The Practical Brewer - A Manual for the Brewing Industry

BREWER

CHAPTER I

WATER

1. What Is Water?

Pure water consists of hydrogen (11.188 per cent by weight) and oxygen (88.812 per cent). At its maximum density (39.2° F.), it is the standard for specific gravities, one cubic centimeter weighing one gram. It is also the standard for specific heats. At the atmospheric pressure of sea level pure water freezes at 32° F. and boils at 212° F. All natural waters may be considered dilute solutions of salts in which small quantities of gases and organic matter are dissolved.

2. What Are the Sources of Water?

The sources of water are: (a) rain water (b) lake and river water (surface water) (c) spring water, and (d) well water.

3. Does Water Naturally Contain Other Elements?

Pure water containing only oxygen in solution is seldom found in nature. Substances other than oxygen are nearly always present and usually exert more or less effect. Hence, the origin, kind, and effect of impurities in water become of essential importance. These impurities may be originally solid or gaseous, organic or inorganic, and may be dissolved or suspended in the water. Some of them are derived from the atmosphere when drops of rain are formed, and others are absorbed as the water traverses the soil or the earth’s strata. Some foreign substances in water have their origin in industrial waste, sewage pollution, or artificial treatment.

All of the materials which constitute the earth’s crust are more or less soluble in water. Their solubility is often greatly increased by the presence of carbon-dioxide or alkalies in the ground water. Consequently, most natural waters are impure.

THE SOURCES OF WATER

4. What Sanitary Limits Are Usually Applied to Water?

General limits for sanitary purity of water approximate the following:

5. What Makes Water Hard—Soft?

The kind and amount of mineral constituents contained in solution are the governing factors by which water is classified as hard or soft. According to the nature of the minerals in solution, a distinction as to their effectiveness under varying conditions can be determined.

Rain water, which is the purest natural form, contains atmospheric gases in solution. Rain water also contains solid matter, both organic and mineral, obtained by washing out soot and wind-raised dust from the air. All waters obtained from the earth, whether from the surface or lower depths, contain dissolved substances taken up from the rocks and soils with which they have been in contact. Water from very low levels, as from deep wells, is likely to contain larger quantities of dissolved substances than surface water, because of the great mass of rock through which it has filtered. In general, water from regions of granite, sandstone, and clay formations contains much less dissolved mineral matter than that from limestone regions. Water from rocky regions is purer than that from regions where the rocks have been disintegrated to form soil, since rocks are generally less soluble than soils. Mountain waters are relatively pure because they usually come into contact with little soil. Besides the dissolved substances, water may carry a great deal of suspended matter, as silica, clay and organic material. This is especially true of surface waters, such as rivers and streams.

6. What Is Temporary and What Is Permanent Hardness?

The so-called carbonates (mostly lime and magnesia) in solution form what is known as temporary hardness. This term is applied because they become partly insoluble upon boiling and are precipitated. Hard water which does not become softer by boiling is caused by the presence of sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. This condition is known as permanent hardness.

7. How Does the Mineral Content of Water Affect the Brewing Process?

Since the salts present in water are believed to exist there in form of ions, it is assumed that each individual ion exerts its specific effect in the brewing process. Furthermore, there is the complex interaction between the ions of the water and the ions derived from the brewing materials with the result that the final effect represents the sum of the individual ions. Various factors affect the interaction of the ions, such as their respective concentrations, pH, time-temperature conditions, enzyme activity, etc..

Calcium is one of the most important metallic ions which exert their influence in the course of mashing. Calcium precipitates inorganic and organic phosphates and transforms the alkaline secondary phosphate into the acid primary phosphate. Because of this reaction, the pH of the mash is lowered, (that is, the hydrogen ion concentration or active acidity increases) and is close to the optimum for enzyme activity. The influence of Ca ion is beneficial from a number of points; it helps in gelatinization of the starch in the cooker mash; it stimulates enzyme activity, increasing yield; saccharification and protein degradation; it reduces color of the wort; it improves running off of the wort and flocculation of the break in the kettle; it helps to extract the fine, bitter principles from the hops; it improves clarification in the cellars and the stability and flavor of the finished product. Excessive amounts of calcium are undesirable, since too much of both calcium and phosphate will be precipitated in the course of brewing.

The bicarbonate is a very important ion in the brewing process, for it counteracts the beneficial effect of the calcium ion. The bicarbonate ion increases the alkalinity of the mash and wort and their pH value and consequently reduces the acidity or hydrogen ion concentration.

The calcium ion exerts its beneficial effect irrespective of its hypothetical combination with sulfate, chloride or bicarbonate; however, the bicarbonate ion counterbalances more than enough the beneficial effect of the calcium ion. Usually the best combination from the brewing point of view for the calcium ion is the sulfate ion.

It is to be noted that the bicarbonate acts in the same manner whether it is combined with calcium or with magnesium; it exerts a greater alkalizing effect in the mash when combined with magnesium, and a still greater one when combined with sodium, owing to thé fact that neither magnesium nor sodium have any counterbalancing effect with regard to increasing the acidity of the mash.

The metallic ions sodium and potassium exert no important influence in the course of mashing; when present in excessive quantities these ions may somewhat impede the beneficial action of calcium for increasing the acidity of the mash. However, these ions have some effect upon the finished product in that they produce a definite flavor.

Nitrates are undesirable in brewing waters, for apparently in the course of fermentation they are reduced to nitrites which are harmful to yeast and fermentation.

The pH value of water supplies usually is slightly above the neutral point of 7 and increases on heating owing to removal of free CO2 and conversion of bicarbonates to carbonates. A pH value greater than 8 indicates the presence in water of bicarbonates and carbonates only and no free CO2. Waters having their origin in marshlands usually contain humic acid and exhibit a low pH which does not rise on boiling:. Such waters are strongly corrosive.

The pH value of the water itself is not of such great importance as is the pH of the mash prepared with the water in question; this, in turn, is influenced by the water constituents, chiefly by the calcium ion and by the bicarbonate ion.

8. How Are Faulty Waters Corrected So They Will Be Suitable for Brewing?

It is assumed that the water for brewing, whether derived from a municipal water supply, a well, or any other source, will have the purity of drinking water; in other words, it will be free from objectionable odors and tastes, from undesirable proportions of suspended matter and decomposed organic matter, from undesirable bacteria, and from excessive amounts of silica and iron.

If the water is soft, it may require addition of hardening salts or so-called burtonizing salts in adequate amounts for bringing the Composition of the water to the proper standard desired for producing the type of beer or ale in question. These hardening salts usually contain calcium sulfate, sodium chloride and, if desired, magnesium sulfate, in adequate proportions. The treatment is different if the water is hard, the hardness consisting chiefly of the carbonate type. In continental Europe, waters having different composition are used for the production of pale lager beers on one hand, and of dark beers of the Munich type, on the other. Authorities in continental Europe claim that a certain proportion of bicarbonate is necessary for the production of this dark type of beer. However, in most cases, the bicarbonate appears to be unnecessary and undesirable, and breweries all over the world are employing methods and processes for removing excessive bicarbonate hardness from water intended for brewing of all types of beers and ales.

One of the oldest methods available for removal of bicarbonates is boiling of the water. The success of this operation depends a great deal on such factors as agitation, aeration, and length of boiling. The process is not very economical. Pressure boiling, in conjunction with agitation and aeration, brings about a more rapid and complete precipitation of calcium carbonate. However, it is to be borne in mind that calcium carbonate is soluble to the extent of 20 parts per million and magnesium carbonate is soluble to the extent of 100 parts per million; therefore, under unfavorable conditions, the bicarbonate content of the water may remain quite high after boiling.

Lime softening is an old method used in breweries for removal of bicarbonate hardness. Care is to be taken to avoid excess of lime, as a strongly alkaline water is harmful to the mash. For this reason, lime treated water may still contain a considerable amount of bicarbonate hardness, particularly if magnesium bicarbonate is present which is not precipitated by lime under normal conditions. Breweries in continental Europe, in many cases, use gypsum for the purpose of obtaining an excess of the calcium ion, counteracting the harmful effect of the bicarbonate ion.

When the carbonate hardness is not very high, it can be neutralized with the aid of various acids. The kind of acid to be added will depend on the composition of the brewing water. Lactic acid is used for this purpose to a considerable extent owing to the fact that it is an organic and weak acid and, therefore, generally causes no harm to the mash if a slight excess of it is added. Phosphoric acid is a mineral acid but it is weaker than the other mineral acids. Because of their high dissociation, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid are to be added to the brewing water very carefully in exactly measured amounts, in order to neutralize the alkalinity. In general, sulfuric acid seems preferable to hydrochloric acid.

The acids and the hardening salts that are to be added to the water can be dissolved in a mixing tank and, with the aid of automatic proportioning equipment, bled into the water as it flows into the mash tub or cooker, or for sparging. However, accurate and exact control of these operations is essential for securing good results.

9. What Is the Composition of Waters Employed for Brewing in the U.S.A.?

Composition of City Water Supplies in Principal Brewing Centers of the U.S.A.

Parts Per Million

10. What Is the Water Demand of a Brewery?

Water is used for many purposes other than brewing, such as cleansing, cooling, and steam generation. As a matter of fact, beer contains approximately 90% water and, consequently, water is recognized to exert a predominant influence upon the type, quality and character of the finished product. For this reason, some world-famous types of beer or ale have been associated with certain localities whose water supplies have a definite chemical composition. This refers to such well-known brewing centers as Pilsen, Munich, Burton-on-Trent, and others.

Water is put to a variety of uses in the brewery and the requirements as to composition might differ for each use. Brewing probably requires the least proportion, for only about 1 1/4 to 1 1/3 barrels of water are needed for brewing of one barrel of beer, while approximately 10 to 15 barrels of water are consumed in a brewery per barrel of beer brewed.

11. Why Is It Necessary to Conserve Water and How Can This Be Accomplished?

Water is in many cases metered and therefore an expensive item in a brewery. In all cases the waste of good water is strictly uncalled for.

The following data was published by The Indianapolis Water Company, and is representative of the average city pressure and water costs.

Water can be economically used by observing the following generalities:

1. Do not permit water to flow freely from a hose when not using same.

2. Have rings or nozzles on all water hoses so that the water may be turned off without difficulty.

3. Report all water leaks immediately.

4. Remember the slogan: "Use all the water you need BUT—be sure you need all you use!"

12. What Are the Practical Methods of Storing Water in the Brewery?

Storing of hot water is a common practice and most economical due to its being heated by cooling hot wort. Actually it provides a cooling agent for the wort and is then suitable for mashing, etc.

The storing of cooled water for use in air-conditioned stock houses also is practical. If warm water (summer tap water) is used for rinsing tanks, hot vapors are liberated and hence must be condensed or cooled by the air-conditioning equipment and it is a known fact that cooling by air requires considerable, more energy due to the low heat transfer of gases compared to liquids.

Preparing water in advance of the demand is sound engineering. For storage various types of tanks are used, fabricated of stainless steel, copper, concrete or wood. Corrosive metals must have a coating to prevent oxidation thereof.

13. Should Water Be Analyzed Periodically?

Water should be analyzed at least quarterly, usually with the change of the seasons. Weather conditions almost surely change the quantitative analysis of water, regardless of the source.

CHAPTER II

BARLEY, MALTING AND MALT

14. What Does Barley Mean to the Brewer?

Barley is the principal grain used in producing malt, the basic material for brewing beer.

15. Why Is Barley the Preferred Grain As the Basic Material for Brewing?

Barley is one of the hardiest of the cereal grains. It can be more easily malted for brewing purposes than any other cereal, and the solubles extracted from barley malt are of a more desirable character and more complete than those extracted from other grains. The use of barley malt produces smoother performance in the brew house, such as quick conversion and good straining. Barley malt has sufficient enzymatic systems for conversion of the materials within the malt and adjuncts used.

16. What Parts Make Up the Barley Kernel?

STRUCTURE OF THE BARLEY KERNEL (Enlarged)

1. Husks and Layers Surrounding the Endosperm.

2. Endosperm:

a. Inner Endosperm, which is the starch-bearing portion of the grain.

b. Aleurone Layer, which is an enzyme source and contains colored pigments.

3. Embryo or Germ—the viable portion of the grain:

a. The young barley plant—roots and shoots.

b. The scutellum with epithelium layer.

17. List An Example of the Chemical Composition of a 6-Row (Midwestern) and a 2-Row (Western) Barley.

(It will be noted that the figures given in the columns above add up to more than 100 per cent; this is because some values include part of other values.)

18. Why Should the Maltster Be Familiar With the Composition of Barley?

The composition of barley is used as a guide in purchasing types and in blending and segregating these types for brewing. The protein and starch content usually will give an indication of the enzymatic strength and the potential extract yield in the resulting’malt.

19. What Influences the Chemical Composition of Barley?

The chemical composition of barley is influenced by variety, soil composition and preparation, and climatic conditions. A cool and moist growing season usually produces a plump-grained barley of low protein content, whereas a dry hot season produces thin kernels rich in protein, but low in extract.

20. Why Should a Brewer, Who Is Not a Maltster, Familiarize Himself With Barley, Malting and Malt Problems?

Since malt has a tremendous influence on beer production and since barley, the usual raw material for malt, can vary greatly, even within types from one season to the next,