and Maturity Indicators
Adolescent Changes in Linear Growth and Body Composition
Characteristics Influencing Adolescent Growth and Maturation
Factors Influencing Secular Change in Growth and Maturation
Short Term Consequences of Early Maturation
Long Term Consequences of Early Maturation
References
Chapter 12. Menstruation and Menstrual Disorders: The Epidemiology of Menstruation and Menstrual Dysfunction
Introduction
Normal Variation in Menstrual Cycles Across the Lifespan
Menstrual Disorders
Regional, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Differences in Menstrual Cycle Characteristics
Risk Factors Related to Menstrual Cycle Characteristics
Epidemiologic Issues in the Study of Menstrual Function
Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions
References
Chapter 13. Premenstrual Syndrome
Definition and Diagnosis
Incidence, Prevalence, and Burden of PMS
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Treatments
Conclusions
References
Chapter 14. Women’s Fecundability and Factors Affecting It
Introduction
Background and Terminology
Estimates of Fecundability
Factors Affecting Fecundability
Methodological Issues
Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15. Contraception
Contraceptive Use in the United States
Contraceptive Cost
Contraceptive Use: Medical Eligibility Guidelines
Contraceptive Methods
References
Chapter 16. Induced Abortion
Introduction: History, Background, Definitions, Chapter Objectives
Abortion Procedures
Ascertainment of Induced Abortion
Induced Abortion in the US
Complications of Abortion – Mortality and Morbidity
Global Abortion
Public Health Impact of Induced Abortion – US and Worldwide
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 17. Infertility
Definition of Infertility
Historical Evolution and Trends
Prevalence of Infertility
Access to and Use of Medical Services
Clinical Presentation
Risk Factors
Clinical Issues
Epidemiological Methods
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 18. Endometriosis
Description of Endometriosis and Its Impact
Disease Ascertainment and Methods Issues
Frequency of Endometriosis Occurrence
Theories of Endometriosis Pathogenesis
Risk Factors for Endometriosis
Genetic Markers of Susceptibility
Endometriosis Treatment
Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions
References
Chapter 19. Uterine Leiomyomata
Introduction
Anatomic, Histopathological, and Molecular Characteristics
Issues in the Design of Epidemiological Studies
Frequency of Occurrence and Demographic Patterns
Etiological Hypotheses and Risk Factors
Clinical Epidemiology
Summary and Directions for Future Research
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 20. Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Introduction
The Epidemiology of Infertility
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)
General Steps Involved with Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Indications for Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Patient Selection for ART
Defining Success in ART
Predicting Success with ART: Is it Possible?
Complications of ART
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 21. Pregnancy Complications and Future Maternal Health
Introduction
Cardiometabolic Changes in Pregnancy
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Pre-eclampsia
Opportunities for Intervention and Prevention
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22. Labor and Delivery
Introduction
Topics in Labor and Delivery
Effecting Change in Clinical Practice and in the Organization of Health Services
Conclusion
References
Chapter 23. Female Sexuality and Sexual Function
Introduction
Sexuality Throughout the Life Course
The Interactive Biopsychosocial Model of Sexuality and Health
Normal Sexual Function and Response
Female Sexual Dysfunction
Cancer and Sexuality
Instruments to Measure Sexual Function
Conclusion
References
Chapter 24. Vulvodynia
Introduction
Definition
Historical Evolution
Distribution in Women
Etiology
Clinical Issues
Public Health Importance and Future Directions
References
Chapter 25. Menopause: Its Epidemiology
Introduction
Definition of the Menopause
Hormonal Events and the Menopausal Transition
Age and Duration of the Menopausal Transition
‘Symptomatology’ of the Menopause
Is the Menopausal Transition a Keystone in Subsequent Chronic Disease?
Theories and Conceptual Models of Menopause
Summary
References
Chapter 26. Overview of Pelvic Floor Disorders: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Introduction
Pelvic Organ Prolapse
Bladder Dysfunction
Bowel Dysfunction
Sexual Dysfunction
Methodology for Study
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 27. Hysterectomy
Introduction
Definition and History
Epidemiology
Factors Associated with Hysterectomy
Indications for Hysterectomy
Types and Surgical Routes of Hysterectomy
Prophylactic Bilateral Oophorectomy
Patient-Centered Outcomes
Length of Stay
Cost of Hysterectomy
Alternatives to Hysterectomy
Implications for Practice
Implications for Research
References
Section 4: Introduction: Sexually Transmitted Infections
Section 4. Introduction: Sexually Transmitted Infections
Gender Differences in Risk for Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Section Overview
New Directions
Chapter 28. Gonococcal Infection in Women
Introduction
Microbiology
Epidemiology of Gonococcal Infections in Women
Clinical Spectrum of Infection in Women
Diagnosis of Gonococcal Infections
Specimen Collection
Treatment of Women with Gonococcal Infections
Patient Follow-Up after Therapy
Public Health Aspects of Gonococcal Infections
References
Chapter 29. Chlamydia trachomatis
Introduction
Epidemiology
Transmission
Natural History of Infection
Screening Strategies
Clinical Syndromes
Complications
Sequelae
Risk of HIV Transmission
Microbiology and Diagnosis
Management
STD Control
Cost Effectiveness
Conclusions
References
Chapter 30. Syphilis in Women
Introduction and History
Epidemiology of Syphilis
Considerations in Transmission of Syphilis
Natural History and Clinical Manifestations of Syphilis
Diagnostic Methods
Treatment
Effects of HIV on Syphilis
Syphilis and Pregnancy
Summary
References
Chapter 31. Vaginal Infections
Introduction
The Normal Vaginal Ecosystem
Diagnostic Work-Up of Vaginitis
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
Trichomoniasis
Bacterial Vaginosis
Conclusion
References
Chapter 32. Genital Herpes
Introduction
Epidemiology
Clinical Epidemiology
Neonatal Herpes
Diagnosis
Therapy
Prevention
Resources for Persons with Genital Herpes
References
Chapter 33. HIV and AIDS in Women
Introduction
Defining and Detecting HIV/AIDS
HIV Acquisition and Transmission
Distribution of HIV/AIDS in Women
Natural History and Clinical Management
Factors Associated with HIV Transmission
Prevention
Conclusions
References
Chapter 34. Human Papilloma Virus Infection in Women
Introduction
Virology
Pathogenesis and Mechanisms of Oncogenicity
Clinical Classification of Oncogenic Changes in the Cervical Epithelium
Epidemiology of HPV
Transmission of Infection
Risk Factors for HPV Infection and Disease
Clinical Screening and Diagnosis of HPV-Related Disease
Treatment of HPV-Related Disease
Primary Prevention: HPV Vaccines
Conclusions
References
Chapter 35. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease and Chronic Pelvic Pain
Introduction
Background
Definition of Chronic Pelvic Pain
Issues Related to Ascertainment
Historical Evolution/Trends
Distribution in Women, Including Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality Statistics
Risk Factors
Biological Markers of Susceptibility or Exposure
Genetic Markers
Clinical Issues
Methodological Issues for Epidemiological Studies
Prevention and Self-Care
Global Issues
Summary and Conclusions/Future Directions
References
Chapter 36. Urinary Tract Infection
Overview
Range of Clinical Entities and Associated Morbidity
UTI Distribution among Otherwise Healthy Women
UTI Reservoir
UTI Transmission
Risk Factors
Bacterial Virulence Factors
Clinical Issues: UTI among Otherwise Healthy Women
Epidemiological Issues
Future Directions
References
Part III: Occupational, Environmental, and Social Determinants of Health
Section 5: Occupational and Environmental Determinants of Health
Section 5. Occupational and Environmental Determinants of Health
Introduction
Chapter 37. Working Women in the United States: A Statistical Profile
Introduction
Wages, Hours, and Family Responsibilities
Occupational Injuries and Illnesses
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 38. International Perspectives: Women’s Occupational Health
The ‘Developed/Developing’ Split
Traditional Unpaid Employment
The Informal Sector
Implications for Occupational Health and Safety
An Additional Hazard: Violence
Economic and Social Responses to Women in the Workforce
Documenting the Issues
References
Chapter 39. Multiple Roles and Complex Exposures
Exposures to ‘Invisible’ Workplace Health Determinants
Prolonged Standing
Stress
Workplace Contributions to Work–Family Balancing
Equality and Health
Analytical Approaches
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 40. Reproductive Hazards of Occupational and Environmental Exposures
Introduction
Chemical Agents
Physical Agents
Biological Agents
Physical and Psychosocial Strain
Methodological Issues
Risk Assessment, Risk Communication, and Prevention
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 41. Work-Related Musculo-Skeletal Disorders
Definitions
Gender and Musculo-skeletal Disorders
At-Risk Occupations
Interpreting Gender Differences
Conclusion and Research Needs
References
Chapter 42. Occupational Cancer
Introduction
Carcinogens in the Workplace
Selected Cancer Sites
Epidemiologic Issues/Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 43. Environmental Exposures and Cancer
Introduction
Definition of the Topic: Environmental Exposures and Cancer
Epidemiological Evidence
Historical Evolution/Trends
Distribution of Environmental Cancer in Women, Including Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality Statistics
Host Determinants
Influence of Women’s Social Roles or Context on Environmental Cancer
Risk Factors
Biological Markers of Susceptibility or Exposure
Clinical Issues
Epidemiological Issues
Is Breast Cancer an Environmental Cancer?
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Section 6: Introduction: An Introduction to the Social Determinants of Women’s Health
Section 6. Introduction: An Introduction to the Social Determinants of Women’s Health
Chapter 44. Socioeconomic Determinants of Women’s Health: The Changing Landscape of Education, Work, and Marriage
Introduction
Education Effects on Health
Effects of Work on Women’s Health
Marriage and Women’s Health
Recent Trends in Women’s Education, Work, and Marital Status
Understanding Recent Trends in Mortality and Morbidity in the Context of Changes in Social Determinants of Health
How Will Recent Trends in Education, Marriage History, and Labor Force Participation Affect the Future of Women’s Health?
Challenges and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 45. Women, Stress, and Health
The Social Stress Model
Key Sources of Stress in Women’s Lives
Women and Aging
Positive Features of the Social Environment
Intersections with Race and Sexuality
Mechanisms
Directions for Research
References
Chapter 46. Tobacco Use: Trends, Determinants, and Health Effects
Introduction
Trends in Tobacco Use among Women and Girls
Determinants of Tobacco Use among Women and Girls
Health Effects of Tobacco Use among Women
Health Effects of Second-hand Smoke
Conclusions
References
Chapter 47. Alcohol Is a Women’s Health Issue
Introduction
Methodological Issues in Studying Patterns of Alcohol Consumption
Alcohol-attributable Deaths and Disability-adjusted Life Years among Women Globally
History of Alcohol as a Women’s Health Issue
Conclusions
References
Chapter 48. Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Prevalence
Risk Factors
Challenges
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 49. Do Social Policies Influence the Health of Women and their Children?: Implications for Designing Future Policies Using a ‘Social Determinants of Health’ Lens
Introduction: Social Policies, Social Determinants of Health, Gender, and Health Outcomes
Literature Review Methods
Results: Policy Overviews and Health Impacts
Conclusions and Implications: Lessons to Apply to Future Design of Social Policies to Improve the Health of Women
Conclusion
References
Chapter 50. The Impact of the Built Environment on Health
Introduction
Definition of the Topic: the Neighborhood Built Environment and Health
Methods in Built Environment Research
The Modern Built Environment: Sprawl and Transportation
Air Pollution
Overweight/Obesity, Physical Activity, and Diet
Motor Vehicle Crashes and Motor Vehicle-Pedestrian Collisions
Mental Health and Social Capital
Disparities
Research Needs to Understand the Impact of the Built Environment on Health
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Chronic Disease
Section 7: Introduction: Autoimmune Diseases
Section 7. Introduction: Autoimmune Diseases
How Does Autoimmunity Occur?
Why Do Autoimmune Diseases Occur?
Why Do Autoimmune Diseases Preferentially Develop in Women?
What is the Relationship Between Sex Hormones and Autoimmune Diseases?
Summary
Chapter 51. Rheumatoid Arthritis
Introduction
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Classification Criteria
Evaluation and Management of RA
Prognosis and Outcomes in RA
Future Directions in Rheumatoid Arthritis
References
Chapter 52. Multiple Sclerosis
Overview of Multiple Sclerosis
Pathophysiology
Diagnostic Evaluation
Clinical Parameters
Reproductive Life: MS, Fertility, and Pregnancy
Disease Monitoring
Treatment Strategies
Summary
References
Chapter 53. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Introduction
SLE Epidemiology
Clinical Presentation and Management
Management of SLE
Summary
References
Chapter 54. Sjögren’s Syndrome
Introduction and Background
Primary and Secondary Sjögren’s Syndrome
Evolution Since 1930
Definition of Sjögren’s Syndrome
Epidemiology
Host and Environmental Factors
Clinical Manifestations
Laboratory Abnormalities
Management of Sjögren’s Syndrome
Summary
Note in Proof
References
Chapter 55. Asthma
Introduction
Asthma Diagnosis and Management
Increasing Prevalence of Asthma
Gender Differences
Risk Factors
Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
Section 8: Endocrinology and Women’s Health
Section 8. Endocrinology and Women’s Health
Introduction
Chapter 56. The Obesity Epidemic and Women’s Health
Introduction
Definitions and Classifications
Historical Perspective (Evolution/Trends)
The Current Obesity Epidemic
Why do Men and Women in the United States Gain Weight?
Why Do Women Regain Weight?
Host Susceptibility–Genetics. Is Obesity Inherited?
Obesity-Associated Morbidity and Mortality
Heterogeneity in Obesity-Related Risk of Disease: Why Do Some Obese Women Have More Disease Than Other Women?
Epidemiological Issues–Older Women
Clinical Issues: Diagnosis and Treatment
Summary
References
Chapter 57. Diabetes in Women
Introduction
Definition
Prevalence, Public Health Burden, and Distribution of Diabetes
Risk Factors for Diabetes
Health Consequences of Diabetes
Unique Issues to Women
Treatment and Prevention of Diabetes
Conclusions
References
Chapter 58. Thyroid Disease and Women
Introduction
Thyroid Physiology
Biochemical Thyroid Tests
Overview of Thyroid Disease
Summary and Perspective
References
Chapter 59. Management of Menopausal Symptoms in the Post-Women’s Health Initiative Era
Introduction/Historical Perspective
Definition of the Menopause
Symptoms of the Menopause Transition and Postmenopausal Phases
Summary
References
Chapter 60. Vitamin D and Disease Prevention in Women
Introduction
National Guidelines for Vitamin D Intake
Low Vitamin D: Prevalence and Risk Factors
Methodological Considerations
Outcomes
Clinical Recommendations
Conclusion and Future Research Directions
References
Chapter 61. Osteoporosis
Introduction
Definition and Pathophysiology
Public Health Impact
Rates and Patterns of Bone Loss
The Rates of Fracture
Secular Changes in Hip and Other Fractures
Prevalence of Osteoporosis by BMD
Risk Factors for Fracture
Novel Risk Factors for Fracture in the Last Decade
Summary and Future Directions
References
Section 9: Cardiovascular Disease in Women
Section 9. Cardiovascular Disease in Women
Introduction
Unique Risk Factors in Women
Prevention
Disparities among Women
Changes in our Understanding of CVD in Women
CVD Chapters
Future Directions
Chapter 62. Overview of Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease
Introduction
Demographic Characteristics
Family History of Cardiovascular Disease
Cigarette Smoking
Hypertension
Lipids and Lipoproteins
Physical Activity
Diabetes Mellitus
Body Size and Distribution
Nutrition
Novel Biomarkers
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 63. Lipids in Women
Introduction
Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism
Role of Lipids in Atherosclerosis and Cardiovascular Prevention
Trends in Lipid Levels
Unique Issues Affecting Lipids in Women
Measurement, Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment of Lipid Disorders
Future Research
Conclusions
References
Chapter 64. Diagnosis and Treatment of Ischemic Heart Disease in Women
Introduction
Prevalence and Mortality from Coronary Heart Disease
Risk Factors
Clinical Presenting Symptoms in Women
Diagnosis
Management
Conclusion
References
Chapter 65. Emotions and Cardiovascular Disease
Introduction
The Role of Emotions in Incident CVD
Studies of Patients with Established CVD
Future Directions
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 66. Cerebrovascular Disease in Women
Introduction
Epidemiology of Stroke
Genetics of Stroke
Clinical Considerations
Risk Factor Reduction and Public Health Impact
Conclusion
References
Chapter 67. Venous Thromboembolism
Introduction
Deep Vein Thrombosis
Pulmonary Embolism
Established and Potential Risk Factors for Venous Thromboembolism
Pregnancy-Associated VTE
Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy Use
Contraceptive Usage
Long-Distance Air Travel
Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors
Recurrence and Other Consequences of VTE
Epidemiological Issues, Public Health Considerations, and Conclusions
References
Chapter 68. Arrhythmias in Women: Atrial Fibrillation and Sudden Cardiac Death
Introduction
Part 1: Atrial Fibrillation
Part 2: Sudden Cardiac Death
References
Chapter 69. Heart Failure in Women: Epidemiology, Prognosis, and Management
Introduction/Background
Definition of Heart Failure
Cardiomyopathy
Issues Related to Ascertainment
Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality Statistics
Risk Factors
Biological Markers of Susceptibility or Exposure
Genetic Markers of Susceptibility or Exposure
Clinical Issues (Diagnosis, Treatment)
Summary and Conclusions/Future Directions
References
Chapter 70. Hypertension in Women
Introduction/Background
Definition of the Topic
Issues Related to Ascertainment
Historical Evolution/Trends
Hypertension in Young Women
Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Postmenopausal Hypertension
Blood Pressure Control
Risk Factors for Hypertension in Women
Treatment of Hypertension in Women
Lifestyle Intervention in Hypertension Treatment
Pharmacological Treatment of Primary Hypertension in Women
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Section 10: Cancer
Section 10. Cancer
Introduction
Perspectives on Cancer
Signs of Progress
Persistent Challenges
Prospects
Chapter 71. Cancer in Women: Global Burden and Insights from Gender Comparisons
Introduction
Data Sources and Methods
Global Patterns of Cancer among Women
Disparities between the Sexes in Cancers Common to Both Sexes
The Future Burden of Cancer in Women
Appendix A Human Development Index Countries (2007 Indices)
References
Chapter 72. Breast Cancer Epidemiology
Introduction
Endogenous Hormones that Biologically Mediate Breast Carcinogenesis
Melatonin
Risk Factors
Conclusion
References
Chapter 73. Genetic Epidemiology of Breast Cancer
Evidence for a Genetic Component of Breast Cancer
Autosomal Dominant Predisposition to Cancer
Single Gene Predispositions of Moderate Penetrance
Low Penetrance, Common Alleles
Clinical Implications of Genetic Variants
Reflections and Future Directions
Summary
References
Chapter 74. Breast Cancer Screening
Introduction
History of Screening Trials
Efficacy of Breast Screening
Discussion
References
Chapter 75. Ovarian Cancer
Biology of Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian Cancer in Populations
Genetic Susceptibility to Ovarian Cancer
Reproductive Factors
Endogenous Hormones and Ovarian Cancer Risk
Exogenous Hormone Use and Ovarian Cancer Risk
Factors Related to Inflammation
Body Size
Smoking, Alcohol, Diet
Ovarian Cancer Screening
Summary and Future Research Directions
References
Chapter 76. Endometrial Cancer
Pathology and Diagnosis
Patterns of Disease
Environmental and Behavioral Determinants
Clinical Issues
Epidemiological Issues
Prevention and Self-Care
Conclusions
References
Chapter 77. Cervical Cancer: Burden of Disease and Risk Factors
Introduction
Cervical Cancer Histopathology
Incidence and Mortality of Cervical Cancer: Worldwide Perspective
Time Trends in Cervical Cancer
Natural History of Human Papillomavirus Infection and Cervical Cancer
Risk Factors for Cervical Cancer
The Spectrum of HPV Related Diseases
Future Directions in Research and Public Health
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 78. Vaccination and Screening in Cervical Cancer Control and Prevention
Introduction
Natural History of Cervical Cancer and the Basis for Prevention
Cytology Screening as Prevention Paradigm
Secondary Prevention via Modern Screening Technologies
Primary Prevention via HPV Vaccination
Integration of Primary and Secondary Prevention Strategies
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 79. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer in Women
Introduction
Magnitude of the Problem and Descriptive Epidemiology
Risk Factors
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 80. Colorectal Cancer in Women
Introduction
Descriptive Epidemiology of Colorectal Cancer
Analytic Epidemiology of CRC and Polyps
Clinical Characteristics of CRC
Next Research Steps Including Methodological Issues
Summary
References
Chapter 81. The Epidemiology of Melanoma of the Skin
Introduction
Trends
Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality
Host and Environmental Determinants
Prevention and Self-Care
Screening
Diagnosis and Treatment
Global Environment
References
Chapter 82. Cancer Prevention for Women
Introduction
Cancer Prevention: The State of the Science
Unique Issues for Women in Cancer Prevention
Changing Cancer Risk Behaviors: From Individuals to Policy
Future Directions
References
Section 11: Mental Disorders – Introduction
Section 11. Mental Disorders – Introduction
Introduction
Chapter 83. Gender and Mood Disorders
Introduction and Background
Mood Disorders Defined
Issues Related to Ascertainment
Historical Trends
Distributions
Influences of Women’s Social Roles
Risk Factors
Biological Markers of Susceptibility and Exposure
Clinical Issues
Epidemiological Issues
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 84. Anxiety Disorders in Women
Introduction
Sex Differences in the Prevalence of Anxiety Disorders
Comorbidity
Familial and Genetic Risk Factors
Temperamental and Biological Factors
Psychosocial Risk Factors and Impact
Treatment of Anxiety
Summary and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
Appendix A
Agoraphobia
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Specific Phobia
Social Phobia
References
Chapter 85. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Introduction
Defining Trauma and PTSD
Etiological Factors in Women
Phenomenology of PTSD in Women
Assessment
Methodological Issues
Treatment of PTSD in Women
Conclusions
References
Chapter 86. Psychosis in Women: Gender Differences in Presentation, Onset, Course and Outcome of Schizophrenia
Introduction
Understanding Psychotic Disorders
Development of Schizophrenia in Women
Management of Schizophrenia in Women
Treatment for Women with Schizophrenia
Psychological Treatment for Women with Schizophrenia
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 87. Eating Disorders
Introduction
Definition and Diagnosis
Classification
Epidemiology
Risk Factors
Intervention and Treatment
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 88. Addictive Disorders
Introduction
Dependence on Psychoactive Substances
Pathological Gambling
Kleptomania
Trichotillomania
Compulsive Buying
Pathological Love
Conclusions
References
Section 12: Poorly Understood Conditions
Section 12. Poorly Understood Conditions
Introduction
Issues with Case Definition and Ascertainment
The Multidimensional Nature of Poorly Understood Conditions
Risk Factors and Consequences and Their Implications for Treatment
Future Directions
Chapter 89. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Introduction
Epidemiology
Symptoms, Signs and Laboratory Findings
Prognosis
Pathophysiology of CFS
Treatment of CFS
References
Chapter 90. Fibromyalgia: A Central Sensitivity Syndrome
Introduction
Epidemiology and Prevalence
Nomenclature
What is Central Sensitization?
Pathophysiological Mechanism of Central Sensitization
Can Central Sensitization be Produced or Maintained without Peripheral Nociception?
Association of CS/FMS in Chronic Diseases with Structural Pathology (CDSP)
Factors that may Trigger or Contribute to Central Sensitization
Evidence of Central Sensitization in FMS
Clinical Manifestations of FMS
Diagnosis of FMS
Management of FMS
Conclusions
References
Chapter 91. Epidemiology of Headache in Women: Emphasis on Migraine
Introduction
Diagnostic Criteria
Incidence
Prevalence
Female Hormones and Headache
References
Chapter 92. Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Introduction
Definition and Issues Related to Ascertainment
Historical Evolution
Distribution in Women
Epidemiological Issues
Health Care Seeking
Risk Factors
Clinical Issues
Treatment
Public Health Issues
Conclusions
References
Chapter 93. Temporomandibular Disorders
Background
Definitions
Issues Related to Ascertainment
Historical Trends
Distribution in Women
Host and Environmental Determinants
Influence of Women’s Social Roles
Risk Factors
Biological Markers of Susceptibility or Exposure
Clinical Issues
Epidemiological Issues
Summary and Conclusions/Future Directions
References
Chapter 94. Multiple Chemical Sensitivity
Introduction
Epidemiology
Risk Factors
Diagnosing MCS
Possible Mechanisms
Skepticism Surrounding MCS
Treatment
Future Research in MCS
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Part V: Geriatric Health
Section 13: Aging
Section 13. Aging
Introduction
Chapter 95. Morbidity, Disability, and Mortality
Introduction
Sociodemographic Characteristics
Socioeconomic Status of Older Women
Demography of Aging
Functional Limitations and Disability
Life Expectancy
Active Life Expectancy
Health Status
Mortality
Health Disparities
Measurement Issues
Summary
References
Chapter 96. Osteoarthritis and Other Musculoskeletal Diseases
Introduction
Definition and Classification
Clinical Features of OA
Descriptive Epidemiology of Osteoarthritis
Risk Factors for the Development and Progression of Osteoarthritis
Biomarkers and Osteoarthritis
Management of Osteoarthritis
References
Chapter 97. Urinary and Fecal Incontinence in Older Women
Introduction
Definitions
Epidemiology
Global Issues
Costs
Etiology
Clinical Issues
Areas for Future Research
Conclusion
References
Chapter 98. Hearing Loss and Aging
Introduction
Background
Epidemiology of Hearing Loss
Impact of Hearing Loss in Adults
Clinical Issues in the Treatment of Hearing Loss
Conclusion
References
Chapter 99. Visual Impairment
Introduction
Measurement of Visual Impairment
Major Causes of Visual Impairment in the World
Other Eye Conditions with Noted Gender Discrepancy
Low Vision Rehabilitation
Summary
References
Chapter 100. The Impact of Women’s Oral Health on Systemic Health
Hormonal Changes and Oral Health
Oral Diseases and Their Relationship to Women’s Health
Systemic Diseases and Their Relationship to Women’s Oral Health
Conclusion
References
Chapter 101. Cognitive Functioning in Aging Women
Introduction
Background
Sex Differences in Incidence and Prevalence of Dementia
Diversity and Disparity in Dementia
Biological and Environmental Modulators of Cognitive Decline and Dementia
Hormone Therapy
Genetic Risk
Summary
References
Chapter 102. The Role of Social Support in the Health and Well-Being of Older Adult Widows
The Epidemiology of Widowhood
Adapting to the Loss of a Spouse
Dual Process Model of Coping
The Notre Dame Widowhood Study (NDWS)
Widowhood and Health
Social Support and Health
Conceptual and Methodological Importance for Future Research
References
Chapter 103. Long-Term Care: The Global Impact on Women
Introduction
The Aging Population
What is Long-Term Care?
Women in Need of Care
Women as Informal Caregivers
Caregiving Outcomes
Institutional Long-Term Care
Women as Caregivers in Institutional Long-Term Care Settings
Environmental Determinants that Impact Quality of Care Received by Women in Long-Term Care Settings
Creative Alternatives to Traditional Long-Term Care Settings
Research and Public Health Impact on Long-Term Care
Conclusion
References
Chapter 104. Caring for Women at the End of Life
Introduction
Epidemiology of Dying
Role of Palliative Care and Hospice Care in Caring for patients at EOL
Ethical Issues
Communication and Medical Decision-Making
Clinical Issues at the End of Life
Implications for Health Care Policies at the End of Life
Summary
References
Chapter 105. Successful Aging in Women
Successful Aging in Women
Definition
Prevalence of Successful Aging
Factors that Influence Successful Aging
Behavioral Factors Influencing Successful Aging
Additional Factors Associated with Successful Aging
Measurement of Successful Aging
Intervention to Facilitate Successful Aging Among Older Women
Exercise Guidelines and How Much is Enough?
Cognitive Stimulation
Maintaining Purpose in Life
Interventions to Strengthen Motivation
Conclusion
References
Epilogue and Future Directions
Index
Front-Matter
Copyright
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Dedication
I dedicate this book to my co-editors, Drs. Rebecca Troisi and Kathy Rexrode, whose efforts made this edition of the book possible. (MBG)
I dedicate this book to the women and men who have nurtured and challenged me, Miriam, Cathy and Marcie Troisi, Chloe Troisi-Rogers, Ethan Rogers and Nicholas Troisi, as well as to my co-editors Marlene and Kathy, who made this project intellectually fulfilling, and more importantly, a great pleasure. (RT)
I dedicate this book to my patients and colleagues who continually inspire me, to Bill, Nancy and Betty Rexrode, and Steven, Lev and Theo Goldman for their constant encouragement and support, as well as to my co-editors for their vision of and commitment to women’s health. (KMR)
Preface to the Second Edition
In the decade since the publication of the first edition of Women and Health new issues regarding the health of women have emerged. We have begun to more fully recognize that the diversity among women is as broad as the differences between women and men. There have been changes in lifestyle, occupation, and other potential sources of environmental exposures. Medical technologies for disease screening, diagnosis, and treatment have evolved. Research has begun to incorporate new analytic techniques, including the opportunities presented by genetics and related fields. For some time we have known that diseases affect the sexes differently and that understanding the etiology, occurrence, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as the social and cultural context for each sex is critical. Today’s scientists and clinicians are more likely to think in terms of gender-based medicine than women’s or men’s health, per se.
As with the first edition, the content of this book is designed to address the behavioral and societal, as well as the biological determinants of the health and well-being of women, young and old, throughout their lives. Our intent is to provide a resource of what we understand about the health issues facing women and to inform the work of the professionals who conduct research and provide care for women, and in so doing, improve the quality of women’s lives. We are committed to producing a book that is intended not only for the medical and scientific community, but also for consumers of health care. It is our conviction that the very best clinical care can be obtained only when patients have access to the latest evidence that research medicine has to offer.
The motivation for the current edition is to provide an updated synthesis of the latest research results on a comprehensive range of diseases and conditions that affect women. We include several new areas that have gained attention as important health issues. A fully comprehensive book in one volume is not possible due to space and time constraints, so, together with the section editors, we chose the content not only from those conditions uniquely or predominantly affecting women, but also from those that are understudied and for which research has advanced our understanding in the last decade. In this edition we have placed an emphasis on the older woman, and included topics on changing roles in the family and society that arise later in women’s lives and influence health.
In preparing this edition we noticed a shift in the authors’ research paradigms. At the time of the first edition, contributors in fields other than reproductive health and other traditionally female-focused specialties had to consciously reflect on how to present gender-related differences in their research. In the last decade, gender awareness
has become more reflexive as health researchers and clinicians recognize the importance of understanding biological and gender differences for all diseases. The continued development of a gendered-perspective — for the improvement of the health of women and men — has been the goal of all of us who have contributed to this book.
As this edition developed, we relied on both contributors to the first edition and also colleagues who joined us for the first time. We are indebted to the section editors, Drs. Lisa Chasan-Taber, Patricia Hartge, Susan Johnson, Suzanne G. Leveille, JoAnn E. Manson, J. Michael Oakes, Rosalind Ramsey-Goldman, Anne M. Rompalo, Karen B. Schmaling, Mary V. Seeman and Jeanne Mager Stellman, who were essential to the project, helping us shape the content, identify areas of research, select contributors, and review the submitted chapters. We are particularly grateful to all of the chapter authors for their commitment to scholarship, and their flexibility and grace in honoring the inevitable deadlines. At Elsevier, we thank our editors, Mara Conner and Megan Wickline.
We are grateful for the good fortune that brought us together and the humor that forged us into a dynamic editorial collaboration. We also appreciate that, throughout our years of training and research and clinical careers, primarily at Harvard School of Public Health and Harvard Medical School, we have had the privilege of mentorship from and collaboration with many friends and colleagues, including Brian MacMahon, Richard Monson, Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Walter Willett, Robert Hoover, Richard Reindollar, Frank Speizer, Meir Stampfer, Scott Weiss, Julie Buring, Patricia Hartge, Shelia Zahm, Elisabeth Zemp-Stutz, Terry Hartman, Maureen Hatch, and Sue Hankinson.
Lastly, we thank our friends, families, and colleagues for their constructive criticism and support. Most of all, we thank the health care professionals who spend their lives improving women’s health and well-being and the investigators whose research informs health care and makes this book possible.
Marlene B. Goldman
Rebecca Troisi
Kathryn M. Rexrode
Preface to the First Edition
Women are diverse individuals striving to maintain their health within a complex world of cultural, psychological, social, and biological influences. In this light, the content of this book was designed to address the behavioral and societal, as well as the biological, determinants of the health and well-being of women and girls throughout their lifespan. We have known for many years that diseases may not affect women in the same way as they affect men, and that knowledge gained from studying men is not necessarily applicable to understanding disease occurrence, diagnosis, or treatment in women; yet no comprehensive reference text has explicitly taken this into account. Our intent is that the information presented here will improve the quality of thinking about women’s health and in so doing will improve the quality of women’s lives.
The evolution of women’s health as a discipline is reflected in the breadth and depth of the chapters collected here. We have defined women’s health in broad terms and have chosen not to limit the scope of the book to those conditions uniquely or predominantly affecting women, but to recognize that an understanding of the roles of sex and gender is integral to all aspects of excellent health care and medical research. The preparation of this book required a shift in focus for many of the contributors — from thinking of their discipline as gender-neutral to realizing the importance of examining gender-related differences. Frequently, a potential contributor in an area not historically considered women’s health
would say I’ve never considered my research in that way. In fact, we usually control for gender to remove its confounding effects.
Then after the chapter was done, these contributors would thank us for asking them to address their research in a new and productive way. The development of a gendered-perspective — for the improvement of the health of women and men — has been the goal of all of us who have brought this book into existence. Creating gender awareness
parallels the evolution of the definition of women’s health from concerns about reproduction and traditionally female
ailments to encompass the broader vision represented here. Concern for women’s health is not about sexism; it is about unnecessary pain, stress, and mutilation due to lack of prevention strategies and delayed diagnosis and treatment because research on the ways diseases affect women has not been done or disseminated.
For examples of how pervasive traditional concepts of male-focused medicine can be this late in the 20th century, we need only look at instances where knowledge gained from only one sex (usually male) is thought to be sufficient for application to both. We are reminded of the famous, but unfortunate, marathoner who was suspended after failing a drug test — a test of testosterone hormone levels that was developed for use in male athletes and never validated in women. Her misfortune was that she was a woman. Another example is the initial case definitions for AIDS-related complex and AIDS that were based on signs and symptoms in men. Failure to construct case definitions that include disease characteristics present in women that may not occur in men has put women at a disadvantage in obtaining quality health care. It took 10 years and the realization that some women were presenting with cervical cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, or candidiasis rather than Kaposi’s sarcoma or pneumocystis pneumonia for the case definition to be changed and for many women to be correctly diagnosed, recognized, and counted in the AIDS epidemic. It is incumbent upon us to challenge those who cling to traditional models by demanding that new drugs be tested in diverse populations that include both sexes, that research studies and clinical trials include women and men, that screening tests be validated in the populations in which they are to be implemented, and that diagnostic and treatment procedures be applied without bias by gender.
While the rationale for this volume was a recognition that a textbook that provided the medical and scientific community with a synthesis of the latest research results on a comprehensive range of diseases and conditions that affect women was needed, we also intend that the extensive material presented here will assist consumers of health care. It is our conviction that the very best clinical care can be obtained only when patients have access to the cutting-edge knowledge that research medicine has to offer.
As the book evolved from concept to reality, many individuals provided guidance, professional assistance, and encouragement. We acknowledge several of them here. The idea for this volume developed from conversations with Dr. Dimitrios Trichopoulos, to whom we owe our gratitude for his foresight. Dr. Jennifer Kelsey generously shared her publishing experience and helped us frame our initial proposal. The section editors, Drs. Trudy S. Berkowitz, Louise A. Brinton, Evelyn J. Bromet, Janet R. Daling, Jack M. Guralnik, Suzanne G. Haynes, Roberta B. Ness, Nancy S. Padian, Rosalind Ramsey-Goldman, Karen B. Schmaling, Ellen K. Silbergeld, Glorian Sorensen, Zena A. Stein, and Shelia Hoar Zahm, were essential to the development of the book’s content and mission, assisted in the selection of contributors, and reviewed the submitted chapters. We particularly acknowledge the chapter authors for their commitment to scholarship, flexibility in accommodating multiple revisions, and grace in honoring the deadlines that the timely production of a book of this size necessitated. We are most appreciative of the efforts of one of our colleagues, a contributor to the Reproductive Health Section, Dr. Joseph Mortola, who made a remarkable effort to complete his chapter shortly before his untimely death.
At Academic Press, Charlotte Brabants, then Acquisitions Editor, was the catalyst for the book. Without Charlotte’s repeated encouragement during the book’s early development, it is unlikely that it would have reached fruition. Tari Paschall expertly saw the assembly of the manuscript through from beginning to end.
Hazel Emery, Rachelle Ferrari, Destiny Irons, Alvara McBean, and Stacey Missmer cheerfully and efficiently managed the hundreds of clerical and research tasks that kept us on schedule.
We thank our friends and colleagues Drs. Trudy Berkowitz, Neta Crawford, Shelia Zahm, and Li Zemp for their constructive criticism and support.
While we have attempted to be comprehensive within time and space constraints, we are aware of health conditions that had to be omitted. We hope that we will be able to include them in future editions. If the information you seek is not here, please let us know.
Marlene B. Goldman
Maureen C. Hatch
List of Contributors
Numbers in brackets denote the chapters to which the authors contributed.
Mary E. Abusief, (17), Fertility Physicians of Northern California, Palo Alto, CA, USA
Dolores Acevedo-Garcia, PhD, MPA-URP, (49), Brandeis University, Institute for Children, Youth and Family Policy, Waltham, MA, USA
Christine Albert, MD, MPH, (68), Center for Arrhythmia Prevention, Division of Preventive Medicine and Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
D. Lee Alekel, (5), Division of Extramural Research, National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
Laia Alemany, PhD, (77), Unit of Infections and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, IDIBELL, CIBERESP, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Spain
Kelli D. Allen, PhD, (96), Department of Medicine, Division of Internal General Medicine, Duke University Medical Center; and Health Services Research and Development Service, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
Lauren M. Anderson, BA, MPH, (37, 38), Department of Health Policy and Management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Benjamin J. Apelberg, PhD, MHS, (46), Center for Tobacco Products, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
Hani K. Atrash, MD, MPH, (16), National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
Donna Day Baird, PhD, (14), Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
Noel Bairey C. Merz, MD, FACC, FAHA, (64), Women’s Guild Endowed Chair in Women’s Health Director, Barbra Streisand Women’s Heart Center Director, Preventive Cardiac Center Professor of Medicine Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Carol M. Baldwin, PhD, RN, AHN-BC, FAAN, (94), College of Nursing and Health Innovation; Southwest Borderlands Scholar; Center for World Health Promotion and Disease Prevention; Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center of Excellence for Health Disparities Research and Training and the North American Center for Transborder Studies, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Robert L. Barbieri, MD, (17), Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology; Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Shirley R. Baron, PhD, (23), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University’s Feinberg School of Medicine; Dept. of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Shari S. Bassuk, Sc.D, (Section 8 Introduction and Ch 60), Division of Preventive Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Lisa M. Bates, (44), Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Jeannette M. Beasley, PhD, MPH, RD, (62), Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Bronx, NY, USA
Iris R. Bell, MD, PhD, (94), Departments of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine; and College of Nursing, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
C.S. Bergeman, PhD, (102), Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
Lisa F. Berkman, (44), Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
Jonine L. Bernstein, PhD, (73), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
Leslie Bernstein, PhD, (72), Division of Cancer Etiology, Department of Population Sciences, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
Elizabeth R. Bertone-Johnson, ScD, SM, (13), Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Mieke Beth Thomeer, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
Toni L. Bisconti, BA, MA, PhD (all in psychology), (102), Department of Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA
Janet Blair, PhD, MPH, (33), Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA, USA
Robin P. Bonifas, PhD, MSW, (103), Arizona State University, School of Social Work, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Xavier F. Bosch, MD, PhD, (77), Unit of Infections and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Program, Institut Catalá d’Oncologia, IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain and CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Publica, Spain
Judith Bradford, PhD, (6), Center for Population Research in LGBT Health, The Fenway Institute, Boston, MA, USA
Freddie Bray, BSc. MSc, PhD, (71), Section of Cancer Information, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
Jennifer D. Brooks, PhD, (73), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
Joyce Bromberger, MSW, PhD, (25), Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Joelle M. Brown, PhD, MPH, (23), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University’s Feinberg School of Medicine; Dept. of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Laia Bruni, MD, MPH, (77), Unit of Infections and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Program, Institut Català d’Oncologia, IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
Cynthia M. Bulik, PhD, (87), Department of Psychiatry and Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Ronald T. Burkman, MD, (27), Department of Obstetrics/Gynecology, Baystate Medical Center, Springfield, MA, USA
Marcy Burstein, PhD, (84), Genetic Epidemiology Research Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
Cheryl Bushnell, MD, MHS, (66), Department of Neurology and Women’s Health Center of Excellence for Research, Leadership, and Education, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
Mary K. Buss, MD, (104), Divisions of Hematology and Oncology, and General Medicine and Primary Care, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jane A. Cauley, DrPH, (61), Graduate School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Connie L. Celum, MD, MPH, (30), Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Xinhua Chen, MD, MS, (11), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Stratford, NJ, USA
Myriam Chevarie-Davis, MD, MSc, (78), McGill University, Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Stephanie Chiuve, ScD, (68), Center for Arrhythmia Prevention, Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School and Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
Patricia O. Chocano-Bedoya, MD, PhD, (13), Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Public Health, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA; and Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
Harjinder Chowdhary, MD, (54), The University of Connecticut Health Center and Medical School, CT, USA
David C. Christiani, MD, MPH, MS, (54), Harvard School of Public Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Nadia T. Chung, MPH, (72), Division of Cancer Etiology, Department of Population Sciences, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
Carolyn M. Clancy, MD, (3), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, USA
Cari Jo Clark, ScD, MPH, (48), Program in Health Disparities Research, Department of Medicine, Medical School, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
David Conen, MD, MPH, (68), Department of Medicine, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
K.H. Costenbader, MD, MPH, (53), Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Amy Devlin, MD, (53), Division of Rheumatology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
Mireia Diaz, BSc, (77), Unit of Infections and Cancer, Cancer Epidemiology Research Program, Institut Català d’Oncologia, IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
Jeroen Douwes, PhD, (55), Center for Public Health Research, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
Mark Drangsholt, DDS, MSD, PhD, (93), Departments of Oral Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Ira Driscoll, PhD, (101), Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
Catherine E. DuBeau, MD, (97), Family and Community Health, and Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
Emmeline Edwards, PhD, (5), Division of Extramural Research, National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
Vera Ehrenstein, MPH, DSc, (7), Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Agustín Escalante, MD, (51), Division of Rheumatology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
Mark A. Espeland, PhD, (101), Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
Kathryn C. Fitzgerald, MSc, (67), Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Betsy Foxman, PhD, (36), University of Michigan, School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Eduardo Franco, DrPH, FRSC, FCAHS, (78), DMcGill University, Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
William D. Fraser, MD, MSc, FRCS, Dip MFM, (22), University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Karen I. Fredriksen-Goldsen, PhD, (103), University of Washington, School of Social Work, Seattle, WA, USA
Ellen E. Freeman, PhD, (99), Department of Ophthalmology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Melissa C. Friesen, PhD, (42), Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
Anne M. Gadermann, PhD, (83), Centre for Health Evaluation and Outcome Sciences, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
Mia M. Gaudet, MSPH, PhD, (73), American Cancer Society, Epidemiology Research Program, Atlanta, GA, USA
Emmy Gavrilidis, BApp Sci, (86), The Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Center, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Charlotte A Gaydos, MS, MPH, DrPH, (29), Division of Infectious Disease Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
Kimberly Geronimo, (49), Brandeis University, Institute for Children, Youth and Family Policy, Waltham, MA, USA
Arline T. Geronimus, ScD, AB, (2), Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, School of Public Health, and Center for Population Studies, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Robin Mary Gillespie, PhD, MPH, (41), RM Gillespie Consulting, New York, NY, USA
Edward Giovannucci, MD, ScD, (80), Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
Karen Glanz, PhD, MPH, (82), Perelman School of Medicine and School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Robert J. Glynn, ScD, PhD, (67), Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Ellen Gold, MA, PhD, (25), Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
Shari Goldfarb, MD, (23), Department of Medicine and Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center; Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA, Breast Cancer Medicine Service and Health Outcomes Research Group at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Instructor of Medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
Marlene B. Goldman, MS, ScD, ( 1, 17), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center and Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, and Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, NH, USA
Emily W. Gower, PhD, (99), Public Health Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
David A. Grainger, MD, MPH, (20), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Wichita, KS, USA
Adèle C. Green, MBBS, PhD, MSc, (81), Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; and School of Translational Medicine, University of Manchester, United Kingdom
Catherine L. Haggerty, PhD, MPH, (35), Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Rebecca Hardy, PhD, (9), Medical Research Council Unit for Lifelong Health and Aging, Division of Population Health, University College London, UK
Bernard L. Harlow, PhD, (24), Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota School of Public Health, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Siobán D. Harlow, PhD, (12, 25), Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Patricia Hartge, ScD, (Section 10), Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, USA
Christine Haskin, MS, DDS, PhD, (100), Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, USA
Robin Herbert, MD, (41), Department of Preventive Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
Victoria L. Holt, PhD, (18), Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Robert N. Hoover, MD, ScD, (Epilogue), Epidemiology and Biostatistics Program, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
Maria K. Houtchens, MD, MMSci, (52), Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School Center for Neurologic Diseases, Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Boston, MA, USA
Corinne G. Husten, MD, PhD, (46), Center for Tobacco Products, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
Loris Y. Hwang, MD, (34), Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
Noreen A. Hynes, MD, MPH, (28), Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
Peter James, ScD, (50), Department of Epidemiology, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
Elizabeth Jewell, MD, MHSc, (76), Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
Susan K. Johnson, PhD, (Section 12 Introduction and Ch 89), Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina – Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
Pamela Joshi, PhD, MPP, (49), Brandeis University, Institute for Children, Youth and Family Policy, Waltham, MA, USA
Corinne E. Joshu, PhD, MPH, (80), Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
Mary L. Kamb, MD, MPH, (33), Division of STD Prevention, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
Carrie Karvonen-Gutierrez, MPH, PhD, (25), Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Ronald C. Kessler, PhD, (83), Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Maheruh Khandker, MHS, (24), Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota School of Public Health, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Samia J. Khoury, MD, (52), Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School Center for Neurologic Diseases, Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Boston, MA, USA
Autumn M. Klein, MD, PhD, (91), Division of Women’s Neurology, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Natasha A. Koloski, PhD, (92), Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
Diana Kuh, PhD, FFPH, (9), Medical Research Council Unit for Lifelong Health and Aging, Division of Population Health, University College London, UK
Jayashri Kulkarni, MBBS, MPM, PhD, FRANZCP, (86), The Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Lewis H. Kuller, (56), University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
James V. Lacey Jr., PhD, (72), Division of Cancer Etiology, Department of Population Sciences, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
Andrea Z. LaCroix, PhD, (62), Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Public Health Sciences Division, Seattle, WA, USA
Francine Laden, ScD, (50), Department of Epidemiology, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Timothy L. Lash, (7), Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark and Department of Epidemiology and Prevention Division of Public Health Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
Shannon K. Laughlin-Tommaso, MD, MPH, (19), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Surgery, Mayo Clinic and Mayo Medical School, Rochester, MN, USA
Cathy C. Lee, MD, (57), Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; and VA Greater Los Angeles Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Ji Youn Lee, BA, (58), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
Stephanie L. Lee, MD, PhD, (58), Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
Linda LeResche, ScD, (93), Departments of Oral Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Suzanne G. Leveille, PhD, RN, (Section 13 Introduction and Ch 95), Department of Nursing, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Boston; Division of General Medicine and Primary Care, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Jannet F. Lewis, MD, FACC, FAHA, (64), Professor of Medicine, Division of Cardiology Director, Noninvasive Cardiology, George Washington University Medical Center,Washington, DC
Frank R. Lin, MD, PhD, (98), Department of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery and Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University; and Center on Aging and Health, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD, USA
Stacy Tessler Lindau, (23), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Program in Integrative Sexual Medicine for Women and Girls with Cancer, Department of Medicine-Geriatrics, and The Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Marja-Liisa Lindbohm, PhD, (40), Center of Expertise for Health and Work Ability, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
Simin Liu, MD, (57), Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; and VA Greater Los Angeles Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Donald M. Lloyd-Jones, MD, ScM, FACC, FAHA, (69), Department of Preventive Medicine and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
Joannie Lortet-Tieulent, MSc, (71), Section of Cancer Information, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
Andrea Lucas, (38), Department of Health Policy & Management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Rachel H. Mackey, PhD, MPH, FAHA, (56), Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Jeanne Mager Stellman, PhD, (37, 38), Department of Health Policy & Management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Ann Marie Malarcher, PhD, (46), Office on Smoking and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
JoAnn E. Manson, MD, DrPH, (Section 8 Introduction and Ch 60), Division of Preventive Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Lynette J. Margesson, MD, (24), Departments of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Surgery (Dermatology), Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, NH, USA
M. Maria Glymour, SD, (44), Department of Society, Human Development and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
Jeanne M. Marrazzo, MD, MPH, (30), Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Karen Matthews, PhD, (25), Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Suzanne E. Mazzeo, PhD, (87), Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
Ellen P. McCarthy, PhD, MPH, (104), Division of General Medicine and Primary Care, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Valerie McCormack, PhD, MSc, (71), Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
Thomas F. McElrath, MD, PhD, (21), Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Romy-Leigh McMaster, MSc, (22), University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Kathleen M. McTigue, MD, MS, MPH, (56), University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Kathleen Ries Merikangas, PhD, (84), Genetic Epidemiology Research Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
C. Noel Bairey Merz, MD, DrPH, (53), Division of Rheumatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
Karen Messing, PhD, (39), Department of Biological Sciences and CINBIOSE Research Centre, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
Anthony B. Miller, MD, FRCP, FACE, (74), Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Daniel R. Mishell Jr., MD, (15), Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Stacey A. Missmer, ScM, ScD, (17), Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Connie Mobley, MS, DDS, PhD, (100), Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, USA
Anna-Barbara Moscicki, MD, (34), Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
Tyler Muffly, MD, (26), Cleveland Clinic, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cleveland, OH, USA
Christina A. Muzny, MD, (31), Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
Amanda E. Nelson, MD, MSCR, (96), Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; and Thurston Arthritis Research Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA